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207-639: Chera Permuals of Moktai also known as the Cheraman Perumal dynasty , or Perumal dynasty of Kerala , ( fl. c. 844–1124 CE), were a ruling dynasty in present-day Kerala , South India . Mahodayapuram, or Makotai, the seat of the Cheraman Perumals , is identified with present-day Kodungallur in central Kerala . Initially, their influence appeared limited to the area between present-day Quilon and Quilandy , but later extended to up to Chandragiri river in north Kerala and to Nagercoil in

414-495: A Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam . A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention

621-653: A unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms. The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house. The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and

828-541: A continuation of the Mysore Plateau , are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka . Minerals including Ilmenite , Monazite , Thorium , and Titanium , are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium -containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on

1035-510: A developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils , became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis , with each province comprising

1242-461: A discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine. Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were Nalachampu (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, Damayanti Katha , Madalasachampu and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess Saraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in

1449-599: A few in Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains. The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and their loyal feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty , built Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of

1656-622: A finger from his left hand at the Lakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha (horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV mention Brahmins performing such rituals as Rajasuya , Vajapeya and Agnishtoma . An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear

1863-477: A great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851), Al-Masudi (944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world. According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards

2070-714: A landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra . Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The origin of

2277-523: A large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire. He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with the Western Ganga dynasty by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed

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2484-521: A lower rate. The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance. Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence on inscriptions , coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards Jainism since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit , Kannada and

2691-509: A number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis . Mamankam festival , which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram , on the bank of river Bharathappuzha . Athavanad , the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal , who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya. Sulaiman al-Tajir ,

2898-838: A part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 , the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district , Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip , the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District ) in South Canara , and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district , and Shenkottai taluks). Kerala has

3105-480: A revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion (US$ 240 million). Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in

3312-465: A snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning. Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity. This period effectively marked the end of

3519-586: A strong service sector. In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA , compared to 28% by secondary sector , and 8% by primary sector . In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one. The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry , tourism , Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology , transportation , financial sector, and education . Major initiatives under

3726-571: Is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The Matsya Purana , among

3933-410: Is a state on the southern west coast of India . It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act , by combining Malayalam -speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin , Malabar , South Canara , and Travancore . Spread over 38,863 km (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area . It is bordered by Karnataka to

4140-458: Is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj . Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language. The Elichpur clan was a feudatory of

4347-692: Is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of Kozhikode , Palakkad , Fort Kochi , Kannur , and Thalassery , were founded on 1 November 1866 of

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4554-534: Is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani , Tanur , Beypore - Chaliyam - Kadalundi - Vallikkunnu , and Koyilandy . Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to

4761-626: Is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by

4968-506: Is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South". During the rule of Krishna II ,

5175-723: Is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha

5382-551: Is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and

5589-569: Is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta , Ashtamudi Lake , Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands , and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve . Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover

5796-776: Is now protected from clearfelling . Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests , which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur . Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds , 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation , and resource extraction. In

6003-502: Is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity . In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹ 8.55 trillion (US$ 100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹ 222,000 (US$ 2,700). In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA , while the primary sector contributed only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to

6210-486: Is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs , Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices . The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen , Oman , and

6417-510: Is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India . The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English . Hinduism

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6624-492: Is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada, though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries. Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets ( Kavishiksha ) that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as Durvinita , perhaps the 6th-century monarch of Western Ganga dynasty . The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa , widely regarded as one of

6831-457: Is the largest shopping mall in India. Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. Rashtrakuta dynasty The Rashtrakutas were a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription

7038-449: Is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities. The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy . Kerala has

7245-664: Is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka . Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics. The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar , synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra . Kerala

7452-731: Is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the Pala Emperor Dharmapala , the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from

7659-575: Is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats . Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions:

7866-451: The Kavya (classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit. An inscription in Kannada by King Krishna III , written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away as Jabalpur in modern Madhya Pradesh . Kavirajamarga,

8073-656: The Trikuteshwara temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas . Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas at Belur and Halebidu . One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls Karnata dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style. With

8280-475: The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India , the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats , 152 Block panchayats , 941 Grama Panchayats , 87 Municipalities , six Municipal Corporations and one Township . Mahé , a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry , though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,

8487-500: The Achankovil River ; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta , they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state

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8694-600: The Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to

8901-801: The Badami Chalukyas , and during the rule of Dantidurga , it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta , rising to power in South India in 753 AD. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gurjaratra were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh (851), called

9108-686: The Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty . Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja , who had popular support in Thalassery - Wayanad region. After India

9315-487: The British Indian Empire , making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal , Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. The first Municipal Corporation founded after

9522-583: The Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary , who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of

9729-420: The Dravidian word Mala ('hill'). Al-Biruni (973–1048  CE ) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar . Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar , Manibar , Mulibar , and Munibar . Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills . According to William Logan ,

9936-701: The High and Late Middle Ages . However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery . After Vasco Da Gama 's arrival in Kappad , Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled

10143-514: The Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft). The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls , which is situated on

10350-581: The Idukki district , which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats . They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala. The studies point to

10557-679: The Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021 . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep . In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by

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10764-427: The Leader of the Opposition . According to the Constitution of India , Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy ; universal suffrage is granted to residents. After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy . The "Kerala phenomenon" or " Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from

10971-481: The Persian Gulf , must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries . They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East . The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad , and controlled

11178-419: The Rattas of Saundatti (875–1230) in modern Karnataka, the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223), the Rashtrakutas of Rajasthan (known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996), Dahal (near Jabalpur ), Rathores of Mandore (near Jodhpur ), the Rathores of Dhanop, Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj. Rajadhiraja Chola 's conquest of

11385-443: The Travancore Royal Family , and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in

11592-400: The United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress ; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election , the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is

11799-401: The Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda (or Nadugavunda); sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a Grama or village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda . The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army

12006-455: The spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin . They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region , in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India , which later became

12213-446: The 10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore . Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappilas ( Moplahs ) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes. Al-Biruni ,

12420-421: The 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in

12627-406: The 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism , to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism . The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas . However, in

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12834-410: The 1950s. Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries , mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$ 11.3 billion, which

13041-415: The Brahmin temples and settlements in the nadu). The udaiyavar chieftains were liable to serve the Chera Perumal in battles (against invading Pandyas and Cholas) and the chiefdoms functioned as revenue collection units for the Chera kingdom. The Chera Perumal only held direct authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake, including the port of Kodungallur . Koyil Adhikarikal/Al Koyil,

13248-531: The Chera royal present in a chiefdom, collected regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai ) from the chiefdoms for the Perumal at Kodungallur. Bhakti saints Cheraman Perumal Nayanar and Kulasekhara Alvar are generally identified as Perumal kings of Kerala. Shankaracharya , founder of the Vedanta advaita, is also traced to 8th century Kerala. Copper-plate charters of the Perumals show grants to Jewish and Christian merchants of West Asia. The West Asian Muslims had also established themselves as traders in

13455-443: The Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were

13662-417: The Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos . The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis , was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period . The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris , as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode . Its exact location

13869-505: The French in 1785. In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode , the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore . In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar region ) including Kolathunadu , Kottayam , Kadathanadu , Kozhikode , Tanur , Valluvanad , and Palakkad were unified under

14076-422: The Gurjaras, and the rulers of Kalinga , Kosala and Srisailam . Dantidurga's successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India . He led successful expeditions to Kannauj,

14283-442: The Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden. In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur ),

14490-445: The Kulasekhara dynasty (whose kings were also known as the Cheras ). In other parts of Kerala, chieftains of Kolathunad, Kozhikode and Kochi succeeded the Perumals. Koyil Adhikarikal or Ala Koyil was the Chera royal appointed to a chiefdom. This prince collected regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai ) from the chiefdoms for the Chera Perumal. The managers of the four Nambudiri-Brahmin temples around Kodungallur, known as

14697-429: The Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia . The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates . The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in

14904-775: The Nalu Thali, acted as Chera Perumal's permanent council or ministers. The Thousand or the Ayiram were the personal Nair protection guards of the Chera Perumal king (related to the Kodungallur Bhagavathi Temple ). They functioned as the 'companions of honour' of the Perumal. Padai-nayakar or Padai-nair was the commander of the armed forces of the kingdom or a chiefdom. The Hundred or the Nutruvar

15111-471: The Perumal king appointed as the Udayaivar). An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography had believed that the kings of the "Second/Later Chera Empire", or "Kulasekhara Empire" borne the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara" (hence "Kulasekhara dynasty"). However, critical research in the late 1960s and early 1970s offered a major corrective to this. The theories of a Chera "empire", propounded by

15318-435: The Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the 2nd century BCE , and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to

15525-523: The Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to the Krishna River  – Godavari River doab called Vengi . The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south. In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta had

15732-463: The Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the "King of kings" ( Rajadhiraja ) who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind." Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India,

15939-716: The Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of

16146-426: The Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple , a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world". The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana , Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after

16353-481: The Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains , each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in

16560-542: The Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala

16767-493: The Western Ghats' rain shadow . 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad ; hence also known Pal ghat , where the Palakkad Gap breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet ) above sea level , while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet). Anamudi in

16974-729: The Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort . An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon . The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom , near Kannur , who were the vassals of the Kolathiri , ruled over the Lakshadweep islands. The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod , which is also largest fort in the state,

17181-418: The architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day Maharashtra . The Ellora site

17388-561: The background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India . It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad , Malappuram ( Chaliyar valley at Nilambur ), and Palakkad ( Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and

17595-574: The backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km (77 sq mi) in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar ; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha ; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba ; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar ; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam ; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and

17802-530: The battle of Purakkad in 1755. In 1761, the British captured Mahé , and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu . The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé . In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to

18009-560: The birth of a son. The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants. The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to

18216-439: The brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes. Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow would immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre ) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families. The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it

18423-596: The central government. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance. This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat. The Acts define clear powers for these institutions. For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization. Currently,

18630-556: The classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain tirthankars . Bilingual writers such as Asaga gained fame, and noted scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I. Kavirajamarga (850) by King Amoghavarsha I

18837-564: The coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr. Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries , and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters . Kuttanad , also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala , has the lowest altitude in India , and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake Vembanad , dominates

19044-802: The coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats . Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. As of 2004 , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal , and 159 are threatened . Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km ), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km and 100 km , respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate ( shola ) forests (highest elevations—100 km ). Altogether, 24% of Kerala

19251-464: The crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister ( Mahasandhivigrahi ) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas . Under him was the commander ( Dandanayaka ),

19458-631: The department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary / Principal Secretary Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The judiciary consists of

19665-564: The development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age . Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it

19872-585: The drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region. The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war. In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted. A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance. Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel

20079-469: The dynastic lineage ( Surya Vamsa —Solar line and Chandra Vamsa —Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets ( Ratta , Rashtrakuta , Lattalura Puravaradhiswara ), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim

20286-464: The dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence over Vengi . The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of Emperor Govinda IV . After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east, Krishna III the last great ruler consolidated

20493-664: The earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504) . However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut . The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida

20700-530: The earliest glimpses of life in the city. Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ( Zheng He ) states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of

20907-742: The early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include the Kannadiga , Reddi , the Maratha , the tribes from the Punjab region , or other north western ethnic groups of India. Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historians Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada), and

21114-582: The early historic system of clan-based societies). It is speculated that there was little economic pressure on the Kerala rulers for territorial conquest, the region being naturally rich and obtaining income from the trade with the Middle East. The Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas . The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by

21321-525: The early writers, were rejected. It was also discovered that the Chera Permal kings did not bear the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara". Corrected by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) from E. P. N. Kunjan Pillai (1963) Recent corrections (2014 and 2020) on Narayanan are also employed. (or) 959–1025 Kerala Kerala ( English: / ˈ k ɛr ə l ə / / KERR -ə-lə ; Malayalam: [keːɾɐɭɐm] ),

21528-511: The eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of

21735-525: The economy. Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda ; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry. The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of

21942-680: The empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the Western Deccan and Gujarat. Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta. Indra III recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the Kingdom of Malwa and then invaded the doab region of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers. He also defeated

22149-681: The empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon. In 972 CE., during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha , the Malwa King Siyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall. The final decline

22356-594: The ending of the Gupta dynasty in northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside of Tamilakam ) interfaced between the increasing use of the local Kannada language and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate

22563-668: The entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants. The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyanaka on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver Ctharna ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally. Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all

22770-426: The era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka". During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat (757–888),

22977-450: The famed 10th century Persian / central Asian Indologist mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Sudras . The Zakaya or Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics. People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to

23184-436: The far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi , and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles. The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad , which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district . The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of

23391-632: The feudatory King Dantidurga , who probably ruled from Achalapura in Berar (modern Elichpur in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas ) of Kirtivarman II of Badami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire. He then helped his son-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman II regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated

23598-559: The feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas , produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur. The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of Cudappah , Bellary , Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar , Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in

23805-636: The first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in);

24012-568: The foreign minister ( Mahakshapataladhikrita ) and a prime minister ( Mahamatya or Purnamathya ), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier. A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science ( Rajneeti ) and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I , administered Edathore Vishaya . The kingdom

24219-458: The forests, sonokeling , Dalbergia latifolia , anjili , mullumurikku , Erythrina , and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo , wild black pepper, wild cardamom , the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides . Indian elephant , Bengal tiger , Indian leopard , Nilgiri tahr , common palm civet , and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in

24426-1176: The forests. Reptiles include the king cobra , viper , python , and mugger crocodile . Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon , the great hornbill , Kerala laughingthrush , darter and southern hill myna . In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu , Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi ; orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis . The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks , which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages. Since

24633-457: The form of a falcon to save the kingdom. They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara ( Surya , the sun god). In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism , Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and

24840-668: The icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges . His military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata . Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala ( Kaushal ), Gangavadi , humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in Vengi and received two statues as an act of submission from

25047-400: The independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962. There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur , and Kannur . The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA

25254-546: The industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard , shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops . Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as coconut , tea , coffee , pepper , natural rubber , cardamom , and cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since

25461-544: The influence of the Perumals during the 11th century and Venadu was probably formed under the influence of the Perumals during the early 9th century. The Perumal held direct authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake (including Kodungallur in the Periyar Valley ). Within this country, the nadus were present as militaristic/revenue units (with members of martial families serving

25668-531: The island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of the Jaffna kingdom , was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by

25875-610: The king of Ceylon (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute. As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast. The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Bharuch . The successor of Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I made Manyakheta his capital and ruled

26082-533: The king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498. The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during

26289-458: The king's court. Jinasena was the spiritual preceptor and guru of Amoghavarsha I . A theologian, his contributions are Dhavala and Jayadhavala (written with another theologian Virasena ). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were Adipurana, later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, Harivamsha and Parshvabhyudaya . The Rashtrakutas contributed much to

26496-561: The king's palace. Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples. Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The Atakur inscription ( hero stone , virgal ) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt. There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study, and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching

26703-696: The king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work. Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was Sri Ponna , patronised by King Krishna III and famed for Shantipurana , his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were Bhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya , Jinaksharamale and Gatapratyagata . Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature". Prose works in Sanskrit

26910-480: The kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age. However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized Hinduism 's followers of the Shaiva , Vaishnava and Shakta faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to god Vishnu or god Shiva . The Sanjan inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing

27117-536: The kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to Mahodayapuram kingdom in the Periyar Valley . The Cheraman Perumals are known for employing a single script (Vattezhuthu with Grantha characters) and language (early form of Malayalam) in all of their records in Kerala. "The Cera kingdom

27324-430: The kingdom. Merchant guilds such as manigramam, and anjuvannam were active in the Perumal kingdom. The origin of the Malayalam language is also dated to the Chera Perumal period in Kerala. Temple architecture style known as " Kerala-Dravida " can be seen from the 11th century CE. In the 12th century, the Perumal kingdom was dissolved into several local powers. The Perumal dynasty was succeeded in south Kerala ( Venad ) by

27531-443: The lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology). Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea

27738-406: The leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars , which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan , who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature , was born at Tirur ( Vettathunadu ) during Portuguese period. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by

27945-476: The learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in the devotional movements of later centuries. Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to

28152-648: The legend Parama Maheshwara (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such as Veeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas. The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing. Their family deity was a goddess by name Latana (also known as Rashtrashyena , Manasa Vindyavasini ) who took

28359-590: The legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal). According to the legend, Rayar , the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats , invaded Kerala during

28566-631: The lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio , 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog 's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India 's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy . Kerala

28773-478: The major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen. The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to

28980-608: The monarchical system in Hindu India. Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys, but was relatively frequent among other castes. Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes

29187-483: The monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world. According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers. While some scholars have claimed the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri , others claim that it

29394-425: The most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district , Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated. The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions , ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Theories about

29601-494: The most influential Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva . Pampa's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata , with Arjuna as the hero. Also called Pampa Bharata , it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulawada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing

29808-503: The mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation : the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in

30015-407: The north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census , Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population . It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The Chera dynasty

30222-431: The north to Kanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the later kings by Jainism . During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit . Amoghavarsha I , the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga ,

30429-475: The northern Deccan by the 8th century. Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between the Kaveri River and the Godavari River as " Kannada country". Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects of Veda , Vyakarana (grammar), Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology), Sahitya (literature), Mimansa (Exegesis), Dharmashastra (law), Puranas (ritual), and Nyaya (logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that

30636-436: The oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu , the first man and the king of the region. Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth. The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings ) of Kerala. The validity of

30843-571: The people of a district headed by the guilds of the region. Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses. The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories. An emergency tax

31050-399: The permission to "die, and kill, and seize"). A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery , thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of

31257-423: The population and dominating the culture of the region. King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain acharya Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing, Prashnottara Ratnamalika , "having bowed to Varaddhamana ( Mahavira ), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his Ganita Sarasangraha , "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May

31464-423: The port of Muziris , but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris , between the Cheras and the Roman Empire . The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. Pliny

31671-473: The recently discovered inscriptions remain unreported and undeciphered). The Chera Perumals of Makotai claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. There are clear indications as to how different branches of the Chera family managed different centres of power in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the early Tamil poems. The Chera/Perumal dynasty introduced rule through kingship in Kerala (a departure from

31878-423: The rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar District ), along with Fort Kochi , Tangasseri , and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent . Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in

32085-402: The rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri , Manichchan , and Vikkiran of Eranad ). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar . The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it

32292-496: The rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas , they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well. The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka , Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh , an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that

32499-442: The rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore . His son and successor, Tipu Sultan , launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company , resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars . Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam ; both were annexed to

32706-447: The seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon . They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur , who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut , sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur ( Vettathunadu ) became one of

32913-459: The seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control. According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son, Govinda III , to the throne heralded an era of success like never before. There

33120-549: The shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹ 674 billion (US$ 8.1 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹ 557 billion (US$ 6.7 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 146 billion (US$ 1.7 billion) in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in

33327-478: The source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Perumal kingship remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains, the so-called "nattu-udaiyavar" or "nadu-vazhumavar", exercised politically and militarily. Chiefdoms under Chera Perumal rule, known as " nadus ", are roughly comparable to the "rashtra" under the Rashtrakutas and "padi" under the Cholas . These chieftains wielded militaristic authority over their country (even over

33534-428: The south. The medieval Cheras claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. The exact relationship between the medieval Chera rulers of present-day Kerala and that of western Tamil country is not known to scholars. The Chera Perumals are often described as the members of Surya Vamsa (the Solar Race). The Chera dynasty had multiple branches, one of which

33741-416: The state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments. Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International , is considered the least corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India. Kerala hosts two major political alliances:

33948-481: The state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007

34155-407: The state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act . A Communist -led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957 . It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state. The state

34362-400: The state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state. In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of ₹ 2.5 million (US$ 30,000)

34569-579: The subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade. The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time. The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes, betel nuts , coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, Italian wines, tin, lead, topaz , storax , sweet clover, flint glass, antimony , gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for

34776-402: The term Kerala . From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male . The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes . This mentions a pepper emporium called Male , which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from

34983-460: The title Viranarayana . His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors, Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit. His Kavirajamarga

35190-591: The udaiyavar. The Adhikarar were the temple or royal servants involved in management and collection of dues or a local arbitrator. Through the analysis of the medieval Kerala inscriptions relating to the Chera Perumal period, scholars have substantiated the existence of several chieftaincies. From north to south, they are as follows: Kolla-desam (or) Kolathu-nadu (proposed name), Purakizha-nadu, Kurumporai-nadu, Erala-nadu, Valluva-nadu, Kizhmalai-nadu (the Eastern Hill Country), Vempala-nadu, Munji-nadu, Nanruzhai-nadu and Venadu or Kupaka (Kollam). Kolathu-nadu came under

35397-405: The use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit. Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land. The local language formed the desi (popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was more marga (formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning ( ghatikas ) taught in Sanskrit, the language of

35604-407: The wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages . At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ( Quilon ) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ( Koyilandy ) in the north. Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives

35811-505: The wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the Sat-Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status. The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts. Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts). Capital punishment, although widespread,

36018-555: The west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler , Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches , backwaters , hill stations , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The word Kerala

36225-433: The word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian / Arabic word Barr (country/continent). According to the Sangam classic Purananuru , the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas . Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it. According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi ,

36432-642: The world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced. In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal , a UNESCO World Heritage site. Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole , Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli ( Hooli ), Someshwara temple at Sogal , Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kuknur , Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival in Gulbarga , and

36639-445: Was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan , Travancore and Kochi , part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin . On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep ), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form

36846-451: Was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century. In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history. With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon . Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to

37053-433: Was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles . Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as Malabars . Until the arrival of the East India Company , the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with

37260-673: Was always ready for war in a cantonment ( Sthirabhuta Kataka ) in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose. The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an Akkashale ) such as Suvarna , Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65  grains , Kalanju weighing 48 grains, Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Kasu weighing 15 grains, Manjati with 2.5 grains and Akkam of 1.25 grain. The Rashtrakuta economy

37467-405: Was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi ( Fort Emmanuel ) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar ; especially from naval attacks under

37674-449: Was as high as 16%. Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active. The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim. Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at

37881-406: Was avoided. Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions. Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women. The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and

38088-404: Was built during the Rashtrakuta period. Some of the sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures. Famous sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy . The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in

38295-399: Was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi . The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company , who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi , gained control of the trade. The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships. It

38502-483: Was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad. The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram

38709-482: Was discouraged. The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes. In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a dhoti for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear turbans , a practice that spread to the masses much later. Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in

38916-570: Was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen Rashtras . Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra . For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed several Rashtras , besides ruling Banavasi which included 12,000 villages in that territory, lesser Rashtras included: Kunduru (500), Belvola (300), Puligere (300) and Kundarge (70). Below

39123-411: Was established by Kulasekhara Varman , which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings , who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed

39330-434: Was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are underemployment , low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%, as was the practice of Nokku kooli , "wages for looking on". By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹ 1.15 lakh crore (US$ 14 billion). The state government's tax revenues (excluding

39537-494: Was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala

39744-454: Was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land , wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors. Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or

39951-417: Was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir , the fourth Mughal emperor , as British envoy . In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of

40158-418: Was known as the Chera Perumals, who ruled from the city of Makotai (modern-day Kodungallur) in Kerala. The Chera Perumals, like other Chera rulers, are often associated with the Tamil language and culture. They are mentioned in ancient Tamil texts and inscriptions. The Chera Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam , in

40365-445: Was nearly 16% of the US$ 71 billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹ 1 lakh crore (US$ 12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹ 7 lakh crore (US$ 84 billion). Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board , suggested that

40572-437: Was not a strong, absolute monarchy by any means, but rather a confederation of lords and powerful Brahmin communities under the mantle of the Perumal...Therefore, the portrayal of the post Cera period as a time of major political decentralization attributes a false centrality to the Cera period itself..." According to the third model, the power of the Perumal was restricted to the capital Mahodayapuram ( Kodungallur ). His kingship

40779-399: Was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled. By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in

40986-482: Was only ritual and remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains (the udaiyavar) exercised politically and militarily. Brahmins also possessed huge authority in religious and social subjects ('ritual sovereignty combined with a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy'). An index of most of the so-called Chera Perumal inscriptions can be found in 'Perumals of Kerala' (1972) by M. G. S. Narayanan . This general catalogue lists records discovered till 1972 (some of

41193-446: Was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods. The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of

41400-423: Was popular in places such as Dambal and Balligavi , although it had declined significantly by this time. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita philosophy. Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by

41607-435: Was prolific during this era as well. Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by Mahaviracharya , a native of Gulbarga , who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I. His greatest contribution was Ganitasarasangraha , a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of Arikesari II , a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III in Vemulavada . He

41814-413: Was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of Nediyiruppu , who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode , who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal 's sword (with

42021-546: Was sudden as Tailapa II , a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern Bijapur district , declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat. Indra IV, the last emperor, committed Sallekhana (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola . With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. The Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in

42228-574: Was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain , Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and Warangal . The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch . White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia , Byzantines , Khazaria , Arabia and Egypt . The Konkan region, ruled by

42435-417: Was the author of Yasastilaka champu , Nitivakyamrita and other writings. The main aim of the champu writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of Arthashastra from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner. Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called Kalyanakaraka . He delivered

42642-401: Was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000  BCE . The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100  CE . In the 15th century,

42849-430: Was the military organisation of each chiefdom (this body had no defined limits of territorial jurisdiction). The Hundred multiple generally indicated the number of households in the nadu that could join the militia. The Shadow or the Nizhal were the personal protection guards of the udaiyavar. They functioned as the 'companions of honour' of the udaiyavar. Prakrithi was a body of non-Brahmin or Vellala notables assisting

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