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165-622: Philip Amadas (1550–1618) was a naval commander and explorer in Elizabethan England . Little is known from his early life, but he grew up within a wealthy merchant family in southwestern England. Amadas was instrumental in the early years of the English colonisation of North America . He served alongside Arthur Barlowe in the 1584 exploratory voyage to the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Leaving on 27 April 1584, he captained

330-490: A cholera or dysentery outbreak. They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on 26 June 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by

495-620: A tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara . In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by Francisco de Sande himself, acting as Capitán General , started its journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. The campaign

660-661: A Catholic, and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was expected to bring an end to the war. However it did not happen. In 1586, Queen Elizabeth I of England , supported the Protestant cause in the Netherlands and France. Sir Francis Drake launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean , along with a particularly aggressive attack on the port of Cádiz . Philip sent

825-553: A Christian walled city over the burnt ruins of Muslim Maynila and made it as the new capital of the Spanish East Indies and renamed it Manila. Spaniards were few and life was difficult and they were often outnumbered by their Amerindian recruits and Filipino allies. They attempted to mobilize subordinated populations through the encomienda . Unlike in the Caribbean where the indigenous populations rapidly disappeared,

990-630: A defensive policy with the construction of a series of military forts ( presidios ) and peace agreements with some of the Muslim rulers of North Africa. In the first half of the 17th century, Spanish ships attacked the Anatolian coast, defeating larger Ottoman fleets at the Battle of Cape Celidonia and the Battle of Cape Corvo . Larache and La Mamora , on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, and

1155-528: A direct consequence of his unwillingness to offend the Emperor and perhaps have his capital sacked a second time. The Peace of Barcelona , signed between Charles and the pope in 1529, established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders that effectively made Charles the protector of the Catholic cause and recognized Charles as King of Italy in return for Imperial-Spanish intervention in overthrowing

1320-524: A dominant genius or a formal structure for research (the following century had both Sir Isaac Newton and the Royal Society ), the Elizabethan era nonetheless saw significant scientific progress. The astronomers Thomas Digges and Thomas Harriot made important contributions; William Gilbert published his seminal study of magnetism, De Magnete, in 1600. Substantial advancements were made in

1485-496: A failure of the wheat crop, but did do so in France. England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example,

1650-502: A fashion statement. Mansions were often designed to a symmetrical plan; "E" and "H" shapes were popular. The population of London increased from 100,000 to 200,000 between the death of Mary Tudor in 1558 and the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. Inflation was rapid and the wealth gap was wide. Poor men, women, and children begged in the cities, as the children only earned sixpence a week. With the growth of industry, many landlords decided to use their land for manufacturing purposes, displacing

1815-473: A few days or even a week of feasting in each noble's home, who depending on his or her production and display of fashion, generosity and entertainment, could have his way made in court and elevate his or her status for months or even years. Habsburg Spain The Habsburg name was not continuously used by the family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles. The dynasty

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1980-626: A few localities were funds available to provide support as well as the necessary education scholarship. Boys from wealthy families were taught at home by a private tutor. When Henry VIII shut the monasteries he closed their schools. He refounded many former monastic schools—they are known as "King's schools" and are found all over England. During the reign of Edward VI many free grammar schools were set up to take in non-fee paying students. There were two universities in Tudor England: Oxford and Cambridge . Some boys went to university at

2145-450: A garden could trade with their neighbors to obtain vegetables and fruits at low cost. Fruits and vegetables were used in desserts such as pastries, tarts, cakes, crystallized fruit, and syrup. At the rich end of the scale the manor houses and palaces were awash with large, elaborately prepared meals, usually for many people and often accompanied by entertainment. The upper classes often celebrated religious festivals, weddings, alliances and

2310-462: A great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum. The diet in England during the Elizabethan era depended largely on social class . Bread was a staple of the Elizabethan diet, and people of different statuses ate bread of different qualities. The upper classes ate fine white bread called manchet , while the poor ate coarse bread made of barley or rye . The poorer among

2475-752: A local aristocracy; strengthened the power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; shored up religious orthodoxy by the establishment of the Inquisition in Lima and Mexico City (1571); and increased revenues from silver mines in Peru and in Mexico, discovered in the 1540s. Particularly important was the crown's appointment of two able viceroys, Don Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy of Peru (r. 1569–1581), and in New Spain , Martín Enríquez de Almanza (r. 1568–1580), who

2640-582: A military expedition to restore order. Alba launched an ensuing reign of terror. In 1568, William the Silent led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. This attempt is generally considered to signal the start of the Eighty Years' War that ended with the independence of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from

2805-541: A more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, but it avoided major defeats and built up a powerful navy. On balance, it can be said that Elizabeth provided the country with a long period of general if not total peace and generally increased prosperity due in large part to stealing from Spanish treasure ships, raiding settlements with low defenses, and selling African slaves. Having inherited

2970-591: A number of years, Elizabeth refrained from persecuting Catholics because she was against Catholicism, not her Catholic subjects if they made no trouble. In 1570, Pope Pius V declared Elizabeth a heretic who was not the legitimate queen and that her subjects no longer owed her obedience. The pope sent Jesuits and seminarians to secretly evangelize and support Catholics. After several plots to overthrow her, Catholic clergy were mostly considered to be traitors, and were pursued aggressively in England. Often priests were tortured or executed after capture unless they cooperated with

3135-436: A replacement for the litters and carts of an earlier transportation mode. Coaches quickly became as fashionable as sports cars in a later century; social critics, especially Puritan commentators, noted the "diverse great ladies" who rode "up and down the countryside" in their new coaches. Historians since the 1960s have explored many facets of the social history, covering every class of the population. Although home to only

3300-507: A result of Francis Drake's circumnavigation . The term Elizabethan era was already well-established in English and British historical consciousness, long before the accession of Queen Elizabeth II , and generally refers solely to the time of the earlier queen of this name. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era. The Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that "[T]he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603,

3465-572: A role for Spain as protector of the Catholic Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1526, Charles married Infanta Isabella , the sister of John III of Portugal . In 1556 he abdicated from his positions, giving his Spanish empire to his only surviving son, Philip II of Spain , and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, Ferdinand . Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste ( Extremadura , Spain), and died in 1558. Spain

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3630-421: A simple hole in the roof. Mansions had many chimneys for the many fireplaces required to keep the vast rooms warm. These fires were also the only way of cooking food. Wealthy Tudor homes needed many rooms, where a large number of guests and servants could be accommodated, fed and entertained. Wealth was demonstrated by the extensive use of glass. Windows became the main feature of Tudor mansions, and were often

3795-488: A small part of the population the Tudor municipalities were overcrowded and unhygienic. Most towns were unpaved with poor public sanitation. There were no sewers or drains, and rubbish was simply abandoned in the street. Animals such as rats thrived in these conditions. In larger towns and cities, such as London, common diseases arising from lack of sanitation included smallpox , measles , malaria , typhus , diphtheria , scarlet fever , and chickenpox . Outbreaks of

3960-681: A somewhat higher social level families ate an enormous variety of meats, who could choose among venison , beef , mutton , veal , pork , lamb, fowl, salmon , eel , and shellfish . The holiday goose was a special treat. Rich spices were used by the wealthier people to offset the smells of old salt-preserved meat. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, turnips, radishes, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some grew their own apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, strawberries, currants, and cherries. Families without

4125-592: A virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and ten years later the Crown enjoyed a surplus of £300,000. Economically, Sir Thomas Gresham 's founding of the Royal Exchange (1565), the first stock exchange in England and one of the earliest in Europe, proved to be a development of the first importance, for

4290-608: A voyage to find a northern route to the Spice Islands of Asia; this began the search for the North West Passage . Cabot sailed in 1497 and reached Newfoundland . He led another voyage to the Americas the following year, but nothing was heard of him or his ships again. In 1562 Elizabeth sent privateers Hawkins and Drake to seize booty from Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa . When

4455-628: Is most famous for its theatre , as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of England's past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the Protestant Reformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish Armada was repelled. It was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland . The Elizabethan age contrasts sharply with

4620-405: Is often credited with a major transformation in crown rule in Peru. Toledo formalized the labor draft of Andean commoners, the mit'a , to guarantee a labor supply for both the silver mine at Potosí and the mercury mine at Huancavelica . He established administrative districts of corregimiento , and resettled native Andeans in reducciones to better rule them. Under Toledo, the last stronghold of

4785-652: The Casa de Austria , including illegitimate sons such as John of Austria and John Joseph of Austria . The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which the Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the Duchy of Burgundy (ancient), as seen on the arms of John of Austria. Calling this era "Habsburg", is, to some extent, a convenience for historians. The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 resulted in

4950-690: The 1559 Book of Common Prayer which effectively reinstated the 1552 Book of Common Prayer with modifications which made clear that the Church of England believed in the (spiritual) Real Presence of Christ in the Holy Communion but without a definition how in favor of leaving this a mystery, and she had the Black Rubric removed from the Articles of Faith: this had allowed kneeling to receive communion without implying that by doing so it meant

5115-609: The Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified after 1585, Elizabeth approved further raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and against shipping returning to Europe with treasure. Meanwhile, the influential writers Richard Hakluyt and John Dee were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own overseas empire. Spain was well established in the Americas, while Portugal, in union with Spain from 1580, had an ambitious global empire in Africa, Asia and South America. France

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5280-692: The Aztecs and thousands of indigenous Mexican warriors, conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521. Following the pattern established in Spain during the Reconquista and in the Caribbean, the first European settlements in the Americas, conquerors divided up the indigenous population in private holdings encomiendas and exploited their labor. With Americas colonization, Spain gained vast new indigenous populations to convert to Christianity and rule as vassals of

5445-525: The Bark Ralegh with Simon Fernandes as his master and pilot on the voyage. Fernandes is best known for his controversial decision to maroon the colonists of the infamous " Lost Colony " on Roanoke Island in 1587. The voyage of 1584 determined Roanoke Island as the location for the future colonies under the leadership of Sir Walter Raleigh . For his role in the Roanoke voyages of 1584 and 1585, Amadas

5610-653: The Black Death pandemic occurred in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589 and 1603. The reason for the speedy spread of the disease was the increase of rats infected by fleas carrying the disease. Child mortality was low in comparison with earlier and later periods, at about 150 or fewer deaths per 1000 babies. By age 15 a person could expect 40–50 more years of life. The great majority were tenant farmers who lived in small villages. Their homes were, as in earlier centuries, thatched huts with one or two rooms, although later on during this period, roofs were also tiled. Furniture

5775-787: The Elector of Saxony Maurice . In response, Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch-Spanish army, hoping to restore the Imperial authority. The Emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. In 1555, Charles signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"). Charles's involvement in Germany would establish

5940-563: The Habsburg territories in Germany , and was duly elected as Holy Roman Emperor that year. His mother Joanna remained titular queen of Castile until her death in 1555, but due to her mental health and worries of her being proposed as an alternative monarch by opposition (as happened in the Revolt of the Comuneros ), Charles kept her imprisoned. At that point, Emperor and King Charles was

6105-492: The Holy League against France, seeing a chance at taking both Naples (to which he held a dynastic claim) and Navarre, which was claimed through his marriage to Germaine of Foix . The war was less of a success than that against Venice, and in 1516 France agreed to a truce that left Milan under French control and recognized Spanish hegemony in northern Navarre. Ferdinand would die later that year. Ferdinand's death led to

6270-573: The Royal Navy , Edward and Mary had ignored it and it was little more than a system of coastal defense. Elizabeth made naval strength a high priority. She risked war with Spain by supporting the " Sea Dogs ", such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake , who preyed on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World. The Navy yards were leaders in technical innovation, and the captains devised new tactics. Parker (1996) argues that

6435-563: The Spanish Armada to attack England. Numbering 130 ships and 30,000 men, it was led by Alonso de Guzmán y Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia . The Armada's goal was to ferry the Army of Flanders from the Netherlands to invade England. After three days of fighting with the English fleet, the Armada withdrew and was forced to make the journey around the coast of Scotland and Ireland, many ships being wrecked by storms. Spain had invested itself in

6600-784: The Spanish Main , a severe setback in which the English suffered heavy losses in men and ships. With the conquest and settlement of the Philippines , the Spanish Empire reached its greatest extent. In 1564, Miguel López de Legazpi was commissioned by the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico), Don Luís de Velasco , to lead an expedition in the Pacific Ocean to find the Spice Islands , where earlier explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The westward sailing to reach

6765-583: The Sultanate of Aceh . In 1593, the governor-general of the Philippines, Luis Pérez Dasmariñas , set out to conquer Cambodia , igniting the Cambodian–Spanish War . Some 120 Spaniards, Japanese, and Filipinos, sailing aboard three junks, launched an expedition to Cambodia. After an altercation between the Spanish expedition members and some Chinese merchants at the port left a few Chinese dead,

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6930-648: The Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England. Another major conspiracy was the Babington Plot – the event which most directly led to Mary's execution, the discovery of which involved a double agent , Gilbert Gifford , acting under the direction of Francis Walsingham ,

7095-550: The Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed. a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo). Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico. The Spanish then conducted

7260-496: The Treaty of London the year following Elizabeth's death. England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII , as well as Elizabeth's harsh punishments for any dissenters. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade and persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures, most notably as

7425-564: The War of the League of Cognac . In 1527, due to Charles' inability to pay them sufficiently, his armies in Northern Italy mutinied and sacked Rome itself for loot, forcing Clement, and succeeding popes, to be considerably more prudent in their dealings with secular authorities. In 1533, Clement's refusal to annul Henry VIII of England 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Charles' aunt) was

7590-516: The golden age in English history. The Roman symbol of Britannia (a female personification of Great Britain) was revived in 1572, and often thereafter, to mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired national pride through classical ideals, international expansion, and naval triumph over Spain. This "golden age" represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature. The era

7755-415: The 1530s. The Spanish Empire abroad became the source of Spanish wealth and power in Europe. But as precious metal shipments rapidly expanded late in the century it contributed to the general inflation that was affecting the whole of Europe. Instead of fueling the Spanish economy, American silver made the country increasingly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods. In 1557, Spain

7920-502: The Catholic League after accepting the new convert to Catholicism, Henry IV, as the rightful French king. Meanwhile, Castile was ravaged by a plague that had arrived by ship from the north, losing half a million people. Yet as the 17th century began, and despite her travails, Spain was still unquestionably the dominant power. The first years of his reign, from 1556 to 1566, Philip II was concerned principally with Muslim allies of

8085-508: The Dutch destroyed the dykes that held back the North Sea from the low-lying provinces. In 1576, faced with the costs of his 80,000-man army of occupation in the Netherlands and the massive fleet that had won at Lepanto, Philip was forced to accept bankruptcy . The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after, seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands, prompting several cities in

8250-563: The Dutch to reorganize their defenses. The Spanish Armada suffered defeat at the hands of the English in 1588 and the situation in the Netherlands became increasingly difficult to manage. Maurice of Nassau , William's son, recaptured Deventer , Groningen , Nijmegen and Zutphen . The Spanish were on the defensive, mainly because they had wasted too much resources on the attempted invasion of England and on expeditions in northern France. In 1595, Henry IV of France declared war on Spain, further reducing its ability to launch offensive warfare on

8415-413: The English authorities. People who publicly supported Catholicism were excluded from the professions; sometimes fined or imprisoned. This was justified on the grounds that Catholics were not persecuted for their religion but punished for being traitors who supported the Queen's Spanish foe; in practice, however, Catholics perceived it as religious persecution and regarded those executed as martyrs. Lacking

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8580-406: The English developed a taste for acidic foods—such as oranges for the upper class—and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate

8745-567: The French, and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed. Francis's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants, and Charles took advantage of the opportunity. He first tried the path of negotiation at the Council of Trent in 1545, but the Protestant leadership, feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council, went to war, led by

8910-547: The Habsburg crown. The success of colonization all around his empire improved his financial position, enabling him to show greater aggression towards his enemies. The English Armada of 1589 failed to liberate Portugal. Philip established the Council of Portugal , on the pattern of the royal councils ; the Council of Castile , Council of Aragon , and Council of the Indies , that oversaw particular jurisdictions, but all under

9075-468: The Inca state was destroyed and the last Inca emperor, Túpac Amaru , was executed. Silver from Potosí flowed to coffers in Spain and paid for Spain's wars in Europe. In New Spain, Viceroy Enríquez organized the defense of the northern frontier against nomadic and bellicose indigenous groups, who attacked the transport lines of silver from the northern mines. In the religious sphere, the crown sought to bring

9240-477: The Indies, particularly by Sir Francis Drake and his cousin John Hawkins . In 1568, the Spanish defeated Hawkins' fleet at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa in present-day Mexico. In 1585, Drake sailed for the West Indies and sacked Santo Domingo , captured Cartagena de Indias , and St. Augustine in Florida . Both Drake and Hawkins died of disease during the disastrous 1595–96 expedition against Puerto Rico ( Battle of San Juan ), Panama , and other targets in

9405-589: The Indies. Transpacific explorations had resulted in Spain claiming the Philippines and the establishment of Spanish settlements and trade with New Spain. The viceroyalty of New Spain was given jurisdiction over the Philippines, which became the entrepôt for Asian trade. Philip's succession to the crown of Portugal in 1580 complicated the situation on the ground in the Indies between Spanish and Portuguese settlers, although Brazil and Spanish America were administered through separate councils in Spain. Spain dealt with English encroachment on Spain's maritime control in

9570-495: The Islamic nations of the Sultanate of Sulu and Kingdom of Maynila. They fought against the Sultanate of Brunei and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-states of Maynila and Sulu, which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish, its Mexican recruits and Filipino allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota Batu . This was achieved partly as a result of the assistance of two noblemen , Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as

9735-412: The Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista , a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict that included a rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate , which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal,

9900-539: The Netherlands and invaded France in 1590. Faced with wars against England, France, and the Netherlands, the Spanish government found that neither the New World silver nor steadily increasing taxes were enough to cover their expenses, and went bankrupt again in 1596. To bring finances into order, military campaigns were reduced and the over-stretched forces went into a largely defensive mode. In 1598, shortly before his death, Philip II made peace with France , withdrawing his forces from French territory and stopping payments to

10065-569: The Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the " Spanish Fury " due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities between 1572 and 1579. In January 1579, Friesland , Gelderland , Groningen , Holland , Overijssel , Utrecht and Zeeland formed

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10230-443: The Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire at the same time, and the stalemate in the Mediterranean continued until Spain agreed to a truce in 1580. The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Habsburg Netherlands (roughly equal to modern-day Netherlands and Belgium, inherited by Philip from Charles and his Burgundian forebears) prompted Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba to conduct

10395-422: The North African coast in 1563, but were repulsed. In 1565, the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta , which laid siege to several forts on the island. A Spanish relief force from Sicily drove the Ottomans (exhausted from a long siege) away from the island. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by his less capable son Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

10560-406: The Ottoman naval threat against European territory, particularly in the western Mediterranean, and the loss of experienced sailors was to be a major handicap in facing Christian fleets. Yet the Turks succeeded in rebuilding their navy in a year, using it handily to consolidate Ottoman dominance over most of the Mediterranean's African coast and eastern islands. Philip lacked the resources to fight both

10725-434: The Peninsula, Ferdinand adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella's husband, going on to crystallize his long-running designs over Navarre into a full-blown invasion led initially by a Castilian military expedition, and supported later by Aragonese troops (1512). He also attempted to enlarge Spain's sphere of influence in Italy, strengthening it against France. As ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in

10890-407: The Philippine archipelago. The Spanish were joined by the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the Kedatuan of Madja-as who were Animists and Rajahnate of Cebu who were Hindus, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (who were from northern Mindanao and were Hindus with a Buddhist Monarchy), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan who were also Animists and had previously waged war against

11055-399: The Philippines' link to the larger Spanish Empire. Spanish colonization began in earnest when López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first settlements in Cebu . Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian friars, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for

11220-406: The Portuguese king Sebastian launched a crusade against the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco. The expedition ended in disaster and Sebastian's disappearance at the Battle of the Three Kings . His aged uncle Henry ruled until he died in 1580. Although Philip had long prepared for the takeover of Portugal, he still found it necessary to launch a military occupation led by the Duke of Alba. Philip took

11385-412: The Portuguese throne: "I inherited, I bought, I conquered," a variation on Julius Caesar and Veni, Vidi, Vici . Spanish forces led by Admiral Álvaro de Bazán captured the Azores Islands in 1583, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast colonial empire in Africa, Brazil , and the East Indies , seeing a flood of new revenues coming to

11550-410: The Queen's highly effective spy master. The Essex Rebellion of 1601 has a dramatic element, as just before the uprising, supporters of the Earl of Essex , among them Charles and Joscelyn Percy (younger brothers of the Earl of Northumberland ), paid for a performance of Richard II at the Globe Theatre , apparently with the goal of stirring public ill will towards the monarchy. It was reported at

11715-408: The Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of far Eastern trade. It established trading posts, which in later centuries evolved into British India , on the coasts of what is now India and Bangladesh . Larger scale colonisation to North America began shortly after Elizabeth's death. England in this era had some positive aspects that set it apart from contemporaneous continental European societies. Torture

11880-618: The Spanish army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Ceresole , in Savoy Henry fared better, and France was forced to accept terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand , continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. With France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League. Perhaps more important to the strategy of the Spanish king, the League had allied itself with

12045-469: The Spanish were forced to confront the newly declared king, Anacaparan, burning much of his capital while defeating him. In 1599, Malay Muslim merchants defeated and massacred almost the entire contingent of Spanish troops in Cambodia, putting an end to Spanish plans to conquer it. Another expedition, one to conquer Mindanao, was also lacking in success. In 1603, during a Chinese rebellion , Pérez Dasmariñas

12210-526: The Turks, based in Tripoli and Algiers , the bases from which North African (Muslim) forces under the corsair Dragut preyed upon Christian shipping. In 1560, a Spanish-led Christian fleet was sent to recapture Tripoli ( captured by Spain in 1510), but the fleet was destroyed by the Ottomans at the Battle of Djerba . The Ottomans attempted to seize the Spanish military-bases of Oran and Mers El Kébir on

12375-631: The United Provinces which became the Dutch Netherlands of today. Meanwhile, Spain sent Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma with 20,000 well-trained troops into the Netherlands. Groningen, Breda , Kampen , Dunkirk , Antwerp, and Brussels, among others, were put to siege. Farnese eventually secured the Southern provinces for Spain. After the Spanish capture of Maastricht in 1579, the Dutch began to turn on William of Orange. William

12540-498: The United Provinces. Philip had been forced to declare bankruptcy in 1557, 1560, 1576 and 1596. However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase the supply of gold and silver from America, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France. Under financial and military pressure, in 1598 Philip ceded the Spanish Netherlands to his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia , following

12705-451: The age of about 14. England's food supply was plentiful throughout most of the reign; there were no famines. Bad harvests caused distress, but they were usually localized. The most widespread came in 1555–57 and 1596–98. In the towns the price of staples was fixed by law; in hard times the size of the loaf of bread sold by the baker was smaller. Trade and industry flourished in the 16th century, making England more prosperous and improving

12870-537: The allies. With a massive effort, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy. Within six months a new fleet was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean . John captured Tunis (in present-day Tunisia ) from the Ottomans in 1573, but it was soon lost again . The Ottoman sultan agreed to a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip in 1580. In the western Mediterranean, Philip pursued

13035-474: The alphabet and the Lord's Prayer . There were few books, so pupils read from hornbooks instead. These wooden boards had the alphabet, prayers or other writings pinned to them and were covered with a thin layer of transparent cow's horn. There were two types of school in Tudor times: petty school was where young boys were taught to read and write; grammar school was where abler boys were taught English and Latin. It

13200-649: The ascension of young Charles to both Spanish thrones as Charles I of Castile and Aragon , further solidifying the monarchy of Spain . His inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the New World and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the Habsburg Netherlands and Franche-Comté , growing up in Flanders. In 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I , Charles inherited

13365-623: The authority of the Emperor. In 1543, Francis I , King of France, announced his unprecedented alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent , by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in cooperation with Turkish forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France. Although

13530-496: The celebrations that followed the treaty, Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance. France was stricken for the next forty years by civil war and unrest and was unable to effectively compete with Spain and the Habsburgs in the European power struggle. Freed from any serious French opposition, Spain saw the height of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. The Spanish Empire had grown substantially since

13695-715: The centuries long Spanish–Moro conflict against the Sultanates of Maguindanao , Lanao and Sulu. War was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore , in response to Ternatean slaving and piracy against Spain's allies: Bohol and Butuan . During the Spanish–Moro conflict, the Moros of Muslim Mindanao conducted piracy and slave-raids against Christian settlements in the Philippines. The Spanish fought back by establishing Christian fort-cities such as Zamboanga City on Muslim Mindanao. The Spanish considered their war with

13860-728: The colonization of the archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Mexican recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies attacked and occupied Maynila , a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei , and negotiated the incorporation of the Kingdom of Tondo which was liberated from the Bruneian Sultanate's control and of whom, their princess, Kandarapa , had a tragic romance with the Mexican-born Conquistador and grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo . The combined Spanish-Mexican-Filipino forces also built

14025-420: The conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. Under Philip II, royal power over the Indies increased, but the crown knew little about its overseas possessions. Although the Council of the Indies was tasked with oversight there, it acted without advice of high officials with direct colonial experience. Another serious problem was that the crown did not know what Spanish laws were in force there. To remedy

14190-612: The country until it was brutally put down in 1526. Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order. After the Peasants' War the Protestants organized themselves into a defensive league to protect themselves from Emperor Charles. Under the protection of the Schmalkaldic League , the Protestant states committed a number of outrages in the eyes of the Catholic Church (the confiscation of some ecclesiastical territories, among other things) and defied

14355-519: The crown. Charles established the Council of the Indies in 1524 to oversee all of Castile's overseas possessions. Charles appointed a viceroy in Mexico in 1535, capping the royal governance of the high court, Real Audiencia , and treasury officials with the highest royal official. Officials were under the jurisdiction of the Council of the Indies. Charles promulgated the New Laws of 1542 to limit

14520-574: The days of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Aztec and Inca empires were conquered during Charles' reign, from 1519 to 1521 and 1540 to 1558, respectively. Spanish settlements were established in the New World: Mexico City , the most important colonial city established in 1524 to be the primary center of administration in the New World; Florida , colonized in the 1560s; Buenos Aires , established in 1536; and New Granada (modern Colombia , Ecuador , Panama and Venezuela ), colonized in

14685-670: The death in 1700 of Spain's last Habsburg king, Charles II, the resulting War of the Spanish Succession led to the ascension of Philip V of the Bourbon dynasty , which began a new centralising state formation, which came into being de jure after the Nueva Planta decrees that merged the multiple crowns of its former realms (except for Navarre ). In 1504, Isabella I of Castile died, and although Ferdinand II of Aragon tried to maintain his position over Castile in

14850-413: The difference between Tudor houses and Tudor-style houses easy, as the original beams are not straight. The upper floors of Tudor houses were often larger than the ground floors, which would create an overhang (or jetty ). This would create more floor-surface above while also keeping maximum street width. During the Tudor period, the use of glass when building houses was first used, and became widespread. It

15015-621: The eastern coast of Spain did Charles personally lead attacks against holdings in North Africa (1535). In 1560, the Ottomans battled the Spanish Navy off the coast of Tunisia, but in 1565 Ottoman troops landing on the strategically vital island of Malta , defended by the Knights of St. John , were defeated. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

15180-465: The eastern seaboard of North America occurred in this era—the abortive colony at Roanoke Island in 1587. While Elizabethan England is not thought of as an age of technological innovation, some progress did occur. In 1564 Guilliam Boonen came from the Netherlands to be Queen Elizabeth's first coach-builder —thus introducing the new European invention of the spring-suspension coach to England, as

15345-445: The economic development of England and soon for the world as a whole. With taxes lower than other European countries of the period, the economy expanded; though the wealth was distributed with wild unevenness, there was clearly more wealth to go around at the end of Elizabeth's reign than at the beginning. This general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that "Golden Age" advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age

15510-413: The enemy vessel. When Spain finally decided to invade and conquer England it was a fiasco. Superior English ships and seamanship foiled the invasion and led to the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588, marking the high point of Elizabeth's reign. Technically, the Armada failed because Spain's over-complex strategy required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore. Moreover,

15675-443: The establishment of a Christianized Philippines attracted Chinese traders who exchanged their silk for Mexican silver . Indian and Malay traders also settled in the Philippines too, to trade their spices and gems for the same Mexican silver. The Philippines then became a center for Christian missionary activity that was also directed to Japan. The Philippines even accepted Christian converts from Japan after they were persecuted. Most of

15840-524: The family. They were not sent to school. Boys were educated for work and the girls for marriage and running a household so when they married they could look after the house and children. Wealthy families hired a tutor to teach the boys at home. Many Tudor towns and villages had a parish school where the local vicar taught boys to read and write. Brothers could teach their sisters these skills. At school, pupils were taught English, Latin, Greek, catechism and arithmetic. The pupils practised writing in ink by copying

16005-533: The farmers who lived and worked there. Despite the struggles of the lower class, the government tended to spend money on wars and exploration voyages instead of on welfare. About one-third of the population lived in poverty, with the wealthy expected to give alms to assist the impotent poor . Tudor law was harsh on the able-bodied poor , i.e., those unable to find work. Those who left their parishes in order to locate work were termed vagabonds and could be subjected to punishments, including whipping and putting at

16170-544: The fields of cartography and surveying. The eccentric but influential John Dee also merits mention. Much of this scientific and technological progress related to the practical skill of navigation. English achievements in exploration were noteworthy in the Elizabethan era. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe between 1577 and 1581, and Martin Frobisher explored the Arctic . The first attempt at English settlement of

16335-527: The formation of the Via Media during the 17th century. She spent the rest of her reign ferociously fending off radical reformers and Roman Catholics who wanted to modify the Settlement of Church affairs: The Church of England was Protestant, "with its peculiar arrested development in Protestant terms, and the ghost which it harboured of an older world of Catholic traditions and devotional practice". For

16500-582: The fringes of the Habsburg dominions in Austria and northwest Africa. In response Ferdinand and Isabella had sent expeditions to North Africa, capturing Melilla in 1497 and Oran in 1509. Charles had preferred to combat the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy, hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean . Only in response to raids on

16665-463: The full-rigged ship was one of the greatest technological advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare. In 1573 English shipwrights introduced designs, first demonstrated in the "Dreadnaught", that allowed the ships to sail faster and maneuver better and permitted heavier guns. Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy ship, now they stood off and fired broadsides that would sink

16830-413: The globe. Combined with his daring raids against the Spanish and his great victory over them at Cádiz in 1587 , he became a famous hero —his exploits are still celebrated—but England did not follow up on his claims. In 1583, Humphrey Gilbert sailed to Newfoundland, taking possession of the harbour of St. John's together with all land within two hundred leagues to the north and south of it. In 1584,

16995-582: The greatest political and military powers in Europe and the world for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Habsburg's period, Spain ushered in the Spanish Golden Age of arts and literature producing some of the world's most outstanding writers and painters and influential intellectuals, including Teresa of Ávila , Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Miguel de Cervantes , Francisco de Quevedo , Diego Velázquez , El Greco , Domingo de Soto , Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria . After

17160-409: The head of a large army to restore order. In 1568, William of Orange , a German nobleman, led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. The Battle of Rheindalen is often seen as the unofficial start of the Eighty Years' War that led to the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from

17325-483: The indigenous populations continued to be robust in the Philippines. One Spaniard described the climate as "cuatro meses de polvo, cuatro meses de lodo, y cuatro meses de todo" (four months of dust, four months of mud, and four months of everything). Legazpi built a fort in Manila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula , Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman , who

17490-482: The intense religious passions of the time. This was in significant contrast to previous and succeeding eras of marked religious violence. Elizabeth said "I have no desire to make windows into men's souls". Her desire to moderate the religious persecutions of previous Tudor reigns – the persecution of Catholics under Edward VI, and of Protestants under Mary I – appears to have had a moderating effect on English society. Elizabeth, Protestant, but undogmatic one, authorizing

17655-619: The island of Alhucemas , in the Mediterranean, were taken. However, during the second half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora were also lost. Philip led Spain into the final phase of the Italian Wars , crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557) in Picardy and defeating the French again at the Battle of Gravelines . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. France

17820-442: The lower classes. Cumbria, the poorest and most isolated part of England, suffered a six-year famine beginning in 1594. Diseases and natural disasters also contributed to the scarce food supply. In the 17th century, the food supply improved. England had no food crises from 1650 to 1725, a period when France was unusually vulnerable to famines. Historians point out that oat and barley prices in England did not always increase following

17985-502: The most powerful man in Christendom . The accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned Francis I of France , who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy and Navarre , which inaugurated a second round of Franco-Spanish conflict. The war was a disaster for France , which suffered defeats at Biccoca (1522), Pavia (1525, at which Francis

18150-688: The new reign. In the Bye Plot of 1603, two Catholic priests planned to kidnap King James and hold him in the Tower of London until he agreed to be more tolerant towards Catholics. Most dramatic was the 1605 Gunpowder Plot to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. It was discovered in time with eight conspirators executed, including Guy Fawkes , who became the iconic evil traitor in English lore. While Henry VIII had launched

18315-526: The other hand, were thin and outdated; England had too few soldiers and they were at best only partially trained. Spain had chosen England's weakest link and probably could have captured London in a week. Parker adds that a Catholic uprising in the north and in Ireland could have brought total defeat. The discoveries of Christopher Columbus electrified all of western Europe, especially maritime powers like England. King Henry VII commissioned John Cabot to lead

18480-428: The poor design of the Spanish cannons meant they were much slower in reloading in a close-range battle. Spain and France still had stronger fleets, but England was catching up. Parker has speculated on the dire consequences if the Spanish had landed their invasion army in 1588. He argues that the Spanish army was larger, more experienced, better-equipped, more confident, and had better financing. The English defenses, on

18645-458: The population consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces. At

18810-535: The power of the Conquistadors to form a hereditary aristocracy that might challenge the power of the crown. Charles's victory at the Battle of Pavia (1525) surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain even greater power. Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in

18975-593: The power of the religious orders under control with the Ordenanza del Patronazgo , ordering friars to give up their Indian parishes and turn them over to the diocesan clergy, who were more closely controlled by the crown. The Spanish Inquisition expanded to the Indies in 1565 and was in place by 1570 in Lima and Mexico City. It drew many colonial Spaniards into torture chambers . Native Americans were exempt. The crown expanded its global claims and defended existing ones in

19140-582: The preparations for the expedition. On embarking on the expedition, Spain lacked maps or information to guide the King's decision to authorize the expedition. That realization subsequently led to the creation of reports from the various regions of the empire, the relaciones geográficas . The Philippines came under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalty of Mexico, and once the Manila Galleon sailings between Manila and Acapulco were established, Mexico became

19305-643: The previous and following reigns. It was a brief period of internal peace between the Wars of the Roses in the previous century, the English Reformation , and the religious battles between Protestants and Catholics prior to Elizabeth's reign, and then the later conflict of the English Civil War and the ongoing political battles between parliament and the monarchy that engulfed the remainder of

19470-486: The previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion. The Spanish chose the route of negotiation, and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579. The Arras agreement required all Spanish troops to leave the Netherlands. Meanwhile, Philip had his eye on uniting the entire Iberian Peninsula under his rule, a traditional objective of Spanish monarchs. The opportunity came in 1578 when

19635-537: The queen granted Walter Raleigh a charter for the colonisation of Virginia ; it was named in her honour. Raleigh and Elizabeth sought both immediate riches and a base for privateers to raid the Spanish treasure fleets. Raleigh sent others to found the Roanoke Colony ; it remains a mystery why the settlers all disappeared. In 1600, the queen chartered the East India Company in an attempt to break

19800-543: The real and essential presence of Christ in the bread and wine: she believed it so. She was not able to get an unmarried clergy or the Protestant Holy Communion celebrated to look like a Mass. The Apostolic Succession was maintained, the institution of the church continued without a break (with 98% of the clergy remaining at their posts) and the attempt to ban music in church was defeated. The Injunctions of 1571 forbade any doctrines that did not conform to

19965-483: The rebellious Republic of Florence . The Protestant Reformation had begun in Germany in 1517. Charles, through his position as Holy Roman Emperor, his important holdings along Germany's frontiers, and his close relationship with his Habsburg relatives in Austria, had a vested interest in maintaining the stability of the Holy Roman Empire . The German Peasants' War broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged

20130-468: The religious warfare in France after Henry II's death. In 1589, Henry III , the last of the House of Valois , died at the walls of Paris. His successor, Henry IV, the first king from the House of Bourbon , was a man of great ability, winning key victories against the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590). Committed to stopping Henry from becoming king of France, the Spanish divided their army in

20295-466: The ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog , named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo, and had children in the Philippines. In 1587, Magat Salamat , one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when

20460-757: The same monarch. As a result of the Iberian Union , Phillip II's enemies became Portugal's enemies, such as the Dutch in the Dutch–Portuguese War , England or France . War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia, including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan, Africa ( Mina ), and South America. During the reign of Philip IV (Philip III of Portugal) in 1640, the Portuguese revolted and fought successfully for their independence from

20625-576: The seventeenth century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also well-off compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end following the end of the Italian Wars , which left the Italian Peninsula impoverished. The Kingdom of France

20790-465: The side of the Catholic League , winning battles, but failing to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming king as Henry IV. To Spain's dismay, Pope Clement VIII accepted Henry into the Catholic Church. To keep the Netherlands under control required an extensive occupation force, and Spain was still financially strapped since the 1576 bankruptcy. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by

20955-459: The situation, Philip appointed Juan de Ovando, who was named president of the council, to give advice. Ovando appointed a "chronicler and cosmographer of the Indies", Juan López de Velasco, to gather information about the crown's holdings, which resulted in the Relaciones geográficas in the 1580s. The crown sought greater control over encomenderos, who had attempted to establish themselves as

21120-591: The soldiers and settlers sent by the Spanish to the Philippines were either from Mexico or Peru and very little people directly came from Spain. At one point, the royal officials in Manila complained that most of the soldiers who were being sent from New Spain were black, mulatto or Native American, with almost no Spaniards among the contingents. In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of

21285-553: The sources of spices continued to be a necessity with the Ottomans still controlled major choke points in central Asia. It was unclear how the agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the Atlantic world affected finds on the other side of the Pacific. Spain had ceded its rights to the "Spice Islands" to Portugal in the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529, but the appellation was vague as was their exact delineation. The Legazpi expedition

21450-675: The sovereignty of Philip II of Spain and his successors after the Spanish victory in the War of Portuguese Succession . In 1580, King Philip saw the opportunity to strengthen his position in Iberia when the last member of the Portuguese royal family , Henry, King of Portugal , died. Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba with an army to Lisbon to assure his succession. Philip famously remarked upon his acquisition of

21615-399: The standard of living of the upper and middle classes. However, the lower classes did not benefit much and did not always have enough food. As the English population was fed by its own agricultural produce, a series of bad harvests in the 1590s caused widespread starvation and poverty. The success of the wool trading industry decreased attention on agriculture, resulting in further starvation of

21780-566: The stocks. The idea of the workhouse for the able-bodied poor was first suggested in 1576. There was an unprecedented expansion of education in the Tudor period. Until then, few children went to school. Those that did go were mainly the sons of wealthy or ambitious fathers who could afford to pay the attendance fee. Boys were allowed to go to school and began at the age of 4, they then moved to grammar school when they were 7 years old. Girls were either kept at home by their parents to help with housework or sent out to work to bring money in for

21945-480: The struggle against France and the Republic of Venice for control of Italy. These conflicts became the center of Ferdinand's foreign policy as king. Ferdinand's first investment of Spanish forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice, where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the Battle of Agnadello (1509). Only a year later, Ferdinand joined

22110-740: The teaching of the Church Fathers and the Catholic Bishops. The Queen's hostility to strict Calvinistic doctrines blocked the Radicals. Almost no original theological thought came out of the English Reformation; instead, the Church relied on the Catholic Consensus of the first Four Ecumenical Councils. The preservation of many Catholic doctrines and practices was the cuckoos nest that eventually resulted in

22275-435: The title of King of Portugal, but otherwise the country remained autonomous, retaining its own laws, currency, and institutions. However, Portugal surrendered all independence in foreign policy, and relations between the two countries were never warm. France formed the cornerstone of Spanish foreign policy. For 30 years after Cateau-Cambrésis, it was engulfed in civil war. After 1590, the Spanish intervened directly in France on

22440-526: The trial of Essex by Chamberlain's Men actor Augustine Phillips , that the conspirators paid the company forty shillings "above the ordinary" (i. e., above their usual rate) to stage the play, which the players felt was too old and "out of use" to attract a large audience. In the last decades of the reign, Elizabeth gave James VI of Scotland an annual annuity or subsidy which contributed to an "amity" or peace between England and Scotland. It became clear that he would be her successor . Plots continued in

22605-557: The union of the two main crowns, Castile and Aragon, which eventually led to the de facto unification of Spain after the culmination of the Reconquista with the conquest of Granada in 1492 and of Navarre in 1512 to 1529. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of " Catholic King and Queen " by Pope Alexander VI in 1494. With the Habsburgs, the term Monarchia Catholica (Catholic Monarchy, Modern Spanish: Monarquía Católica ) remained in use. Spain continued to be one of

22770-460: The vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. In 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the watergeuzen ("Sea Beggars") seized a number of Dutch coastal towns, proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership. In 1574, the Spanish army under Luis de Requeséns was repulsed from the Siege of Leiden after

22935-491: The wake of her death, the Castilian Cortes Generales (the parliament) chose to crown Isabella's daughter Joanna of Castile as queen. Her husband, Philip I of Castile , was the Habsburg son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Mary of Burgundy . Shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, although the extent of her mental illness remains the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I

23100-474: The war to the Ottoman homelands. In 1571, a mixed naval expedition of Spanish, Venetian, and Papal ships led by Charles' illegitimate son Don John of Austria annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto , in the largest naval battle fought in European waters since Actium in 31 BC. The fleet included Miguel de Cervantes , future author of the historic Spanish novel Don Quixote . The victory curbed

23265-522: The war to the Sultan himself. In 1571, a Christian fleet, led by Philip's half-brother John of Austria , annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in the waters off southwestern Greece. Despite the significant victory, however, the Holy League 's disunity prevented the victors from capitalizing on their triumph. Plans to seize the Dardanelles as a step towards recovering Constantinople for Christendom, were ruined by bickering amongst

23430-402: The whims of the king or queen. Feasts were commonly used to commemorate the "procession" of the crowned heads of state in the summer months, when the king or queen would travel through a circuit of other nobles' lands both to avoid the plague season of London, and alleviate the royal coffers, often drained through the winter to provide for the needs of the royal family and court. This would include

23595-464: Was Habsburg Spain , with whom England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 . An attempt by Philip II of Spain to invade England with the Spanish Armada in 1588 was famously defeated. In turn England launched an equally unsuccessful expedition to Spain with the Drake–Norris Expedition of 1589 . Three further Spanish Armadas also failed in 1596 , 1597 and 1602 . The war ended with

23760-448: Was England's Golden Age... ' Merry England ', in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and in adventurous seafaring". This idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn . In response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take

23925-429: Was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the Battle of Bangkusay , he was finally defeated and killed. The Spanish also repelled an attack by Chinese pirate warlord Limahong . Simultaneously,

24090-404: Was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, and often involving the highest levels of Elizabethan society. High officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots , a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the religious recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted. In 1584,

24255-457: Was assassinated by a supporter of Philip in 1584. After the Fall of Antwerp , the Queen of England began to aid the Northern provinces and sent troops there in 1585. English forces under Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and then Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby , faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under Farnese in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for

24420-509: Was basic, with stools being commonplace rather than chairs. The walls of Tudor houses were often made from timber and wattle and daub , or brick; stone and tiles were more common in the wealthier homes. The daub was usually then painted with limewash , making it white, and the wood was painted with black tar to prevent rotting, but not in Tudor times; the Victorians did this afterwards. The bricks were handmade and thinner than modern bricks. The wooden beams were cut by hand, which makes telling

24585-407: Was beheaded, and his head was mounted in Manila along with those of several other Spanish soldiers. Despite the fact that during the Iberian Union a certain degree of autonomy and the cultural identity of Portugal was maintained, many historians agree that the dynastic union was in fact a Spanish conquest by keeping Portugal and the Portuguese Empire as part of the Spanish colonial empire under

24750-464: Was captured), and Landriano (1529) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Spain's overseas possessions in the New World were based in the Caribbean and the Spanish Main and consisted of a rapidly decreasing indigenous population, few resources of value to the crown, and a sparse Spanish settler population. The situation changed dramatically with the expedition of Hernán Cortés , who, with alliances with city-states hostile to

24915-418: Was declared jure uxoris king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II. Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joanna's father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the regent of Queen Joanna and Charles. Spain was now in personal union under Ferdinand II of Aragon . As undisputed ruler in most of

25080-418: Was embroiled in the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). They were (temporarily) settled in 1598 by a policy of tolerating Protestantism with the Edict of Nantes . In part because of this, but also because the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent by Spain's tercios , the centuries-long Anglo-French Wars were largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign. The one great rival

25245-425: Was exploring North America. England was stimulated to create its own colonies, with an emphasis on the West Indies rather than in North America. Martin Frobisher landed at Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island in August 1576; He returned in 1577, claiming it in Queen Elizabeth's name, and in a third voyage tried but failed to found a settlement in Frobisher Bay. From 1577 to 1580, Francis Drake circumnavigated

25410-504: Was forced, for the first of many times, to declare a sovereign default , requiring it to partially repudiate its debt through consolidation and conversion . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 concluded the war with France, leaving Spain at a considerable advantage. However, the government was still mired in debt, and declared bankruptcy that year. Most of the government's revenues came from taxes and excise duties, not imported silver and other goods. The Ottoman Empire had long menaced

25575-511: Was necessary for boys to attend grammar school , but girls were rarely allowed in any place of education other than petty schools, and then only with a restricted curriculum. Petty schools were for all children aged from 5 to 7 years of age. Only the most wealthy people allowed their daughters to be taught, and only at home. During this time, endowed schooling became available. This meant that even boys of very poor families were able to attend school if they were not needed to work at home, but only in

25740-452: Was nominated Admiral of Virginia by Raleigh in 1585. When he returned to England to report their findings, the Queen named the country after herself, Virginia. This English biographical article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Elizabethan The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor period of the history of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603). Historians often depict it as

25905-487: Was not yet at peace, as the aggressive Henry II of France came to the throne in 1547 and renewed the conflict between the two countries four years later. Charles' successor, Philip II, aggressively conducted the war against France, crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy in 1557 and defeating Henry again at the Battle of Gravelines the following year. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. In

26070-430: Was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu . The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong . In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to

26235-403: Was ordered by King Philip II, after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Ruy López de Villalobos, when Philip was heir to the throne. The King stated that "the main purpose of this expedition is to establish the return route from the western isles, since it is already known that the route to them is fairly short." The Viceroy died in July 1564, but the Audiencia and de Legazpi completed

26400-561: Was rare, since the English legal system reserved torture only for capital crimes like treason —though forms of corporal punishment, some of them extreme, were practised. The persecution of witches began in 1563, and hundreds were executed, although there was nothing like the frenzy on the Continent. Mary had tried her hand at an aggressive anti-Protestant Inquisition and was hated for it; it was not to be repeated. Nevertheless, more Catholics were persecuted, exiled, and burned alive than under Queen Mary. Elizabeth managed to moderate and quell

26565-429: Was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest. During this period, it was removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games. Freed from effective French opposition, Spain attained the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Netherlands prompted the Duke of Alba to march into Brussels at

26730-443: Was subsequently appointed viceroy to replace Toledo in Peru. In Peru, after decades of political unrest, with ineffective viceroys and encomenderos wielding undue power, weak royal institutions, a renegade Neo-Inca State existing in Vilcabamba , and waning revenue from the Cerro Rico silver mine of Potosí , Toledo's appointment was a major step forward for royal control. He built on reforms attempted under earlier viceroys, but he

26895-400: Was thus long known as the "House of Austria". Complementary, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth. Charles V was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of Ghent . When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles I of Spain, and after he was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, Charles Quint ). In Spain, the dynasty was known as

27060-450: Was usual for students to attend six days a week. The school day started at 7:00 am in winter and 6:00 am in summer and finished about 5:00 pm. Petty schools had shorter hours, mostly to allow poorer boys the opportunity to work as well. Schools were harsh and teachers were very strict, often beating pupils who misbehaved. Education would begin at home, where children were taught the basic etiquette of proper manners and respecting others. It

27225-435: Was very expensive and difficult to make, so the panes were made small and held together with a lead lattice, in casement windows . People who could not afford glass often used polished horn, cloth or paper. Tudor chimneys were tall, thin, and often decorated with symmetrical patterns of molded or cut brick. Early Tudor houses, and the homes of poorer people, did not have chimneys. The smoke in these cases would be let out through

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