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46-747: The Phoenix Cluster was first reported in a paper by R. Williamson and colleagues during a survey by the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica , being one of the 26 galaxy clusters identified by the survey. The detection has been conducted at frequencies between 95, 150, and 220 GHz, with 14 of the galaxy clusters detected have been previously identified, while 12 – including Phoenix Cluster, being new discoveries. The would-be named Phoenix Cluster (still identified by its numerical catalogue entry SPT-CL J2344–4243) has been remarked to be having "the largest X-ray luminosity of any cluster" described by

92-756: A 100 square degree survey field. 2013 winterovers Dana Hrubes and Jason Gallicchio surveyed a larger field as part of the full SPTpol survey. This larger survey was completed by 2014 winterovers Robert Citron and Nicholas Huang, 2015 winterovers Charlie Sievers and Todd Veach, and 2016 winterovers Christine Corbett Moran and Amy Lowitz. The first winter of SPT-3G observing was conducted by winterovers Daniel Michalik and Andrew Nadolski. Adam Jones and Joshua Montgomery followed in 2018, with Douglas Howe and David Riebel wintering in 2019, Geoff Chen and Allen Foster in 2020, Sasha Rahlin and Matt Young in 2021, Aman Chokshi and Allen Foster in 2022, and Kyle Ferguson and Alex Pollak in 2023. List of most massive black holes This

138-400: A 500-square-degree region of which the original 100 square degrees is a subset. These are currently the deepest high-resolution maps of the millimeter-wave sky over more than a few square degrees, with the noise level at 150 GHz around 5 micro-Kelvin-arcminute and square root of two deeper on the 100-square-degree field. In January 2017, the third-generation camera SPT-3G was installed on

184-497: A calorimetric tool to measure the black hole's mass. The team deduced an energy conversion parameter and related it to the behavior of the hot intracluster gas, the AGN feedback parameter, and the dynamics and density profiles of the galaxy to create an evolutionary modelling of how the central black hole may have grown in the past. In the case of Phoenix A, it has been shown to have far more extreme characteristics, with adiabatic models near

230-734: A feedback (in contrast to the Perseus and Virgo clusters). This is further supported by the high starburst activity of the central galaxy Phoenix A, where stars are formed at 740 M ☉ per annum (compared to the Milky Way 's 1 M ☉ per annum of star production); the central active galactic nucleus attested to not have been producing sufficient energy to ionize the galaxy's gas and prevent starburst activity. The central elliptical cD galaxy of this cluster, Phoenix A ( RBS 2043 , 2MASX J23444387-4243124 ), hosts an active galactic nucleus that has been described as sharing both

276-456: A high mass may place it into a proposed category of stupendously large black holes (SLABs), black holes that may have been seeded by primordial black holes with masses that may reach 100 billion  M ☉ or more, larger than the upper maximum limit for at least luminous accreting black holes hosted by disc galaxies of about 50 billion  M ☉ South Pole Telescope The South Pole Telescope ( SPT )

322-538: A new camera (SPTpol) was installed on the SPT with even greater sensitivity and the capability to measure the polarization of incoming light. This camera operated from 2012–2016 and was used to make unprecedentedly deep high-resolution maps of hundreds of square degrees of the Southern sky. In 2017, the third-generation camera SPT-3G was installed on the telescope, providing nearly an order-of-magnitude increase in detectors in

368-593: A patch of sky to a given noise level. The camera consists of over 16,000 detectors, split evenly between 90, 150, and 220 GHz. In 2018, a new survey began using the SPT-3G camera. This survey was to cover 1500 square degrees to a depth of < 3 micro-Kelvin-arcminute at 150 GHz. Significantly, this field overlaps completely with the BICEP Array observing field, enabling joint analyses of SPT and BICEP data which will deliver significantly better constraints on

414-760: A potential signal from primordial gravitational waves than either instrument can provide alone. The first key project for the SPT, completed in October 2011, was a 2500- square degree survey to search for clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect , a distortion of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) due to interactions between CMB photons and the Intracluster medium in galaxy clusters. The survey has found hundreds of clusters of galaxies over an extremely wide redshift range. When combined with accurate redshifts and mass estimates for

460-484: A runaway cooling flow. This measurement is one of the highest ever seen in the middle of a galaxy cluster. The very strong cooling flow, in contrast to other galaxy clusters, has been a suggested result of the feedback mechanism to prevent a runaway cooling flow which may not be established yet in the Phoenix Cluster; the heating mechanism expected to be produced by the central black hole being inadequate to create

506-561: A survey of galaxy clusters through their Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect signature) was split into six pie-shaped wedges, each with 160 detectors. These wedges observed at three different frequencies: 95 GHz, 150 GHz, and 220 GHz. The modularity of the focal plane allowed it to be broken into many different frequency configurations. For the majority of the life of the camera, the SPT-SZ focal plane had one wedge at 95 GHz, four at 150 GHz, and one at 220 GHz. The SPT-SZ camera

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552-515: A variety of telescopes including the GALEX and Herschel space telescopes shows that it has been converting the material to stars at an exceptionally high rate of 740 M ☉ per year. This is considerably higher than that of NGC 1275 A, the central galaxy of the Perseus Cluster , where stars are formed at a rate around 20 times lower, or the one per year rate of star formation in

598-562: A wide and deep survey of discovering hundreds of clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect , a sensitive 5 arcminute CMB power spectrum survey, and the first detection of B-mode polarized CMB. The first major survey with the SPT—designed to find distant, massive, clusters of galaxies through their interaction with the CMB, with the goal of constraining the dark energy equation of state—was completed in October 2011. In early 2012,

644-475: Is a 10-metre (390 in) diameter telescope located at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station , Antarctica. The telescope is designed for observations in the microwave , millimeter-wave , and submillimeter-wave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum , with the particular design goal of measuring the faint, diffuse emission from the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Key results include

690-515: Is an ordered list of the most massive black holes so far discovered (and probable candidates), measured in units of solar masses ( M ☉ ), approximately 2 × 10  kilograms . A supermassive black hole (SMBH) is an extremely large black hole , on the order of hundreds of thousands to billions of solar masses ( M ☉ ), and is theorized to exist in the center of almost all massive galaxies . In some galaxies, there are even binary systems of supermassive black holes, see

736-520: Is extreme difficulty in determining the mass of a particular SMBH, and so they still remain in the field of open research. SMBHs with accurate masses are limited only to galaxies within the Laniakea Supercluster and to active galactic nuclei . Another problem for this list is the method used in determining the mass. Such methods, such as broad emission-line reverberation mapping (BLRM), Doppler measurements , velocity dispersion , and

782-422: Is only 5 × 10   M ☉ for black holes with typical properties, but can reach 2.7 × 10   M ☉ at maximal prograde spin ( a = 1). Another recent estimate gives ~ 1.26 × 10   M ☉ , though this is still uncertain due to low resolution of X-ray/MIR data. Estimated using the break radius of 0.5 kpc core of the central galaxy. Previous indirect assumptions about

828-443: Is present there than the total of all the other galaxies in the cluster. Data from observations indicate that hot gas is cooling in the central regions at a rate of 3,820 solar masses per year, the highest ever recorded. It is also undergoing a massive starburst, the highest recorded in the middle of a galaxy cluster, although other galaxies at higher redshifts have a higher starburst rate (see Baby Boom Galaxy ) . Observations by

874-404: Is required to achieve the science goals of the SPT cluster survey and CMB polarization measurements. The first camera installed on the SPT contained a 960-element bolometer array of superconducting transition edge sensors (TES), which made it one of the largest TES bolometer arrays ever built. The focal plane for this camera (referred to as the SPT-SZ camera because it was designed to conduct

920-659: The Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. It is funded by the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy . The South Pole region is the premier observing site in the world for millimeter-wavelength observations. The Pole's high altitude of 2.8  km (2,800  m ; 1.7  mi ; 9,200  ft ) above sea level means the atmosphere is thin, and the extreme cold keeps the amount of water vapor in

966-464: The Milky Way . The central black hole of the Phoenix Cluster is the engine that drives both the Seyfert nucleus of Phoenix A, as well as the relativistic jets that produce the inner cavities in the cluster center. M. Brockamp and colleagues had used a modelling of the innermost stellar density of the central galaxy and the adiabatic process that fuels the growth of its central black hole to create

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1012-597: The OJ 287 system. Unambiguous dynamical evidence for SMBHs exists only in a handful of galaxies; these include the Milky Way , the Local Group galaxies M31 and M32 , and a few galaxies beyond the Local Group, e.g. NGC 4395 . In these galaxies, the mean square (or root mean square ) velocities of the stars or gas rises as ~1/r near the center, indicating a central point mass. In all other galaxies observed to date,

1058-439: The velocity dispersion of the stars in the bulges of those galaxies. This correlation, although based on just a handful of galaxies, suggests to many astronomers a strong connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself. Although SMBHs are currently theorized to exist in almost all massive galaxies, more massive black holes are rare; with only fewer than several dozen having been discovered to date. There

1104-504: The CMB and to make high-signal-to-noise maps of the projected matter density using reconstructions of the CMB lensing potential. The 1500-square-degree SPT-3G survey will be used to achieve multiple science goals, including unprecedented constraints on a background of primordial gravitational waves joint analysis of B-mode polarization with the BICEP Array , a unique sample of distant galaxy clusters for cosmological and cluster evolution studies, and constraints on fundamental physics such as

1150-547: The National Institute of Standards and Technology. The 90 GHz pixels were individually packaged dual-polarization absorber-coupled polarimeters developed at Argonne National Laboratory. The 90 GHz pixels were coupled to the telescope optics through individually machined contoured feedhorns. The first year of SPTpol observing was used to survey a 100-square-degree field centered at R.A. 23h30m declination −55d. The next four years were primarily spent surveying

1196-430: The SPT. Taking advantage of a combination of improvements to the optical system (providing a significantly larger diffraction-limited field of view) and new detector technology (enabling detectors in multiple observing bands in a single pixel), the SPT-3G detector array contains over ten times more sensors than SPTpol, translating almost directly into a tenfold increase in the speed with which the telescope and camera can map

1242-934: The SPTpol and SPT-3G instruments and operations are also provided by the United States Department of Energy Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. On February 16, 2007 (17 years ago)  ( 2007-02-16 ) , the South Pole Telescope achieved first light. Formal science observations began in March 2007. Commissioning observations and an initial small survey were completed during austral winter 2007 with winter-overs Stephen Padin and Zak Staniszewski at its helm. In 2008, larger survey fields were completed with winter-overs Keith Vanderlinde and Dana Hrubes, and in 2009 with winter-overs Erik Shirokoff and Ross Williamson. In December 2009,

1288-423: The SPTpol camera was used to make several groundbreaking measurements, including the first detection of the so-called "B-mode" or "curl" component of the polarized CMB. This B-mode signal is generated at small angular scales by the gravitational lensing of the much larger primordial "E-mode" polarization signal (generated by scalar density perturbations at the time the CMB was emitted) and at large angular scales by

1334-451: The aforementioned M–sigma relation have not yet been well established. Most of the time, the masses derived from the given methods contradict each other's values. This list contains supermassive black holes with known masses, determined at least to the order of magnitude. Some objects in this list have two citations, like 3C 273; one from Bradley M. Peterson et al. using the BLRM method, and

1380-403: The air low. This is particularly important for observing at millimeter wavelengths, where incoming signals can be absorbed by water vapor , and where water vapor emits radiation that can be confused with astronomical signals. Since the sun does not rise and set daily, the atmosphere at the pole is particularly stable. In addition, no interference exists from the sun in the millimeter range during

1426-419: The camera was upgraded again for the 2010 observing season. The full 2500 square-degree SPT-SZ survey was completed during the 2010 and 2011 observing seasons with winter-overs Dana Hrubes and Daniel Luong-Van. First light (the first observation) with the SPTpol camera was achieved on January 27, 2012. During the first season of observations, the winterover crew, Cynthia Chiang and Nicholas Huang, took data on

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1472-420: The clusters, this survey will place interesting constraints on the dark energy equation of state. Data from the SPT-SZ survey have also been used to make the most sensitive existing measurements of the CMB power spectrum at angular scales smaller than roughly 5 arcminutes (multipole number larger than 2000) and to discover a population of distant, gravitationally lensed dusty, star-forming galaxies. Data from

1518-581: The focal plane. The SPT collaboration is made up of over a dozen (mostly North American) institutions, including the University of Chicago , the University of California, Berkeley , Case Western Reserve University , Harvard / Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory , the University of Colorado Boulder , McGill University , Michigan State University , The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , University of California, Davis , Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich , Argonne National Laboratory , and

1564-402: The interaction of the CMB with a background of gravitational waves produced during the epoch of inflation. Measurements of the large-scale B-mode signal have the potential to constrain the energy scale of inflation, thus probing the physics of the universe at the earliest times and highest energy scales imaginable, but these measurements are limited by contamination from the lensing B modes. Using

1610-452: The larger E-mode component of the polarization and measurements of the CMB lensing potential, an estimate can be made of the lensing B modes and used to clean the large-scale measurements. This B-mode delensing was first demonstrated using SPTpol data. SPTpol data also has been used to make the most precise measurements of the E-mode power spectrum and temperature-E-mode correlation spectrum of

1656-723: The mass of the neutrinos and the existence of light relic particles in the early Universe. The Atacama Cosmology Telescope has similar, but complementary, science objectives. The South Pole Telescope is funded through the National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs and the United States Department of Energy , with additional support from the Kavli Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation . Funding for

1702-416: The months of polar night . The telescope is a 10-meter (394 in) diameter off-axis Gregorian telescope in an altazimuth mount (at the poles, an altazimuth mount is effectively identical to an equatorial mount ). It was designed to allow a large field of view (over 1 square degree) while minimizing systematic uncertainties from ground spill-over and scattering off the telescope optics. The surface of

1748-781: The other from Charles Nelson using [O III ]λ5007 value and velocity dispersion. Note that this list is very far from complete, as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) alone detected 200 000 quasars , which likely may be the homes of billion-solar-mass black holes. In addition, there are several hundred citations for black hole measurements not yet included on this list. Despite this, the majority of well-known black holes above 1 billion M ☉ are shown. Messier galaxies with precisely known black holes are all included. New discoveries suggest that many black holes, dubbed 'stupendously large', may exceed 100 billion or even 1 trillion  M ☉ . Due to

1794-491: The polarization of the incoming light (hence the name SPTpol – South Pole Telescope POLarimeter). The 780 polarization-sensitive pixels (each with two separate TES bolometers, one sensitive to each linear polarization) were divided between observing frequencies of 90 GHz and 150 GHz, and pixels at the two frequencies are designed with different detector architectures. The 150 GHz pixels were corrugated-feedhorn-coupled TES polarimeters fabricated in monolithic arrays at

1840-551: The properties of being a quasar and a type 2 Seyfert galaxy , which is powered by a central supermassive black hole . The galaxy has an uncertain morphology. Based on the "total" aperture at the K-band, Phoenix A has an angular diameter of 16.20 arcseconds, corresponding to a large isophotal diameter of 206.1 kiloparsecs (672,200 light-years ), making it one of the largest known galaxies discovered from Earth. Phoenix A also contains vast amounts of hot gas. More normal matter

1886-484: The rms velocities are flat, or even falling, toward the center, making it impossible to state with certainty that a supermassive black hole is present. Nevertheless, it is commonly accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The reason for this assumption is the M–sigma relation , a tight (low scatter ) relation between the mass of the hole in the ~10 galaxies with secure detections, and

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1932-592: The survey. A bright, type-2 Seyfert galaxy has also been pronounced lying 19 arcseconds from the apparent center of the cluster that has been identified as 2MASX J23444387-4243124 , which would later be named Phoenix A, the cluster's central galaxy. Owing to its extreme properties, the Phoenix Cluster has been extensively studied and is considered one of the most important class of objects of its type. A multiwavelength observational study by M. McDonald and colleagues show that it has an extremely strong cooling flow rate (roughly 3,280 M ☉ per annum), described as

1978-475: The telescope mirror is smooth down to roughly 25 micrometres (0.025  mm ; 0.98 thou ), or about one-thousandth of an inch (i.e., one thou ), which allows sub-millimeter wavelength observations. A key advantage of the SPT observing strategy is that the entire telescope is scanned, so the beam does not move relative to the telescope mirrors. The fast scanning of the telescope and its large field of view makes SPT efficient at surveying large areas of sky, which

2024-451: The theoretical limitations. These models, as suggested by the paper, are indicative of a central black hole with estimated mass on the order of 100 billion M ☉ , possibly even exceeding this mass, though the black hole's mass itself has not yet been measured through orbital mechanics. Such a high mass makes it potentially one of the most massive black holes known in the observable universe . A black hole of this mass has: Such

2070-433: The very large numbers involved, the listed black holes have their mass values in scientific notation (numbers multiplied to powers of 10). Values with uncertainties are written in parentheses when possible. Note that different entries in this list have different methods and systematics in obtaining their mass values, and hence different levels of confidence in their masses. These methods are specified in their notes. The limit

2116-451: Was used primarily to conduct a survey of 2500 square degrees of the Southern sky (20h to 7h in right ascension, −65d to −40d declination) to a noise level of roughly 15 micro-Kelvin in a 1-arcminute pixel at 150 GHz. The second camera installed on the SPT–also designed with superconducting TES arrays–was even more sensitive than the SPT-SZ camera and, crucially, had the ability to measure

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