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94-597: Pig War may refer to the following conflicts: Saukrieg ("Pig War") 1555–58 feud between the Bishop of Meissen and the family of his predecessor Pig War (1859) , a largely bloodless border confrontation between the United States and the British Colony of Vancouver Island Pork war of 1880s, European nations embargo of US pork export Pig War (1906–1908) ,

188-723: A civil war from 1618 to 1648 brought tremendous destruction to the Holy Roman Empire. The estates of the empire attained great autonomy in the Peace of Westphalia , the most important being Austria , Prussia , Bavaria and Saxony . With the Napoleonic Wars , feudalism fell away and the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806. Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine as a German puppet state, but after

282-791: A large Roman force in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . Consequently, Rome resolved to permanently establish the Rhine/Danube border and refrain from further territorial advance into Germania. By AD 100 the frontier along the Rhine and the Danube and the Limes Germanicus was firmly established. Several Germanic tribes lived under Roman rule south and west of the border, as described in Tacitus 's Germania . Austria formed

376-462: A limited degree of political autonomy. Beginning with an agreement of the cities of Lübeck and Hamburg , guilds cooperated in order to strengthen and combine their economic assets, like securing trading routes and tax privileges, to control prices and better protect and market their local commodities. Important centers of commerce within the empire, such as Cologne on the Rhine river and Bremen on

470-590: A military contingent across and into the territories of the local Germanic tribes. After several days and having made no contact with Germanic troops (who had retreated inland) Caesar returned to the west of the river. By 60 BC, the Suebi tribe under chieftain Ariovistus , had conquered lands of the Gallic Aedui tribe to the west of the Rhine. Consequent plans to populate the region with Germanic settlers from

564-693: A naval arms race . Germany led the Central Powers in World War I , but was defeated, partly occupied, forced to pay war reparations , and stripped of its colonies and significant territory along its borders. The German Revolution of 1918–1919 ended the German Empire with the abdication of Wilhelm II in 1918 and established the Weimar Republic , an ultimately unstable parliamentary democracy. In January 1933, Adolf Hitler , leader of

658-667: A solid economy, the order steadily expanded the Teutonic state during the following 150 years, engaging in several land disputes with its neighbors. Permanent conflicts with the Kingdom of Poland , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , and the Novgorod Republic , eventually led to military defeat and containment by the mid-15th century. The last Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg converted to Lutheranism in 1525 and turned

752-527: A still rebellious Gaul. Forts and commercial centers were established along the rivers. Some tribes, such as the Ubii consequently allied with Rome and readily adopted advanced Roman culture. During the 1st century CE Roman legions conducted extended campaigns into Germania magna , the area north of the Upper Danube and east of the Rhine, attempting to subdue the various tribes. Roman ideas of administration,

846-680: A trade war between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Kingdom of Serbia The Pig War (poem) , a Latin poem " The Pig War ," an episode of Hey, Arnold! loosely inspired by the American-British war on Vancouver Island See also [ edit ] [REDACTED] Search for "Pig War" on Misplaced Pages. All pages with titles beginning with Pig War All pages with titles containing Pig War War pigs (disambiguation) Topics referred to by

940-796: A tribal confederacy in the Middle Rhine-Weser region, among the territory soon to be called Austrasia (the "eastern land"), the northeastern portion of the future Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks . As a whole, Austrasia comprised parts of present-day France , Germany , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . Unlike the Alamanni to their south in Swabia , they absorbed large swaths of former Roman territory as they spread west into Gaul , beginning in 250. Clovis I of

1034-509: A well known pilgrimage destination . By 1288 the city had secured its independence from the archbishop (who relocated to Bonn), and was ruled by its burghers . Benedictine abbess Hildegard von Bingen wrote several influential theological, botanical, and medicinal texts, as well as letters, liturgical songs, poems, and arguably the oldest surviving morality play , Ordo Virtutum , while supervising brilliant miniature Illuminations . About 100 years later, Walther von der Vogelweide became

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1128-433: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Saukrieg In 1555 the brother of John of Carlowitz, Nicolas II of Carlowitz , Bishop of Meißen, died. He was succeeded by Bishop John IX of Haugwitz. Because of the bishop's inheritance, a dispute arose between him and the dead brother's sons, in particular John of Carlowitz and Zuschendorf. The Carlowitzes feuded with

1222-711: Is obvious that a steady process" occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age , or at the latest during the Pre-Roman Iron Age (Jastorf culture). From their homes in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany the tribes began expanding south, east and west during the 1st century BC, and came into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul , as well as with Iranic , Baltic , and Slavic cultures in Central / Eastern Europe . Factual and detailed knowledge about

1316-642: The limes and the Danube frontier. Several large tribes – the Visigoths , Ostrogoths , Vandals , Burgundians , Lombards , Saxons and Franks – migrated and played their part in the decline of the Roman Empire and the transformation of the old Western Roman Empire . By the end of the 4th century the Huns invaded eastern and central Europe, establishing the Hunnic Empire . The event triggered

1410-572: The Aurignacian culture. Between 12,900 and 11,700 years ago, north-central Germany was part of the Ahrensburg culture (named for Ahrensburg ). The first groups of early farmers different from the indigenous hunter-gatherers to migrate into Europe came from a population in western Anatolia at the beginning of the Neolithic period between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. Central Germany

1504-568: The Battle of Legnano in 1176. The following year a reconciliation was reached between the emperor and Pope Alexander III in the Treaty of Venice . The 1183 Peace of Constance eventually settled that the Italian cities remained loyal to the empire but were granted local jurisdiction and full regal rights in their territories. In 1180, Henry the Lion was outlawed, Saxony was divided, and Bavaria

1598-858: The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ( AD 9) prevented annexation by the Roman Empire , although the Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior were established along the Rhine . Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire , the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes . When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charles the Great 's heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia . In 962, Otto I became

1692-748: The Golden Bull stipulated that all future emperors were to be chosen by a college of only seven – four secular and three clerical – electors. The secular electors were the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony , and the Margrave of Brandenburg , the clerical electors were the Archbishops of Mainz , Trier , and Cologne . Between 1347 and 1351 Germany and almost

1786-738: The Guelph party. However, the Margraviate of Austria was separated from Bavaria and turned into the independent Duchy of Austria by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Having become wealthy through trade, the confident cities of Northern Italy, supported by the Pope, increasingly opposed Barbarossa's claim of feudal rule (Honor Imperii) over Italy. The cities united in the Lombard League and finally defeated Barbarossa in

1880-625: The Investiture Controversy . In 1122, a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the Concordat of Worms . With the conclusion of the dispute the Roman church and the papacy regained supreme control over all religious affairs. Consequently, the imperial Ottonian church system ( Reichskirche ) declined. It also ended the royal/imperial tradition of appointing selected powerful clerical leaders to counter

1974-642: The Lombards , who posed a permanent threat to the Holy See. Pressed by Liutprand, King of the Lombards , a Papal envoy for help had already been sent to the de facto ruler Charles Martel after his victory in 732 over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate at the Battle of Tours , however a lasting and mutually beneficial alliance would only materialize after Charles' death under his successor Duke of

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2068-803: The Merovingian dynasty conquered northern Gaul in 486 and in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 the Alemanni tribe in Swabia , which eventually became the Duchy of Swabia . By 500, Clovis had united all the Frankish tribes, ruled all of Gaul and was proclaimed King of the Franks between 509 and 511. Clovis, unlike most Germanic rulers of the time, was baptized directly into Roman Catholicism instead of Arianism . His successors would cooperate closely with papal missionaries, among them Saint Boniface . After

2162-759: The Migration Period . Hunnic hegemony over a vast territory in central and eastern Europe lasted until the death of Attila 's son Dengizich in 469. Another pivotal moment in the Migration Period was the Crossing of the Rhine in December of 406 by a large group of tribes including Vandals , Alans and Suebi who settled permanently within the crumbling Western Roman Empire. Stem duchies ( German : Stammesherzogtümer ) in Germany refer to

2256-644: The Nazi Party , used the economic hardships of the Great Depression along with popular resentment over the terms imposed on Germany at the end of World War I to establish a totalitarian regime. This Nazi Germany made racism, especially antisemitism , a central tenet of its policies, and became increasingly aggressive with its territorial demands, threatening war if they were not met. Germany quickly remilitarized, annexed its German-speaking neighbors and invaded Poland , triggering World War II . During

2350-535: The North Sea joined the union, which resulted in greater diplomatic esteem. Recognized by the various regional princes for the great economic potential, favorable charters for, often exclusive, commercial operations were granted. During its zenith the alliance maintained trading posts and kontors in virtually all cities between London and Edinburgh in the west to Novgorod in the east and Bergen in Norway. By

2444-464: The Rhine river placed it at the intersection of the major trade routes between east and west and was the basis of Cologne's growth. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were characterized by the city's status as a major harbor and transport hub upon the Rhine. It was the seat of an archbishop, under whose patronage the vast Cologne Cathedral was built since 1240. The cathedral houses sacred Christian relics and it has since become

2538-533: The Saale and Elbe rivers, such as modern Poland and Silesia and to the south into Bohemia , modern Hungary and Romania during the High Middle Ages from the 11th to the 14th century. The primary purpose of the early imperial military campaigns into the lands to the east during the 10th and 11th century, was to punish and subjugate the local heathen tribes. Conquered territories were mostly lost after

2632-647: The Teutonic Knights launched the Prussian Crusade . The campaign, that was supported by the forces of Polish duke Konrad I of Masovia , initially intended to Christianize the Baltic Old Prussians , succeeded primarily in the conquest of large territories. The order, emboldened by imperial approval , quickly resolved to establish an independent state , without the consent of duke Konrad. Recognizing only papal authority and based on

2726-728: The Transylvanian Saxons in the medieval Hungarian Kingdom (today in Romania) who were called on by Geza II to repopulate the area as part of the Ostsiedlung , having arrived there and founding the city in 1147 [Saxons called these parts of Transylvania "Altland" to distinguish them from later immigrant Saxon settlements established in about 1220 by the Teutonic Order]. In 1230, the Catholic monastic order of

2820-872: The Welfs or Guelphs (in Italian) supported the House of Welf of Henry the Proud, which was the ruling dynasty in the Duchy of Bavaria. The rival faction of the Waiblings or Ghibellines (in Italian) pledged allegiance to the Swabian House of Hohenstaufen. During this early period, the Welfs generally maintained ecclesiastical independence under the papacy and political particularism (the focus on ducal interests against

2914-443: The municipal legal system . Cities such as Cologne , that had acquired the status of Imperial Free Cities , were no longer answerable to the local landlords or bishops, but immediate subjects of the Emperor and enjoyed greater commercial and legal liberties. The towns were ruled by a council of the – usually mercantile – elite, the patricians . Craftsmen formed guilds , governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of

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3008-415: The Carolingian empire to be partitioned into three parts by the Treaty of Verdun of 843. Louis the German received the Eastern portion of the kingdom, East Francia , all lands east of the Rhine river and to the north of Italy. This encompassed the territories of the German stem duchies – Franks, Saxons, Swabians , and Bavarians – that were united in a federation under the first non-Frankish king Henry

3102-406: The Celts are related to the Urnfield culture remains disputed. However, Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age ( c.  1200 BC until 700 BC). Some, like the Heuneburg , the oldest city north of the Alps, grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the Mediterranean . In the 5th century BC

3196-405: The Danes, the Saxons and the Visigoths. King Chlothar I (558 to 561) ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and undertook military expeditions into Saxony , while the South-east of what is modern Germany remained under the influence of the Ostrogoths . Saxons controlled the area from the northern sea board to the Harz Mountains and the Eichsfeld in the south. The Merovingians placed

3290-485: The Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, as expressed in the scholastic philosophy of Albertus Magnus and the literature of Wolfram von Eschenbach . Between 1212 and 1250, Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state from his base in Sicily . He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy . In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to

3384-418: The Emperor. This precipitated the "Crisis of 1111" as yet another chapter of the long-term Investiture Controversy . In 1137, the prince-electors turned back to the Hohenstaufen family for a candidate, Conrad III . Conrad tried to divest his rival Henry the Proud of his two duchies— Bavaria and Saxony —that led to war in southern Germany as the empire was divided into two powerful factions. The faction of

3478-531: The Fowler , who ruled from 919 to 936. The royal court permanently moved in between a series of strongholds, called Kaiserpfalzen , that developed into economic and cultural centers. Aachen Palace played a central role, as the local Palatine Chapel served as the official site for all royal coronation ceremonies during the entire Medieval period until 1531. In 936, Otto I was crowned German king at Aachen , in 961 King of Italy in Pavia and crowned emperor by Pope John XII in Rome in 962. The tradition of

3572-411: The Franks from 774 to 814) launched a decades-long military campaign against the Franks' heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars . The campaigns and insurrections of the Saxon Wars lasted from 772 to 804. The Franks eventually overwhelmed the Saxons and Avars, forcibly converted the people to Christianity , and annexed their lands to the Carolingian Empire . After the death of Frankish king Pepin

3666-407: The Franks, Pepin the Short. In 751 Pippin III , Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. Pope Stephen II bestowed him the hereditary title of Patricius Romanorum as protector of Rome and St. Peter in response to the Donation of Pepin , that guaranteed the sovereignty of the Papal States . Charles the Great (who ruled

3760-459: The French defeat, the German Confederation was established under Austrian presidency. The German revolutions of 1848–1849 failed but the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, leading to rapid urban growth and the emergence of the socialist movement . Prussia, with its capital Berlin , grew in power. German universities became world-class centers for science and humanities, while music and art flourished. The unification of Germany

3854-400: The German Emperors resisted Catholic Church authority. In the Late Middle Ages , the regional dukes, princes, and bishops gained power at the expense of the emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation within the Catholic Church after 1517, as the northern and eastern states became Protestant, while most of the southern and western states remained Catholic. The Thirty Years' War ,

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3948-419: The German King as protector of the Kingdom of Italy and the Latin Church resulted in the term Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century. The name, that was to identify with Germany continued to be used officially, with the extension added: Nationis Germanicæ (of the German nation) after the last imperial coronation in Rome in 1452 until its dissolution in 1806. Otto strengthened the royal authority by re-asserting

4042-436: The German territories range around 5 to 6 million by the end of Henry III's reign in 1056 and about 7 to 8 million after Friedrich Barbarossa's rule in 1190. The vast majority were farmers, typically in a state of serfdom under feudal lords and monasteries. Towns gradually emerged and in the 12th century many new cities were founded along the trading routes and near imperial strongholds and castles. The towns were subjected to

4136-433: The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – Pyrene , that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), Germanic peoples (Germanic tribes) from southern Scandinavia and northern Germany expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe. The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes remains debated. However, for author Averil Cameron "it

4230-566: The Imperial secular princes. Between 1095 and 1291 the various campaigns of the crusades to the Holy Land took place. Knightly religious orders were established, including the Knights Templar , the Knights of St John ( Knights Hospitaller ), and the Teutonic Order . The term sacrum imperium (Holy Empire) was first used officially by Friedrich I in 1157, but the words Sacrum Romanum Imperium , Holy Roman Empire, were only combined in July 1180 and would never consistently appear on official documents from 1254 onwards. The Hanseatic League

4324-432: The Middle Ages, with Christian religious structures such as the Aula Palatina of Trier built during the reign of Constantine I ( r.  306–337 ). Rome's Third Century Crisis coincided with the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: the Alamanni , Franks , Bavarii , Chatti , Saxons , Frisii , Sicambri , and Thuringii . By the 3rd century the Germanic speaking peoples began to migrate beyond

4418-435: The Pope reached its peak. However, Rome reacted with the creation of the College of Cardinals and Pope Gregory VII 's series of clerical reforms . Pope Gregory insisted in his Dictatus Papae on absolute papal authority over appointments to ecclesiastical offices. The subsequent conflict in which emperor Henry IV was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been excommunicated came to be known as

4512-415: The Saxons in support of the Neustrians . In 743 his son Carloman in his role as Mayor of the Palace renewed the war against the Saxons, who had allied with and aided the duke Odilo of Bavaria . The Catholic Franks, who by 750 controlled a vast territory in Gaul, north-western Germany, Swabia, Burgundy and western Switzerland , that included the alpine passes allied with the Curia in Rome against

4606-448: The Short in 768, his oldest son " Charlemagne " ("Charles the Great") consolidated his power over and expanded the Kingdom . Charlemagne ended 200 years of Royal Lombard rule with the Siege of Pavia , and in 774 he installed himself as King of the Lombards . Loyal Frankish nobles replaced the old Lombard aristocracy following a rebellion in 776. The next 30 years of his reign were spent ruthlessly strengthening his power in Francia and on

4700-462: The Urnfield culture of central Europe. The Hallstatt culture , which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early Iron Age (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the La Tène culture (5th to 1st centuries BC). The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts . How and if

4794-437: The abbots and bishops he appointed, Otto actually turned these bishops into "princes of the Empire" ( Reichsfürsten ). In this way, Otto was able to establish a national church. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained with the decisive defeat of the Hungarian Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers were also subjugated. Otto marched on Rome and drove John XII from

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4888-546: The borderlands into hereditary fiefs and install a civilian administration. There is no discernible chronology of the immigration process as it took place in many individual efforts and stages, often even encouraged by the Slavic regional lords. However, the new communities were subjected to German law and customs. Total numbers of settlers were generally rather low and, depending on who held a numerical majority, populations usually assimilated into each other. In many regions only enclaves would persist, like Hermannstadt , founded by

4982-400: The central imperial authority). The Waiblings, on the other hand, championed strict control of the church and a strong central imperial government. During the reign of the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), an accommodation was reached in 1156 between the two factions. The Duchy of Bavaria was returned to Henry the Proud's son Henry the Lion , duke of Saxony , who represented

5076-402: The conquest of the Slavs and Pannonian Avars in the east and all tribes , such as the Saxons and the Bavarians . On Christmas Day , 800 AD, Charlemagne was crowned Imperator Romanorum (Emperor of the Romans) in Rome by Pope Leo III . Fighting among Charlemagne's three grandsons over the continuation of the custom of partible inheritance or the introduction of primogeniture caused

5170-430: The custom of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns , which were then buried in fields. The first usage of the name occurred in publications over grave sites in southern Germany in the late 19th century. Over much of Europe, the Urnfield culture followed the Tumulus culture and was succeeded by the Hallstatt culture . The Italic peoples , including the Latins , from which the Romans emerged, come from

5264-432: The death of Clovis in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom including Austrasia . Authority over Austrasia passed back and forth from autonomy to royal subjugation, as successive Merovingian kings alternately united and subdivided the Frankish lands. During the 5th and 6th centuries the Merovingian kings conquered the Thuringii (531 to 532), the Kingdom of the Burgundians and the principality of Metz and defeated

5358-419: The downfall of the Burgraviate of Dohna . This German history article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . History of Germany The concept of Germany as a distinct region in Central Europe can be traced to Julius Caesar , who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania , thus distinguishing it from Gaul . The victory of the Germanic tribes in

5452-604: The earliest apes to walk on two legs prior to other species and genera such as Australopithecus . The discovery of the Homo heidelbergensis mandible in 1907 affirms archaic human presence in Germany by at least 600,000 years ago, so stone tools were dated as far back as 1.33 million years ago. The oldest complete set of hunting weapons ever found anywhere in the world was excavated from a coal mine in Schöningen , Lower Saxony . Between 1994 and 1998, eight 380,000-year-old wooden javelins between 1.82 and 2.25 m (5.97 and 7.38 ft) in length were eventually unearthed. One of

5546-524: The early 2010s, Germany played a critical role in trying to resolve the escalating euro crisis, especially concerning Greece and other Southern European nations. In 2015, Germany faced the European migrant crisis as the main receiver of asylum seekers from Syria and other troubled regions. Germany opposed Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine and decided to strengthen its armed forces . Pre-human apes such as Danuvius guggenmosi , who were present in Germany over 11 million years ago, are theorized to be among

5640-424: The early history of the Germanic tribes is rare. Researchers have to be content with the recordings of the tribes' affairs with the Romans , linguistic conclusions, archaeological discoveries and the rather new yet auspicious results of archaeogenetic study. In the mid-1st century BC, Republican Roman statesman Julius Caesar erected the first known bridges across the Rhine during his campaign in Gaul and led

5734-424: The east were vehemently opposed by Caesar, who had already launched his ambitious campaign to subjugate all Gaul. Julius Caesar defeated the Suebi forces in 58 BC in the Battle of Vosges and forced Ariovistus to retreat across the Rhine. Augustus , first Roman emperor , considered conquest beyond the Rhine and the Danube not only regular foreign policy but also necessary to counter Germanic incursions into

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5828-464: The entire European continent were consumed by the most severe outbreak of the Black Death pandemic . Estimated to have caused the abrupt death of 30 to 60% of Europe's population, it led to widespread social and economic disruption and deep religious disaffection and fanaticism. Minority groups, and Jews in particular were blamed, singled out and attacked . As a consequence, many Jews fled and resettled in Eastern Europe. Total population estimates of

5922-490: The fertile plains of Central Europe during the Late Neolithic were of Indo-European ancestry. The Indo-Europeans had, via mass-migration, arrived into the heartland of Europe around 4,500 years ago. By the late Bronze Age , the Urnfield culture ( c.  1300 BC  – c.  750 BC ) had replaced the Bell Beaker , Unetice and Tumulus cultures in central Europe, whilst the Nordic Bronze Age had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The name comes from

6016-429: The first Holy Roman Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , the medieval German state. During the High Middle Ages , the Hanseatic League , dominated by German port cities, established itself along the Baltic and North Seas . The growth of a crusading element within German Christendom led to the State of the Teutonic Order along the Baltic coast in what would later become Prussia . In the Investiture Controversy ,

6110-417: The heart of the future Prussia ), and the Billung March . In the south, the marches included Carniola , Styria , and the March of Austria that would become Austria . The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 with the deposition of Romulus Augustus by the Germanic foederati leader Odoacer , who became the first King of Italy . Afterwards, the Franks, like other post-Roman Western Europeans, emerged as

6204-427: The imposition of taxes and a legal framework were frustrated by the total absence of an infrastructure. Germanicus 's campaigns , for example, were almost exclusively characterized by frequent massacres of villagers and indiscriminate pillaging. The tribes, however maintained their elusive identities. A coalition of tribes under the Cherusci chieftain Arminius , who was familiar with Roman tactical doctrines, defeated

6298-421: The late 14th century the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. This culminated in a war with the sovereign Kingdom of Denmark from 1361 to 1370. Principal city of the Hanseatic League remained Lübeck, where in 1356 the first general diet was held and its official structure was announced. The league declined after 1450 due to a number of factors, such as the 15th-century crisis ,

6392-408: The new bishop and hunted him out of his residenz at Stolpen . A small body of armed men invaded the villages around Stolpen and Wurzen and caused considerable damage. According to tradition, 700 pasturing swine were alleged to have been driven off. In 1558, because there was no longer anywhere in his estate where the bishop was safe, he had to flee from his enemy to Prague . Finally the dispute

6486-421: The old Carolingian rights over ecclesiastical appointments. Otto wrested from the nobles the powers of appointment of the bishops and abbots, who controlled large land holdings. Additionally, Otto revived the old Carolingian program of appointing missionaries in the border lands. Otto continued to support celibacy for the higher clergy, so ecclesiastical appointments never became hereditary. By granting lands to

6580-502: The oldest buildings in the world and one of the oldest pieces of art was found in Bilzingsleben . In 1856, the fossilized bones of an extinct human species were salvaged from a limestone grotto in the Neander valley near Düsseldorf , North Rhine-Westphalia . The archaic nature of the fossils, now known to be around 40,000 years old, was recognized and the characteristics published in the first-ever paleoanthropologic species description in 1858 by Hermann Schaaffhausen . The species

6674-435: The oldest uncontested works of art and several flutes, made of bird bone and mammoth ivory that are confirmed to be the oldest musical instruments ever found. The 41,000-year-old Löwenmensch figurine represents the oldest uncontested figurative work of art and the 40,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels has been asserted as the oldest uncontested object of human figurative art ever discovered. These artefacts are attributed to

6768-580: The papacy led to the 1338 Declaration at Rhense by six princes of the Imperial Estate to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. As result, the monarch was no longer subject to papal approbation and became increasingly dependent on the favour of the electors. Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg , king of Bohemia, sought to restore imperial authority. The 1356 decree of

6862-433: The papal throne and for years controlled the election of the pope, setting a firm precedent for imperial control of the papacy for years to come. Otto I was followed on the throne by his son Otto II (955–983), emperor 973–983, Otto II’s wife Theophanu (955–991), regent 983–991, his own wife Adelaide of Italy (931–999), regent 991–995, and his grandson Otto III (980–1002), emperor 996–1002. Otto III died childless and

6956-458: The regular provinces of Noricum and Raetia . The provinces Germania Inferior (with the capital situated at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium , modern Cologne ) and Germania Superior (with its capital at Mogontiacum , modern Mainz ), were formally established in 85 AD, after long campaigns as lasting military control was confined to the lands surrounding the rivers. Christianity was introduced to Roman controlled western Germania before

7050-551: The remaining lands of the order into the secular Duchy of Prussia . Henry V , great-grandson of Conrad II, who had overthrown his father Henry IV became Holy Roman Emperor in 1111. Hoping to gain greater control over the church inside the Empire, Henry V appointed Adalbert of Saarbrücken as the powerful archbishop of Mainz in the same year. Adalbert began to assert the powers of the Church against secular authorities, that is,

7144-504: The rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor (1250–1273). This interregnum came to an end with the election of a small Swabian count, Rudolf of Habsburg, as emperor. The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV and

7238-411: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Pig War . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pig_War&oldid=1250618813 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

7332-566: The stem duchies as the major divisions of Germany, but they became increasingly obsolete during the early high-medieval period under the Hohenstaufen , and Frederick Barbarossa finally abolished them in 1180 in favour of more numerous territorial duchies. Successive kings of Germany founded a series of border counties or marches in the east and the north. These included Lusatia , the North March (which would become Brandenburg and

7426-403: The territorial lords' shifting policies towards greater commercial control, the silver crisis and marginalization in the wider Eurasian trade network, among others. The Ostsiedlung (lit. Eastern settlement) is the term for a process of largely uncoordinated immigration and chartering of settlement structures by ethnic Germans into territories, already inhabited by Slavs and Balts east of

7520-465: The towns; a few were open to women. Society had diversified, but was divided into sharply demarcated classes of the clergy , physicians , merchants , various guilds of artisans, unskilled day labourers and peasants . Full citizenship was not available to paupers . Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, and market supervision, as well as the limits of corporate autonomy. Cologne's central location on

7614-567: The traditional territory of the various Germanic tribes. The concept of such duchies survived especially in the areas which by the 9th century would constitute East Francia , which included the Duchy of Bavaria , the Duchy of Swabia , the Duchy of Saxony , the Duchy of Franconia and the Duchy of Thuringia , unlike further west the County of Burgundy or Lorraine in Middle Francia . The Salian emperors (reigned 1027–1125) retained

7708-479: The troops had retreated, but eventually were incorporated into the empire as marches , fortified borderlands with garrisoned troops in strongholds and castles, who were to ensure military control and enforce the exaction of tributes. Contemporary sources do not support the idea of policies or plans for the organized settlement of civilians. Emperor Lothair II re-established feudal sovereignty over Poland, Denmark and Bohemia from 1135 and appointed margraves to turn

7802-492: The various regions of their Frankish Empire under the control of semi-autonomous dukes – either Franks or local rulers, and followed imperial Roman strategic traditions of social and political integration of the newly conquered territories. While allowed to preserve their own legal systems, the conquered Germanic tribes were pressured to abandon the Arian Christian faith. In 718 Charles Martel waged war against

7896-687: The victorious powers and in the east annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union. Germany spent the entirety of the Cold War era divided into the NATO -aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact -aligned East Germany . Germans also fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion , and became the dominant economy in Western Europe. In 1989, the Berlin Wall

7990-812: The war, the Nazis established a systematic genocide program known as the Holocaust which killed 17 million people, including 6 million Jews (representing 2/3rds of the European Jewish population). By 1944, the German Army was pushed back on all fronts until finally collapsing in May 1945. Under occupation by the Allies , denazification efforts took place, large populations under former German-occupied territories were displaced, German territories were split up by

8084-549: Was opened , the Eastern Bloc collapsed, and East and West Germany were reunited in 1990. The Franco-German friendship became the basis for the political integration of Western Europe in the European Union . In 1998–1999, Germany was one of the founding countries of the eurozone . Germany remains one of the economic powerhouses of Europe, contributing about 1/4 of the eurozone's annual gross domestic product . In

8178-589: Was a commercial and defensive alliance of the merchant guilds of towns and cities in northern and central Europe that dominated marine trade in the Baltic Sea , the North Sea and along the connected navigable rivers during the Late Middle Ages ( 12th to 15th centuries ). Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities , had only

8272-745: Was achieved under the leadership of the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck with the formation of the German Empire in 1871. The new Reichstag , an elected parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific . By 1900, Germany was the dominant power on the European continent and its rapidly expanding industry had surpassed Britain 's while provoking it in

8366-656: Was given to Otto of Wittelsbach , who founded the Wittelsbach dynasty , which was to rule Bavaria until 1918. From 1184 to 1186, the empire under Frederick I Barbarossa reached its cultural peak with the Diet of Pentecost held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of Sicily . The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of ministerials (unfree servants of

8460-473: Was mediated by Prince-Elector Augustus . According to the settlement agreed, John of Carlowitz was reputedly given 4,000 gulden from the bishop for expenses incurred. With that, the last feud in Saxony came to an end. In St. Mary's Church, Dohna , is a tomb with a sculpture of the main instigator of this feud, the knight, Sir John of Carlowitz, whose noble line were vassals of the burgraves of Dohna until

8554-608: Was named Homo neanderthalensis , Neanderthal man in 1864. The oldest traces of homo sapiens in Germany were found in the cave Ilsenhöhle  [ de ] in Ranis , where up to 47,500-year-old remains were discovered, among the oldest in Europe. The remains of Paleolithic early modern human occupation uncovered and documented in several caves in the Swabian Jura include various mammoth ivory sculptures that rank among

8648-722: Was one of the primary areas of the Linear Pottery culture ( c.  5500 BC  – c.  4500 BC ), which was partially contemporary with the Ertebølle culture ( c.  5300 BC  – c.  3950 BC ) of Denmark and northern Germany. The construction of the Central European Neolithic circular enclosures falls in this time period with the best known and oldest being the Goseck circle , constructed c.  4900 BC . Afterwards, Germany

8742-514: Was part of the Rössen culture , Michelsberg culture and Funnelbeaker culture ( c.  4600 BC  – c.  2800 BC ). The oldest traces for the use of wheel and wagon ever found are located at a northern German Funnelbeaker culture site and date to around 3400 BC. The settlers of the Corded Ware culture ( c.  2900 BC  – c.  2350 BC ), that had spread all over

8836-720: Was succeeded by his second cousin Henry II , who likewise died childless as the last emperor of the Ottonian dynasty. Henry II was succeeded by Conrad II , a great-great-grandson of Otto I and the first emperor of the Salian dynasty . During the reign of Conrad II's son, Henry III (1039 to 1056), the empire supported the Cluniac reforms of the Church, the Peace of God , prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices), and required celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over

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