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121-474: In modern use, the term usually refers only to large-scale estates. Before about 1860, it was the usual term for a farm of any size in the southern parts of British North America , with, as Noah Webster noted, "farm" becoming the usual term from about Maryland northward. The enslavement of people was the norm in Maryland and states southward. The plantations there were forced-labor farms. The term "plantation"

242-492: A 2020 United Nations Environment Programme report found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their goals. For example, of the 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only six were "partially achieved" by 2020. This ongoing global extinction is also called the holocene extinction or sixth mass extinction. The current rate of global biodiversity loss

363-569: A base was established (initially at St. George's before the construction of the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda ) in 1794, when Vice-Admiral Sir George Murray , Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station , set up the first Admiralty House, Bermuda at Rose Hill, St. George's. In 1813, the area of command became the North America Station again, with

484-549: A decrease in biodiversity and species numbers . Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide. For example, habitat loss is one of the causes in the decline of insect populations (see the section below on insects ). The direct effects of urban growth on habitat loss are well understood: building construction often results in habitat destruction and fragmentation. This leads to selection for species that are adapted to urban environments. Small habitat patches cannot support

605-536: A high marginal product of labor realized through the increasing number of enslaved people. Plantings of the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) are usually called plantations. Oil palm agriculture rapidly expands across wet tropical regions and is usually developed at a plantation scale. Fruit orchards are sometimes considered to be plantations. These include tobacco , sugarcane , pineapple , bell pepper , and cotton , especially in historical usage. Before

726-508: A lack of natural regeneration. The tree species used in a plantation are also an important factor. Where non-native varieties or species are grown, few native faunas are adapted to exploit these, and further biodiversity loss occurs. However, even non-native tree species may serve as corridors for wildlife and act as a buffer for native forests, reducing edge effect . Once a plantation is established, managing it becomes an important environmental factor. The most critical aspect of management

847-410: A large role in biodiversity loss. More than half of the worlds biodiversity is hosted in tropical rainforest. Regions that are subjected to exponential loss of biodiversity are referred to as biodiversity hotspots . Since 1988 the hotspots increased from 10 to 34. Of the total 34 hotspots currently present, 16 of them are in tropical regions (as of 2006). Researchers have noted in 2006 that only 2.3% of

968-507: A natural forest is cleared for a planted forest, then a reduction in biodiversity and loss of habitat will likely result. In some cases, their establishment may involve draining wetlands to replace mixed hardwoods that formerly predominated with pine species. If a plantation is established on abandoned agricultural land or highly degraded land, it can increase both habitat and biodiversity. A planted forest can be profitably established on lands that will not support agriculture or suffer from

1089-800: A role. Freshwater ecosystems such as swamps, deltas, and rivers make up 1% of earth's surface. They are important because they are home to approximately one third of vertebrate species. Freshwater species are beginning to decline at twice the rate of species that live on land or in the ocean. This rapid loss has already placed 27% of 29,500 species dependent on fresh water on the IUCN Red List . Global populations of freshwater fish are collapsing due to water pollution and overfishing . Migratory fish populations have declined by 76% since 1970, and large "megafish" populations have fallen by 94% with 16 species declared extinct in 2020. Marine biodiversity encompasses any living organism that resides in

1210-667: A tool of environmental restoration . Sugar plantations were highly valued in the Caribbean by the British and French colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the use of sugar in Europe rose during this period. Sugarcane is still an important crop in Cuba. Sugar plantations also arose in countries such as Barbados and Cuba because of the natural endowments that they had. These natural endowments included soil conducive to growing sugar and

1331-469: Is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration . If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push

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1452-580: Is a major driver of biodiversity loss, with infrastructure present in roughly 80% of KBAs. Infrastructure development leads to conversion and fragmentation of natural habitat, pollution and disturbance. There can also be direct harm to animals through collisions with vehicles and structures. This can have impacts beyond the infrastructure site. Humans are changing the uses of land in various ways, and each can lead to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture

1573-428: Is another threat to global biodiversity . For example, coral reefs —which are biodiversity hotspots —will be lost by the year 2100 if global warming continues at the current rate. Still, it is the general habitat destruction (often for expansion of agriculture), not climate change, that is currently the bigger driver of biodiversity loss. Invasive species and other disturbances have become more common in forests in

1694-501: Is approximately 1,035.26 km (643 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina (with Cape Point on Hatteras Island being the nearest landfall); 1,236 km (768 mi) south of Cape Sable Island , Nova Scotia; 1,759 km (1,093 mi) northeast of Cuba , and 1,538 km (956 mi) due north of the British Virgin Islands . Although Bermudians , with close ties of blood and trade to

1815-558: Is believed to be seven times lower than its prehistoric values, while the biomass of marine mammals had declined fivefold. At the same time, the biomass of humans is "an order of magnitude higher than that of all wild mammals", and the biomass of livestock mammals like pigs and cattle is even larger than that. Even as wild mammals had declined, the growth in the numbers of humans and livestock had increased total mammal biomass fourfold. Only 4% of that increased number are wild mammals, while livestock and humans amount to 60% and 36%. Alongside

1936-658: Is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species. One study found that as seismic noises and naval sonar increases in marine ecosystems, cetacean diversity decreases (including whales and dolphins). Multiple studies have found that fewer fishes, such as cod , haddock , rockfish , herring , sand seal, and blue whiting , have been spotted in areas with seismic noises, with catch rates declining by 40–80%. Noise pollution has also altered avian communities and diversity. Noise can reduce reproductive success, minimize nesting areas, increase stress response, and reduce species abundance. Noise pollution can alter

2057-507: Is due to hunting and trapping for the exotic pet trade. Deforestation , caused by unsustainable logging and agriculture, could be the next extinction driver, because birds lose their habitat and their food. While plants are essential for human survival, they have not received the same attention as the conservation of animals. It is estimated that a third of all land plant species are at risk of extinction and 94% have yet to be evaluated in terms of their conservation status. Plants existing at

2178-654: Is estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than the (naturally occurring) background extinction rate , faster than at any other time in human history, and is expected to grow in the upcoming years. The fast-growing extinction trends of various animal groups like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish have led scientists to declare a current biodiversity crisis in both land and ocean ecosystems. In 2006, many more species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened ; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk that have not been formally recognized. Deforestation also plays

2299-793: Is now Maine in 1606, but this was quickly abandoned and Plymouth Company's territory was absorbed into the London Company's. Over the course of the 17th century , Virginia would come to refer only to the polity that is today the Commonwealth of Virginia on the East Coast of the United States of America , with later areas of settlement on the continent considered separate colonies under their own local administrations and all collectively designated as America (less often as North America ). The Kingdom of England (including

2420-580: Is often a matter of debate. An October 2020 analysis by Swiss Re found that one-fifth of all countries are at risk of ecosystem collapse as the result of anthropogenic habitat destruction and increased wildlife loss. If these losses are not reversed, a total ecosystem collapse could ensue. In 2022, the World Wildlife Fund reported an average population decline of 68% between 1970 and 2016 for 4,400 animal species worldwide, encompassing nearly 21,000 monitored populations. Insects are

2541-499: Is placed on marine ecosystems near coastal areas because of the human settlements in those areas. Overexploitation has resulted in the extinction of over 25 marine species. This includes seabirds , marine mammals , algae , and fish . Examples of extinct marine species include Steller's sea cow ( Hydrodamalis gigas ) and the Caribbean monk seal ( Monachus tropicalis ). Not all extinctions are because of humans. For example, in

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2662-725: Is the primary driver of biodiversity collapse. The UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook 2014 estimated that 70% of the projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity is caused by agriculture use. According to a 2005 publication, "Cultivated systems [...] cover 24% of Earth's surface". The publication defined cultivated areas as "areas in which at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture in any particular year". More than 17,000 species are at risk of losing habitat by 2050 as agriculture continues to expand to meet future food needs (as of 2020). A global shift toward largely plant-based diets would free up land to allow for

2783-644: Is the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem . It is usually measured as the number of individuals found per sample . The ratio of abundance of one species to one or multiple other species living in an ecosystem is called relative species abundance . Both indicators are relevant for computing biodiversity . There are many different biodiversity indexes . These investigate different scales and time spans. Biodiversity has various scales and subcategories (e.g. phylogenetic diversity , species diversity , genetic diversity , nucleotide diversity ). The question of net loss in confined regions

2904-420: Is the rotation period. Plantations harvested on more extended rotation periods (30 years or more) can provide similar benefits to a naturally regenerated forest managed for wood production on a similar rotation. This is especially true if native species are used. In the case of exotic species, the habitat can be improved significantly if the impact is mitigated by measures such as leaving blocks of native species in

3025-585: Is trying to take action and promote the restoration and maintenance of the many diverse species of earthworms. Since the 1980s, decreases in amphibian populations, including population decline and localized mass extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world. This type of biodiversity loss is known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity . The possible causes include habitat destruction and modification, diseases, exploitation, pollution , pesticide use, introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B). However, many of

3146-645: The American Civil War . The mild temperate climate , plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the Southeastern United States allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white elite . When Newfoundland was colonized by England in 1610, the original colonists were called "planters", and their fishing rooms were known as "fishing plantations". These terms were used well into

3267-544: The American Revolutionary War and confirmed the independence of Great Britain 's Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States of America . The terms British America and British North America continued to be used for Britain's remaining territories in North America, but the term British North America came to be used more consistently in connection with the provinces that would eventually form

3388-598: The Anglican Church of Bermuda ) and Newfoundland was attached to the See of Nova Scotia from 1825 to 1839 and from 1787 to 1839, respectively. From 1839, the island of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as well as Bermuda, became parts of the Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda , with the shared Bishop ( Aubrey George Spencer being the first) alternating his residence between the two colonies. A separate Bermuda Synod

3509-739: The Battle of Craney Island on 22 June 1813. The most famous action carried out during the war by forces from Bermuda was the Chesapeake Campaign of 1813 and later 1814, including the Battle of Bladensburg northeast outside Washington, D.C. with the subsequent Burning of Washington in August 1814, retribution for the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Col. John Campbell in May 1814,

3630-507: The Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop. In 1949, the island of Newfoundland , and its associated mainland territory of Labrador , joined Canada as the tenth province . Canada became semi-independent beginning in 1867, and fully sovereign on foreign affairs beginning with the Statute of Westminster 1931 . Canada gained

3751-650: The British Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada. The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired most of Acadia or Acadie, Nouvelle-France , in connection with the Queen Anne's War of 1702–1713, and subsequent lands later, after the Seven Years' War / French and Indian War (1753/1756-1763). These territories would become the future provinces of Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and Prince Edward Island , as well as parts of Quebec in

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3872-805: The Church of England overseen by the Archbishop of Canterbury in Canterbury , England ). Other denominations also at one time included Bermuda with Nova Scotia or Canada. Following the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century of the English Reformation period, Roman Catholic worship was outlawed in England (subsequently Britain ) and its colonies, including Bermuda, until

3993-901: The Commission of Government . Bermuda was increasingly perceived by the British Government as in, or at least grouped for convenience with, the British West Indies. The last official administrative link to the Maritimes was through the established church. In 1879 the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed and a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but continued to be grouped under

4114-976: The Hudson's Bay Company ), was administered until 1783 by the Board of Trade , from 1783 through 1801 by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary , then from 1801 to 1854 by the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office ) and Secretary of State for War and Colonies (as the Secretary of State for War was renamed). From 1824, the British Empire was divided by the War and Colonial Office into four administrative departments, including NORTH AMERICA ,

4235-603: The Kingdom of France , and East Florida from the Kingdom of Spain , by the earlier 1763 Treaty of Paris (1763) , which ended the Seven Years' War (in Europe ) / French and Indian War (in North America ). Spain had not taken possession of any of Spanish Louisiana , which had been ceded to it under the earlier secret Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1762, from France of French Louisiana until seven years later in 1769. By

4356-714: The North America and West Indies Station . The Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax , was finally transferred to the Government of the Dominion of Canada in 1907. Before 1784, the Bermuda Garrison had been placed under the military Commander-in-Chief America in New York during the American War of Independence. A small regular infantry garrison had existed from 1701 to 1768, alongside the militia, and part of

4477-784: The North American phase of the larger Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), elsewhere in Europe and the world, versus Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), of France . When the Royal Navy's blockade of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States was orchestrated from Bermuda (In the New England region, where support for the United States Government's war against Britain was low and from which Britain continued to purchase and receive grain to feed its army engaged in

4598-709: The Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal , was at first excluded from this blockade). In 1813, Lieutenant-Colonel, Sir Thomas Sydney Beckwith arrived in Bermuda to command an expeditionary force tasked with raiding the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States, specifically in the region of the Chesapeake Bay and surrounding coasts of Maryland and Virginia . The force was to be composed of

4719-788: The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 , and operated thereafter under restrictions until the [[20th century]]. Once Roman Catholic worship was allowed and reestablished, Bermuda formed part of the Archdiocese of Halifax, Nova Scotia , until 1953, when it was separated to become the Apostolic Prefecture of Bermuda Islands . The congregation of the first African Methodist Episcopal Church in Bermuda (St. John African Methodist Episcopal Church, erected in 1885 in Hamilton Parish ) had previously been part of

4840-721: The Roman Empire , which produced large quantities of grain, wine, and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture proliferated with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonialism . Tree plantations, in the United States often called tree farms , are established for the commercial production of timber or tree products such as palm oil , coffee , or rubber . Teak and bamboo plantations in India have given good results and an alternative crop solution to farmers of central India, where conventional farming

4961-788: The Royal Garrison Battalion had been stationed there in 1778 but that battalion was disbanded in Bermuda in 1784. The regular military garrison was re-established at Bermuda in 1794 by part of the British Army's 47th Regiment of Foot and the Board of Ordnance also stationed an invalid company of the Royal Artillery there soon after. The Bermuda garrison was to be part of the Nova Scotia Command until 1869 (in 1815, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost

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5082-480: The Senate and House of Commons of Canada , with the support of nine of the ten provinces of Canada . Following the 1776 declaration of independence of the colonies that were to form the United States (which was to be recognised by the British Government in 1783), the areas that remained under British sovereignty were administered by the Home Office , which had been formed on 27 March 1782, and which also controlled

5203-860: The South Atlantic Ocean archipelago of the Falkland Islands , which had been colonised in 1833, had been added to the remit of the North American Department of the Colonial Office. North American Department of the Colonial Office, 1867 Following the 1867 confederation of most of the British North American colonies to form the Dominion of Canada, Bermuda and Newfoundland remained as the only British colonies in North America (although

5324-560: The Southern United States from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the pens for livestock . Until the abolition of slavery , such plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labor of enslaved people. Plantations are an important aspect of the history of the Southern United States , particularly before

5445-755: The Treaty of 1818 established the east/west 49th parallel, north of latitude as the United States–British North America international border, extending from Rupert's Land (north of the Great Lakes) further west to the edge of the Rocky Mountains . Then 28 years later, in the subsequent 1846 treaty, Britain and the United States split the jointly-administered Oregon Country lands of the Pacific Northwest region between

5566-466: The Virginia Company since its flagship, the Sea Venture , was wrecked there in 1609, and the archipelago was officially added to the company's territory in 1612, then managed by a spin-off, the Somers Isles Company , until 1684, but maintained close links with Virginia and Carolina Colony (which had subsequently been settled from Bermuda under William Sayle in 1670). The British Government originally grouped Bermuda with North America (the archipelago

5687-414: The WEST INDIES , MEDITERRANEAN AND AFRICA , and EASTERN COLONIES , of which North America included: North America Until 1846, the postal system had a deputy based in British North America, with administration from London. The Colonial Office and War Office, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Secretary of State for War, were separated in 1854. The War Office, from then, until

5808-520: The War and Colonial Office ), with the Secretary of State for War thus becoming the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies until 1854, when the War and Colonial Office was split into the War Office (under the Secretary of State for War ) and the Colonial Office (under the Secretary of State for the Colonies ). Prior to the signing of the 1846 Oregon Treaty , the North American continental colonies were as follows: The North Atlantic oceanic archipelago of Bermuda , not strictly part of

5929-411: The acronym HIPPO for the main causes of biodiversity loss: H abitat destruction, I nvasive species, P ollution, human over- P opulation and O ver-harvesting . Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to

6050-447: The company store . In Brazil, a sugarcane plantation was termed an engenho ("engine"), and the 17th-century English usage for organized colonial production was "factory." Such colonial social and economic structures are discussed at Plantation economy . Sugar workers on plantations in Cuba and elsewhere in the Caribbean lived in company towns known as bateyes . Plantation complexes were common on agricultural plantations in

6171-442: The effects of climate change . An additional cause that may be specific to insects is light pollution (research in that area is ongoing). Scientists have studied loss of earthworms from several long-term agronomic trials. They found that relative biomass losses of minus 50–100% (with a mean of minus 83 %) match or exceed those reported for other faunal groups. Thus it is clear that earthworms are similarly depleted in

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6292-450: The planetary boundaries too far. These activities include habitat destruction (for example deforestation ) and land use intensification (for example monoculture farming). Further problem areas are air and water pollution (including nutrient pollution ), over-exploitation , invasive species and climate change . Many scientists, along with the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services , say that

6413-588: The protected areas with rich biodiversity were in areas containing unexploited fossil fuel reserves worth between $ 3 and $ 15 trillion. The protected areas may be under threat in future. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to natural resources such as water aquifers , grazing pastures and forests , wild medicinal plants , fish stocks and other wildlife . A 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services report found that overfishing

6534-401: The 16th century in Newfoundland , then further south at Roanoke and Jamestown, Virginia , and more substantially with the founding of the Thirteen Colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America. The British Empire's colonial territories in North America were greatly expanded in connection with the Treaty of Paris (1763) , which formally concluded the Seven Years' War , referred to by

6655-622: The 1867 confederation of the Dominion of Canada , split the military administration of the British colonial and foreign stations into nine districts: North America And North Atlantic ; West Indies ; Mediterranean ; West Coast Of Africa And South Atlantic ; South Africa ; Egypt And The Sudan ; INDIAN OCEAN ; Australia ; and China . North America And North Atlantic included the following stations (or garrisons): North America and North Atlantic The Colonial Office, by 1862, oversaw eight Colonies in British North America, including: North American Colonies, 1862 By 1867, administration of

6776-483: The 1930s, the eelgrass limpet ( Lottia alveus ) became extinct in the Atlantic once the Zostera marina seagrass population declined upon exposure to a disease. The Lottia alveus were greatly impacted because the Zostera marina were their sole habitats. The main causes of current biodiversity loss are: Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction , overkill , introduced species and secondary extinctions . Edward O. Wilson suggested

6897-454: The 20th century. The following three plantations are maintained by the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador as provincial heritage sites: Other fishing plantations: [REDACTED] Media related to Plantations at Wikimedia Commons British North America British North America comprised the colonial territories of the British Empire in North America from 1783 onwards. English colonisation of North America began in

7018-413: The 20th century. Many car drivers know this anecdotal evidence through the windscreen phenomenon , for example. Causes for the decline in insect population are similar to those driving other biodiversity loss. They include habitat destruction , such as intensive agriculture , the use of pesticides (particularly insecticides ), introduced species , and – to a lesser degree and only for some regions –

7139-444: The Americans and the British, extending the 49th parallel line further west to the Puget Sound . The United States was assigned lands south of the 49th parallel, but Britain retained all of the off-shore of the West Coast of Vancouver Island (including a small portion of the southern tip of Vancouver Island south of the 49th parallel). After threats and squabbles over rich timber lands, the boundary between Maine and Nova Scotia

7260-423: The Americas at all, was also included as its nearest neighbour (after the United States) is Nova Scotia. Besides the local colonial governments in each colony, British North America was administered directly via London. Other than the territory administered by the Honourable East India Company and protectorates , the British Empire, including British North America (but not including the territory administered by

7381-462: The Bermudas, &c. &c. &c. Beneath Prevost, the staff of the British Army in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke . Below Sherbrooke, the Bermuda Garrison was under the immediate control of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bermuda , Major General George Horsford). ), and

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7502-410: The Bermudians, Bermudian privateers soon turned aggressively on rebel shipping. After the acknowledgement by the British Government of the independence of the former thirteen rebellious continental colonies in the negotiated Treaty of Paris of 1783, finally recognizing the independence of the new United States of America which it originally declared on July 4, 1776. Bermuda was grouped regionally by

7623-467: The British Empire's colonial territories in North America from 1783 to 1907, not including the Caribbean. These territories include those forming modern-day Canada and Bermuda, having also ceded what became all or large parts of six Midwestern U.S. states ( Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and the northeastern part of Minnesota ), which were formed out of the Northwest Territory , large parts of Maine , which had originally been within

7744-423: The British Government with The Maritimes and Newfoundland and Labrador provinces of modern eastern Canada , and, more widely, with British North America. Following the world-wide war, the Royal Navy spent a dozen years of peace-time charting the barrier reef around Bermuda to discover the channel that enabled access to the northern lagoon, the Great Sound , and Hamilton Harbour . Once this had been located,

7865-439: The Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec )) joined to form " One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom , " on July 1, 1867, the date of Canadian Confederation . The Atlantic island of Bermuda (originally administered by the Virginia Company and, with The Bahamas , considered with North America prior to 1783),

7986-429: The Dominion of Canada , following the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), called the Durham Report. The Dominion of Canada was formed under the British North America (BNA) Act, 1867 , also referred to as the Constitution Act, 1867. Following royal assent of the BNA Act, three of the provinces of British North America ( New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and the Province of Canada (which would become

8107-403: The English colonies in North America as the French and Indian War , and by the French colonies as la Guerre de la Conquête . With the ultimate acquisition of most of New France ( Nouvelle-France ), British territory in North America was more than doubled in size, and the exclusion of France also dramatically altered the political landscape of the continent. The term British America

8228-457: The Falkland Islands also continued to be administered by the North American Department of the Colonial Office). Although the British Government was no longer responsible for Canada, its relationship with Canada and subsequent dominions would continue to be overseen by the Secretary of State for the Colonies (who headed the Colonial Office) until the creation of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs (a position initially held in common with

8349-418: The Florida peninsula), forming Spanish Florida until its 1813 / 1819 cession to the adjacent United States. Nova Scotia was split into modern-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in 1784. The part of Quebec retained after 1783 was split into the primarily French-speaking Province of Lower Canada (future Quebec ) and the primarily English-speaking Province of Upper Canada (future Ontario ) in 1791. Later

8470-462: The French territory of Acadia , and very briefly, East Florida , West Florida , and the Bahamas . When the Kingdom of England began its efforts to cross the Atlantic Ocean and settle in eastern North America in the late 16th century , it ignored the Kingdom of Spain 's long-asserted claim of sovereignty over the entire continent as part of its world-wide Spanish Empire . Spain's similar claim to all of South America had been refuted when

8591-405: The Pope Alexander VI had divided the twin continents of the Americas between Spain and the Kingdom of Portugal in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas . Spain's area of settlement was limited to only the very southern and southwestern parts and coastal edges of the continent of North America, however, and it had little ability to enforce its sovereignty. Disregarding, as did Spain, the sovereignty of

8712-739: The Secretary of State for the Colonies) in 1925. The reduction of the territory administered by the British Government would result in re-organisation of the Colonial Office. In 1901, the departments of the Colonial Office included: North American and Australasian ; West Indian ; Eastern ; South African ; and West African (two departments). Of these, the "North American and Australasian Department" included: North American and Australasian Department, 1901 Biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth ( extinction ) or when there

8833-673: The Virginia Company of London. The short form of that company's name was the London Company , but it came to be known popularly as the Virginia Company . The northern area of settlement, which extended to 45° North (an area that would come to be known as New England ), was to be administered and settled by the Virginia Company of Plymouth (or Plymouth Company), which established the Popham Colony in what

8954-595: The West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station , and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station . The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer (both of which were designated as Imperial fortresses , along with Gibraltar and Malta ), but Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the Station in 1821, when the area of command became

9075-492: The Wild." Possible solutions can be found in some silvicultural methods of forest management that promote tree biodiversity, such as selective logging, thinning or crop tree management, and clear cutting and coppicing . Without solutions, secondary forests recovery in species richness can take 50 years to recover the same amount as the primary forest, or 20 years to recover 80% of species richness. Human impact on

9196-434: The adjacent Principality of Wales ) and the Kingdom of Scotland remained separate nations until their 1707 unification to form the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1801). Scotland's attempts to establish its own colonies in North America and Central America before 1707 had been short-lived, but England brought substantial trans-Atlantic possessions into the new union when English America became British America . In 1775, on

9317-405: The causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of ongoing research. Biomass of mammals on Earth as of 2018 The decline of wild mammal populations globally has been an occurrence spanning over the past 50,000 years, at the same time as the populations of humans and livestock have increased. Nowadays, the total biomass of wild mammals on land

9438-494: The distribution and abundance of prey species, which can then impact predator populations. Fossil fuel extraction and associated oil and gas pipelines have major impacts on the biodiversity of many biomes due to land conversion, habitat loss and degradation, and pollution. An example is the Western Amazon region. Exploitation of fossil fuels there has had significant impacts on biodiversity. As of 2018, many of

9559-436: The environment has driven a range of species extinct and is threatening even more today . Multiple organizations such as IUCN and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction. The majority are threatened by habitat loss , but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native invasive species , also play

9680-725: The eve of the American Revolution and parallel. American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). British America included territories in the Western Hemisphere northeast of New Spain , apart from the islands and claims of the British West Indies in the larger West Indies islands chain in the Caribbean Sea , near the Gulf of Mexico . These were: The Somers Isles, or Bermuda , had been occupied by

9801-422: The functioning and biodiversity of terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems. For example, "air pollution causes or contributes to acidification of lakes, eutrophication of estuaries and coastal waters, and mercury bioaccumulation in aquatic food webs". Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats. Noise pollution

9922-429: The indigenous nations, England claimed the entire North America continent at this point (though its western, northern, and southern boundaries were ill-defined, vague, and not yet clear), which it named Virginia in honour of the virgin queen, Elizabeth I (1533-1603, reigned 1558-1603). England's first successful settlement in North America was Jamestown , established by the Virginia Company of London in 1607, with

10043-482: The infantry battalion then on garrison duty in Bermuda, the 102nd Regiment of Foot (with its Commanding Officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles James Napier as Second-in-Command) forming one brigade with Royal Marines and a unit recruited from French prisoners-of-war, which was under Lt. Col. Napier's command, and another brigade formed under Lieutenant-Colonel Williams of the Royal Marines. The force took part in

10164-534: The last several decades. These tend to be directly or indirectly connected to climate change and can cause a deterioration of forest ecosystems. Groups that care about the environment have been working for many years to stop the decrease in biodiversity. Nowadays, many global policies include activities to stop biodiversity loss. For example, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity aims to prevent biodiversity loss and to conserve wilderness areas . However,

10285-479: The level of genetic or taxonomic diversity they formerly could while some more sensitive species may become locally extinct. Species abundance populations are reduced due to the reduced fragmented area of habitat. This causes an increase of species isolation and forces species toward edge habitats and to adapt to foraging elsewhere. Infrastructure development in Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA)

10406-539: The low wages typically paid to plantation workers are the basis of plantation profitability in some areas. In more recent times, overt slavery has been replaced by para-slavery or slavery-in-kind , including the sharecropping system , and even that has been severely reduced. At its most extreme, workers are in " debt bondage ": they must work to pay off a debt at such punitive interest rates that it may never be paid off. Others work unreasonably long hours and are paid subsistence wages that (in practice) may only be spent in

10527-619: The lowest trophic level require increased conservation to reduce negative impacts at higher trophic levels. In 2022, scientists warned that a third of tree species are threatened with extinction. This will significantly alter the world's ecosystems because their carbon, water and nutrient cycles will be affected. Forest areas are degraded due to common factors such as logging, fire, and firewood harvesting. The GTA (global tree assessment) has determined that "17,510 (29.9%) tree species are considered threatened with extinction. In addition, there are 142 tree species recorded as Extinct or Extinct in

10648-406: The main reason for biodiversity loss is a growing human population because this leads to human overpopulation and excessive consumption . Others disagree, saying that loss of habitat is caused mainly by "the growth of commodities for export" and that population has very little to do with overall consumption. More important are wealth disparities between and within countries. Climate change

10769-533: The military until this was transferred to the War Office in 1794. The Home Office referred to the remaining North American continental colonies and the archipelago of Bermuda (located 640 miles (1,030 km) off North Carolina ) as British North America and their administration was increasingly linked. In 1801, administration of the colonies was moved from the Home Office to the War Office (which became

10890-451: The modern Dominion of Canada and additional territories that would eventually form part of the old Massachusetts Bay Colony , later after 1776 as the Commonwealth of Massachusetts , and later separated to form the State of Maine in 1820, in the United States . Britain acquired much of the remainder of Canada (New France) and the eastern half of Louisiana , including West Florida, from

11011-858: The most notable being the Raid on Port Dover to draw United States forces away from the Canadian border. In 1828, His Excellency George, Earl of Dalhousie , (Baron Dalhousie, of Dalhousie Castle,) Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath was Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over the Provinces of Lower-Canada, Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and their several dependencies, Vice-Admiral of

11132-424: The most numerous and widespread class in the animal kingdom , accounting for up to 90% of all animal species. In the 2010s, reports emerged about the widespread decline in insect populations across multiple insect orders . The reported severity shocked many observers, even though there had been earlier findings of pollinator decline . There has also been anecdotal reports of greater insect abundance earlier in

11253-419: The new province of Manitoba . British Columbia , the British colony on the west coast north of the 49th parallel , including all of Vancouver Island , joined as Canada's sixth province in 1871, and Prince Edward Island joined as the seventh in 1873. The boundary of British Columbia with Washington Territory was settled by arbitration in 1872, and with Alaska by arbitration in 1903. The Arctic Archipelago

11374-593: The ocean or in estuaries . By 2018, approximately 240,000 marine species had been documented. But many marine species—estimates range between 178,000 and 10 million oceanic species—remain to be described. It is therefore likely that a number of rare species (not seen for decades in the wild) have already disappeared or are on the brink of extinction, unnoticed. Human activities have a strong and detrimental influence on marine biodiversity. The main drivers of marine species extinction are habitat loss, pollution, invasive species , and overexploitation. Greater pressure

11495-597: The plantation or retaining corridors of natural forest. In Brazil, similar measures are required by government regulation. Plantation owners extensively used enslaved Africans to work on early plantations (such as tobacco, rice, cotton, hemp, and sugar plantations) in the American colonies and the United States, throughout the Caribbean, the Americas, and in European-occupied areas of Africa. In modern times,

11616-532: The pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides . Once sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are introduced into the atmosphere, they can react with cloud droplets ( cloud condensation nuclei ), raindrops, or snowflakes, forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid . With the interaction between water droplets and sulfuric and nitric acids, wet deposition occurs and creates acid rain . A 2009 review studied four air pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen, ozone, and mercury) and several types of ecosystems. Air pollution affects

11737-475: The restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the 2010s over 80% of all global farmland was used to rear animals. As of 2022, 44% of Earth's land area required conservation attention, which may include declaring protected areas and following land-use policies . Air pollution adversely affects biodiversity. Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels and biomass , for example. Industrial and agricultural activity releases

11858-659: The right to establish and accept foreign embassies, with the first one being in Washington, D.C. The last vestiges of Canada's constitutional dependency upon Britain were eliminated when Canadians from various provinces agreed on an internal procedure for amending the Canadian Constitution. This agreement was implemented when the British Parliament passed the Canada Act 1982 at the request of

11979-527: The rise of cotton in the American South, indigo and rice were also sometimes called plantation crops. Probably the most critical factor a plantation has on the local environment is the site where the plantation is established. In Brazil, coffee plantations would use slash-and-burn agriculture, tearing down rainforests and planting coffee trees that depleted the nutrients in soil. Once the soil had been sapped, growers would move on to another place. If

12100-763: The same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty's Forces in the said Provinces, and their several dependencies, and in the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, and Bermuda, &c. &c c. &c. Beneath Dalhousie, the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Island of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of His Excellency Lieutenant-General Sir James Kempt GCB, GCH . The established Church of England in Bermuda (since 1978, titled

12221-632: The second being the Atlantic Ocean archipelago of Bermuda (or the Somers Isles ), added to the territory of the same company in 1612 (the company having been in occupation of the archipelago since the 1609 wreck there of its flagship, the Sea Venture ). Two areas of settlement in North America had been laid out in 1606, with the name Virginia coming to connote the southern area, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North, administered by

12342-507: The simultaneous halving of plant biomass, these striking declines are considered part of the prehistoric phase of the Holocene extinction . Some pesticides , like insecticides , likely play a role in reducing the populations of specific bird species. According to a study funded by BirdLife International , 51 bird species are critically endangered and eight could be classified as extinct or in danger of extinction. Nearly 30% of extinction

12463-460: The soil and plant roots that earthworms use to create their biomass. This interferes with carbon and nitrogen cycles . Knowledge of earthworm species diversity is quite limited as not even 50% of them have been described. Sustainable agriculture methods could help prevent earthworm diversity decline, for example reduced tillage. The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

12584-536: The soils of fields used for intensive agriculture. Earthworms play an important role in ecosystem function, helping with biological processing in soil, water, and even greenhouse gas balancing. There are five reasons for the decline of earthworm diversity: "(1) soil degradation and habitat loss, (2) climate change, (3) excessive nutrient and other forms of contamination load, (4) over-exploitation and unsustainable management of soil, and (5) invasive species". Factors like tillage practices and intensive land use decimate

12705-541: The sole remaining colony in British North America. British North America ceased to exist as an administrative region of the British Empire, with all remaining British colonies in the Western Hemisphere, from Bermuda to the Falkland Islands grouped in the "West Indian Division" of the "Crown Colonies Department" of the Colonial Office. In 1934, Newfoundland returned to British administration under

12826-486: The southern continental American colonies (especially Virginia and South Carolina), tended towards the rebels early in the American Revolutionary War / American War of Independence (1775-1783), the control of the adjacent and surrounding Atlantic Ocean by the British Royal Navy meant there was no likelihood of the colony joining the rebellion. Although the rebels were supplied with ships and gunpowder by

12947-490: The still-growing Bermuda Garrison was elevated to a separate Bermuda Command . ] The Colony of Newfoundland , like Bermuda, was not included in the confederation that unified the other British North American colonies to form the Dominion of Canada in 1867. In 1870, Rupert's Land , which consisted of territories of the Hudson's Bay Company , was annexed to Canada as the North-West Territories (NWT) and

13068-778: The terms of the later Treaty of Paris (1783) , the United States acquired the southern and western portions of the former Royal French colony in the interior of the North American continent of New France / (later Quebec ), south of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River and west to the Mississippi River . At the same time that Spain gained along the Gulf of Mexico coastline of West Florida (western panhandle of Florida) and regained again East Florida (of

13189-806: The two provinces north of the Great Lakes of the British Empire were combined in 1841 as the Province of Canada (also known as the United Provinces of Canada or the United Canada). This lasted a quarter-century until 1867 and the passage of the British North America Act by the British Parliament in London , with the then establishment of the modern Dominion of Canada . After the War of 1812 (1812-1815),

13310-651: The world is covered with biodiversity loss hotspots, and even though only a small percentage of the world is covered in hotspots, it host a large fraction (50%) of vascular plant species. In 2021, about 28 percent of the 134,400 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction —a total of 37,400 species compared to 16,119 threatened species in 2006. A 2022 study that surveyed more than 3,000 experts found that "global biodiversity loss and its impacts may be greater than previously thought", and estimated that roughly 30% of species "have been globally threatened or driven extinct since

13431-491: The year 1500." Research published in 2023 found that, out of 70,000 species, about 48% are facing decreasing populations due to human activities, while only 3% are seeing an increase in populations. Biologists define biodiversity as the "totality of genes , species and ecosystems of a region". To measure biodiversity loss rates for a particular location, scientists record the species richness and its variation over time in that area. In ecology , local abundance

13552-436: Was Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty's Forces in the said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, and in the islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton and

13673-630: Was ceded by Britain to Canada in 1880 and added to the North-West Territories. Later on, large sections of the NWT were split off as new territories (the Yukon Territory in 1898 and Nunavut in 1999), or provinces ( Alberta and Saskatchewan , both in 1905), or were added to existing provinces (Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, in stages ending in 1912). In 1907, Newfoundland became the Dominion of Newfoundland , leaving Bermuda as

13794-469: Was clarified by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, negotiated by Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton . The Canadas were united into the Province of Canada in 1841. On 1 July 1867, the Dominion of Canada was created by the British North America Act, 1867 . The confederation process brought together the provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The former Province of Canada

13915-463: Was expanded greatly during the 19th century, both to defend the colony as a naval base and to launch amphibious operations against the Atlantic coast of the United States in any war that should transpire. The Royal Navy , British Army , Royal Marines , and Colonial Marines forces based in Bermuda carried out actions of this sort during the subsequent American / Canadian War of 1812 (1812-1815),

14036-497: Was grouped with the Maritime provinces from 1783, but after the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867 and the achievement of dominion status by the colony of Newfoundland in 1907, Bermuda was thereafter administered generally with the colonies in the British West Indies (although the Church of England continued to place Bermuda under the Bishop of Newfoundland until 1919). Over its duration, British North America comprised

14157-444: Was incorporated in 1879, but continued to share its Bishop with Newfoundland until 1919, when the separate position of Bishop of Bermuda was created (in 1949, on Newfoundland becoming a province of Canada, the Diocese of Newfoundland became part of the Anglican Church of Canada ; the Church of England in Bermuda, which was re-titled the Anglican Church of Bermuda in 1978, is today one of six extra-provincial Anglican churches within

14278-492: Was split back into its two parts, with Canada East (Lower Canada) being renamed Quebec , and Canada West (Upper Canada) renamed Ontario . Following confederation in 1867, the British Army withdrew from Canada in 1871, handing military defence over to the Canadian Militia . With the consequent abolition of the British Army's Nova Scotia Command, and the office of its Commander-in-Chief for British North America ,

14399-464: Was used in most British colonies but very rarely in the United Kingdom itself in this sense. There it was used mainly for tree plantations , areas artificially planted with trees, whether purely for commercial forestry , or partly for ornamental effect in gardens and parks, when it might also cover plantings of garden shrubs. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of

14520-620: Was used to refer to the British Empire's colonial territories in North America prior to the United States Declaration of Independence , most famously in the 1774 address of Thomas Jefferson to the First Continental Congress entitled: A Summary View of the Rights of British America . The term British North America was initially used following the subsequent 1783 Treaty of Paris , which concluded

14641-627: Was widespread. But due to the rising input costs of agriculture, many farmers have done teak and bamboo plantations, which require very little water (only during the first two years). Teak and bamboo have legal protection from theft. Bamboo, once planted, gives output for 50 years till flowering occurs. Teak requires 20 years to grow to full maturity and fetch returns. These may be established for watershed or soil protection. They are established for erosion control, landslide stabilization, and windbreaks. Such plantations are established to foster native species and promote forest regeneration on degraded lands as

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