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92-442: The position was created in the first half of the third century BC and retained its prominence for two centuries. The principes were often the most famous Roman politicians of the period, such Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , Scipio Africanus , and Marcus Aemilius Scaurus . It lost its importance after the reforms of the dictator Sulla in 82–80 BC, but might have been temporarily restored for Cicero , its possible last incumbent during

184-457: A gens maior , and later said the list of gentes maiores can be drawn from the principes – while ancient sources are silent on many principes and do not give the list of the gentes maiores . Ryan has argued instead that the princeps could be a plebeian: first, ancient sources never mention Mommsen's patrician requirement; second, because the post was established after the end of the Conflict of

276-511: A bid to subdue the Romans. The elephants had been loaned to him by Ptolemy II Philadelphus , who had also promised 9,000 soldiers and a further 50 elephants to defend Epirus while Pyrrhus and his army were away. Due to his superior cavalry, his elephants and his deadly phalanx infantry , he defeated the Romans, led by Consul Publius Valerius Laevinus , in the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC, in

368-479: A candidate for the consulship. Nobilior, however, returned to Rome to conduct and oversee the elections and he used his position to prevent any votes being cast for Lepidus, his personal enemy. As a result, although this time unfairly, Lepidus once more suffered the humiliation of defeat in the elections and could justly blame Nobilior. Instead, Marcus Valerius Messalla, who the previous year had polled behind Lepidus, and Gaius Livius Salinator were elected consul. For

460-403: A long time, modern historians were influenced by the works of Theodor Mommsen , who thought that the principes senatus could only be patricians of the gentes maiores – the most illustrious patrician families ( Cornelia , Valeria , Fabia , Aemilia , Manlia , and Claudia ). However, Francis Ryan showed that Mommsen's argument was circular: he first asserted that the princeps must be from

552-467: A message from the Senate that Philip of Macedon must cease from making war on any other Greeks and agree to pay compensation to Attalus I of Pergamum and Rhodes for any damage caused. If Philip would not agree to these terms then he and Macedon would soon find themselves at war with Rome. Rejecting the demands and saying that he was ready for war, Philip took the city and Lepidus departed. The result of

644-799: A military dictatorship of Sicily and installing military garrisons in Sicilian cities. These actions were deeply unpopular and soon Sicilian opinion became inflamed against him. Pyrrhus had so alienated the Sicilian Greeks that they were willing to make common cause with the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians took heart from this and sent another army against him. This army was promptly defeated. In spite of this victory, Sicily continued to grow increasingly hostile to Pyrrhus, who began to consider abandoning Sicily. At this point, Samnite and Tarentine envoys reached Pyrrhus and informed him that of all

736-464: A monarch having a touch that could heal all wounds may have originated with Pyrrhus. As Pliny the Elder states, Pyrrhus' great toe on his right foot cured diseases of the spleen by merely touching the patient. His toe could also not be burned so when his body was cremated, his toe was put in a coffer, and kept at an unknown temple. Pyrrhus lends his name to the term " Pyrrhic victory ", which stems from

828-485: A propaganda campaign in which he appealed to the patriotism of the Macedonians serving Pyrrhus. He reminded them that Pyrrhus was in fact a foreign king while he himself was a true Macedonian. The campaign was successful. With his Macedonian troops turning against him Pyrrhus had no other choice but to withdraw to Epirus. Lysimachus invaded and plundered Epirus the following year. Pyrrhus did not oppose Lysimachus for he

920-563: A puppet kingdom of Cassander. Pyrrhus' family fled north and took refuge with Glaucias of the Taulantians , one of the largest Illyrian tribes. Pyrrhus was raised by Beroea , Glaucias' wife, a Molossian of the Aeacidae dynasty. Cassander marched against Glaucias, defeated his army and captured Apollonia . Glaucias had to promise not to act against Cassander, but he refused to give up Pyrrhus and his family. By 313 BC, Cassander

1012-619: A regional power to one of the most powerful states in the Mediterranean. Over the next century the failure of the various Kingdoms and city states of the Hellenistic world to put on a united front against Rome resulted in their absorption into the Roman Empire or, in the case of some, the reduction to the status of a Roman client state. By 197 BC, Macedonia and many southern Greek city-states became Roman client states; in 188 BC,

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1104-464: A reputation for bravery, Lepidus soon rose to become one of the leading Romans of his generation. Lepidus was the great-grandfather of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus the Triumvir. Although he was only 15 at the time of the Battle of Cannae in the 2nd Punic War , it was then that Lepidus first distinguished himself. If not at Cannae itself, then in one of the battles closely following it, Lepidus saved

1196-475: A second time. Many of his soldiers did not like their service and mutinied. Aeacides released these soldiers from his army, but as a result his army was too small to achieve anything. When the mutineers arrived in Epirus they caused a rebellion against their absent king and Aeacides was dethroned. Cassander sent one of his generals, Lyciscus, to act as regent to the still underaged Neoptolemus. Epirus in effect became

1288-531: A statement he is alleged to have made following the Battle of Asculum. In response to congratulations for winning a costly victory over the Romans, he is reported to have said: "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined". The term Pyrrhic Victory has therefore come to signify a victory that was won at such cost that it loses all worth. Pyrrhus and his campaign in Italy provided

1380-600: A time governed the country. This appeal to Rome for the Senate to send a regent to them was, according to Justin, made by the Egyptians themselves. At this time also, while in Alexandria , Lepidus sailed to meet personally with Philip while the king was besieging Abydus , in an attempt to persuade him to lift the siege and abandon his attacks on Pergamum and the Rhodians, who had appealed to Rome. Lepidus delivered

1472-408: A vast army and a huge fleet. Faced with this threat, the other Diadochi Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus allied against him. The three kings sent embassies to Pyrrhus trying to win him over to their side or at least get him to remain neutral. If the allies won and Pyrrhus remained neutral he would gain nothing. If on the other hand Demetrius would be victorious he could overwhelm Pyrrhus at any time in

1564-533: A veteran of Alexander. Unfortunately for Demetrius, his troops were so fed up with him that they deserted to Pyrrhus and he had to flee. Lysimachus was soon joined by Pyrrhus and they decided to share rulership over Macedonia. Demetrius gathered a new army in Greece and besieged Athens, which had rebelled against the puppet government he had installed. The Athenians called on Pyrrhus for assistance and he marched against Demetrius once more. This caused Demetrius to raise

1656-463: A victory over Lysimachus near Amphipolis . When the Macedonian army heard that their homeland was being overrun by Pyrrhus, they turned on Demetrius. They were fed up with his autocratic rule and grandiose plans and refused to advance any further. Demetrius then led his army against Pyrrhus, probably hoping that his Macedonians would be more willing to fight a foreign invader rather than Lysimachus,

1748-604: Is later recounted by Plutarch in his Life of Pyrrhus. Antigonus had him cremated with all honours and sent his surviving son Helenus back to Epirus. That same year, upon hearing the news of Pyrrhus's death, the Tarentinians surrendered to Rome. In his Life of Pyrrhus , Plutarch records that Hannibal ranked him as the greatest commander the world had ever seen, though in the Life of Titus Quinctius Flamininus , Plutarch writes that Hannibal placed him second after Alexander

1840-417: The lex Valeria . Although the position probably continued – there was still a list of senators and someone had to be listed first – the prerogatives of the office fell away. In particular, consuls designate assumed the honour of speaking first. This may be because, through the 80s and 70s, the senior living ex-censors – the most senior members of the senate, in the absence of a formal princeps senatus due to

1932-695: The Aetolian League , hoping to neutralize them before he invaded Epirus. The Aetolians refused battle and retreated into the hills. After ransacking the Aetolians' countryside, Demetrius left a strong force under his best general Pantauchus in Aetolia and marched on Epirus. Meanwhile, Pyrrhus had raised his army and was marching to the rescue of his Aetolian allies. The two armies, on different roads, passed one another and Demetrius started plundering Epirus while Pyrrhus met Pantauchus in battle. Pyrrhus had

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2024-658: The Seleucid Empire was forced to cede most of Asia Minor to Rome's ally Pergamon (Pergamum). In 133 BC Attalus III , the last King of Pergamon (excluding the pretender Eumenes III ), bequeathed the Kingdom and its considerable territories in Asia Minor to Rome in his will. At the destruction of Corinth in 146 BC Rome defeated the city-state of Corinth and its allies in the Achaean League . The league

2116-535: The Wars of the Successors . Pyrrhus probably fought with Demetrius on the right wing, a place of honour, and made a brilliant display of valour among the combatants. Despite these brave efforts, Antigonus lost both the battle and his life. Demetrius, victorious on his wing, managed to escape with 9,000 men, and Pyrrhus continued to serve his brother-in-law as he started rebuilding Antigonus' empire. In 298 BC, Pyrrhus

2208-433: The consular elections. This, however, counted against him and made him unpopular with the people as he was accused of abandoning his province and responsibilities in order to satisfy personal ambition. Following the vote, only one candidate, Marcus Fulvius Nobilior , a rival of Lepidus, had achieved the required majority, but that still meant that the other consulship was vacant. However, the following day, Nobilior co-opted

2300-475: The reforms of Sulla in 82–80 BC. As dictator , Sulla established a strict oligarchic order in order to prevent any man from rising above the rest (for example, iteration of the consulship was banned). Several scholars, such as Theodor Mommsen and Ernst Badian , believe that Sulla even abolished the office. However, Sulla would probably not have demoted his close ally, the princeps Lucius Valerius Flaccus , who had enabled his appointment as dictator though

2392-642: The Carthaginians at the Battle of the Strait of Messina , with 98 warships sunk or disabled out of 110. While Pyrrhus had been campaigning against the Carthaginians, the Romans had rebuilt their army by calling up thousands of fresh recruits . Near today's Benevento , one of the two Roman Consuls for that year (275 BC), Manius Curius Dentatus , had camped with his men. The other Highness was at that time in Lucania , so Pyrrhus sent against him part of his army, to prevent him from reinforcing Curius, whom Pyrrhus himself

2484-578: The East even though their terms had expired and yet the Senate still intended to confine both consuls to Liguria without recalling or replacing either of the two Eastern commanders. Either Nobilior and Manlius should be replaced, or their armies should be disbanded and they return to Rome. The Senate agreed to recall Nobilior and Manlius from the East, but reiterated its decision that both Lepidus and Flaminius were to take command in Liguria. From 180 onwards, he

2576-500: The Great . This latter account is also given by Appian . While he was a mercurial and often restless leader, and not always a wise king, he was considered one of the greatest military commanders of his time. Pyrrhus was known for his benevolence. As a general, Pyrrhus's greatest political weaknesses were his failures to maintain focus and to maintain a strong treasury at home (many of his soldiers were costly mercenaries). The concept of

2668-806: The Greek cities in Magna Graecia . The Tarentines asked Pyrrhus to lead their war against the Romans. Pyrrhus was encouraged to aid the Tarentines by the Oracle of Delphi . He recognized the possibility of carving out an empire for himself in Italy . He made an alliance with Ptolemy Keraunos , King of Macedon and his most powerful neighbor, and arrived in Italy in 280 BC. Pyrrhus entered Italy with an army consisting of 20,000 infantry , 3,000 cavalry , 2,000 archers , 500 slingers , and 20 war elephants in

2760-471: The Greek cities in Italy, only Tarentum had not been conquered by Rome. Pyrrhus made his decision and departed from Sicily. As his ship left the island, he turned and, foreshadowing the Punic Wars , said to his companions: "What a wrestling ground we are leaving, my friends, for the Carthaginians and the Romans." While his army was being transported by ship to mainland Italy, Pyrrhus' navy was destroyed by

2852-487: The Greek world with an opportunity to check the advance of Rome further into the Mediterranean. The failure to fully exploit this opportunity while Rome was still only an Italian regional power had immense consequences. The conquest of Magna Graecia by the Romans brought them into direct competition with Carthage, ultimately leading to the First Punic War. Rome's victory in this conflict arguably transformed it from

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2944-533: The Libyan Sea a boundary between themselves and the Greeks. The Greek cities of Sicily opposed making peace with Carthage because the Carthaginians still controlled the powerful fortress of Lilybaeum , on the western end of the island. Pyrrhus eventually gave in to their proposals and broke off the peace negotiations. Pyrrhus' army then began besieging Lilybaeum . For two months he launched unsuccessful assaults on

3036-496: The Orders , the plebeians would not have allowed the patricians to create an office barred to them. The princeps senatus appeared in the beginning of the third century BC, possibly in 275. It finds its origin in the lex Ovinia of c.  313 BC , which considerably changed the composition of the Senate. Before this law, senators were about a hundred and appointed by the consuls from among their supporters; membership of

3128-597: The Peloponnese in 272 BC. The Epirote assault on Sparta was thwarted, however, and Pyrrhus was killed during a street battle at Argos . The Latinized Pyrrhus derives from the Greek Pyrrhos ( / ˈ p ɪr ə s / ; Greek : Πύρρος ), meaning flame-like or flammable, derived from the word Pyr ( / ˈ p ɪr / ; Greek : Πύρ ) meaning fire and the suffix -ros ( / ˈ r ə s / ; Greek : ρος ) meaning -able or "pertaining to". According to others,

3220-555: The Ptolemies, by marrying Arsinoe II , the sister of Ptolemy II Philadelphus . He also made a large donation to the Aetolians , Pyrrhus's main allies in Greece. Pyrrhus felt threatened enough to make an alliance with Antigonus Gonatas. In 284 BC, Lysimachus invaded Pyrrhus's half of Macedonia with a huge army. Unable to stand against Lysimachus's superior army Pyrrhus retreated and linked up with Antigonus Gonatas. Lysimachus started

3312-653: The Roman colonies of Parma and Mutina and gave his name to the Roman castrum of Regium Lepidi (today Reggio Emilia ). Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus ( / ˈ p ɪr ə s / PIRR -əss ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Πύρρος Pýrrhos ; 319/318–272 BC) was a Greek king and statesman of the Hellenistic period . He was king of the Molossians , of the royal Aeacid house, and later he became king ( Malalas also called him toparch ) of Epirus . He

3404-477: The Roman province of Lucania . There are conflicting sources about casualties. Hieronymus of Cardia reports the Romans lost about 7,000 while Pyrrhus lost 3,000 soldiers, including many of his best; Dionysius gives a bloodier view of 15,000 Roman dead and 13,000 Epirot. Several tribes, including the Lucanians , Bruttii , Messapians , and the Greek cities of Croton and Locri , joined Pyrrhus. He then offered

3496-516: The Romans a peace treaty which was eventually rejected. Pyrrhus tried to wrest Campania from the Romans, but was thwarted in this by the reinforced army of Laevinus. He then boldly marched on Rome itself, but found its defences too formidable. Meanwhile, the Romans had made peace with the Etruscans and had recalled Tiberius Coruncanius , the other consul, who was marching his army southwards from Etruria towards Rome. Pyrrhus now faced three armies;

3588-399: The Senate therefore changed every year. The lex Ovinia transferred the power to appoint senators to the censors , who could only remove senators in case of misconduct, thus making them appointed for life. The law also increased their number to 300. These changes led the censors to make an official list of senators, recording their right to sit in the Senate. The first censor to make this list

3680-454: The Senate to king Ptolemy V of Egypt, both to announce Rome's victory over Carthage and ensure that Rome's alliance with Egypt would continue through the coming war with Philip V of Macedon, which the Romans were preparing for. Ptolemy was still only a young boy at this time and there is a tradition that Lepidus for a time acted himself during his stay in Egypt as the king's guardian and for

3772-412: The art of war. These have since been lost, although, according to Plutarch, Hannibal was influenced by them, and they received praise from Cicero . Pyrrhus was married five times: his first wife Antigone bore him a daughter called Olympias and a son named Ptolemy in honour of her stepfather . She died in 295 BC, possibly in childbirth, since that was the same year her son was born. His second wife

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3864-610: The back of Pyrrhus' Epirot army, guaranteeing the security of Rome itself. In the end, the Romans lost 6,000 men and Pyrrhus 3,500 including many officers. Pyrrhus later famously commented on his victory at Asculum, stating, "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined". It is from reports of this semi-legendary event that the term Pyrrhic victory originates. In 278 BC, Pyrrhus received two offers simultaneously. The Greek cities in Sicily asked him to come and drive out Carthage , which along with Rome

3956-413: The bulk of the army of Epirus with him, probably 20,000–25,000 men, while Pantauchus commanded but a detachment of Demetrius' army consisting of around 11,000 men. The fighting was heavy, and according to the sources Pantauchus and Pyrrhus sought out one another. Pantauchus challenged Pyrrhus to individual combat, and Pyrrhus accepted. After hurling spears at each other they fought it out with swords. Pyrrhus

4048-550: The candidate who had come second, Gnaeus Manlius Vulso , as his colleague and the two assumed the Consulship for 189. Lepidus had polled third out of the four candidates, behind Manlius but ahead of Marcus Valerius Messalla . This humiliating defeat for the aristocratic patrician Lepidus, who likely saw the consulship as his birthright, further embittered a hatred that had already existed between him and Nobilior. The following election, held later in 189, Lepidus again stood as

4140-466: The capital of his kingdom to Ambracia . In 292 BC, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius by invading Thessaly while Demetrius was besieging Thebes . Demetrius responded immediately; he left the siege to his son Antigonus Gonatas and marched back north at the head of a large army. Pyrrhus, outnumbered, withdrew to Epirus. While he was back in Epirus, Pyrrhus suffered another setback. His second wife, Lanassa , daughter of

4232-457: The city, until finally he realized he could not mount an effective siege without blockading it from the sea as well. Pyrrhus then requested manpower and money from the Sicilians in order to construct a powerful fleet. When the Sicilians became unhappy about these contributions he had to resort to compulsory contributions and force to keep them in line. These measures culminated in him proclaiming

4324-449: The creation of the princeps senatus: the first name on the list of senators, who was always the most senior ex-censor, patrician or plebeian; the censors could not make a choice between candidates. Caecus was almost certainly not the first princeps, because the extensive tradition about him would not have failed to mention this fact. He is also described as an old man speaking in the Senate against Pyrrhus c.  280 BC . Since he

4416-504: The cunning of Pyrrhus and the strong resistance of the Epirotes, failed. However a second wave frightened the elephants – possibly with flaming arrows – causing them to rush against the Epirotes. The latter left the battlefield in disorder, and Pyrrhus had no choice but to withdraw from the battle. After this inconclusive battle, Pyrrhus decided to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus which resulted in

4508-581: The future. Pyrrhus's personal enmity against Demetrius might have played an additional role in his decision to join the allies. In 288 BC, the allied kings began their campaigns against Demetrius. Ptolemy sailed against Demetrius's Greek allies with a large fleet. Lysimachus invaded upper Macedonia from Thrace. Pyrrhus waited until Demetrius had marched against Lysimachus and then invaded southern Macedonia. Demetrius must have thought that Pyrrhus would not renege on his treaty, because western and southern Macedonia fell without opposition. Meanwhile, Demetrius had won

4600-446: The garrison of Rome, Laevinus from the south and Curuncanius from the north. Not wanting to be caught between three armies Pyrrhus withdrew to Tarentum, where he wintered his troops. When Pyrrhus invaded Apulia (279 BC), the two armies met in the Battle of Asculum , where Pyrrhus won a costly victory. The consul Publius Decius Mus was the Roman commander, and while his able force was ultimately defeated, they almost managed to break

4692-493: The greatest general of his time, if he lived long enough. Antigonus had grown too powerful and the other successors, Seleucus , Lysimachus , Ptolemy and Cassander , had united against him. Lysimachus and Seleucus, reinforced by two of Cassander's armies, had concentrated their forces in Asia Minor and marched on Antigonus. Both armies met at Ipsus in Phrygia . The Battle of Ipsus was the largest and most important battle of

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4784-432: The head of an army, but not willing to fight a civil war, he agreed to rule Epirus together with Neoptolemus. Soon both kings started to plot against one another. Pyrrhus was informed of a plot against his life and decided to strike first. He invited Neoptolemus to a dinner and had him murdered. The act does not appear to have been unpopular as Epirus' nobility seem to have been devoted to him. In 295 BC, Pyrrhus transferred

4876-607: The king's refusal of these terms was the outbreak of the Second Macedonian War . In 193 Lepidus served as curule aedile along with his kinsman Lucius Aemilius Paullus , during which time the two Aemilii constructed two new porticoes, or arcades, in Rome, one of them being the Porticus Aemilia . Elected as Praetor in 192, Lepidus served his term from 191 and into 190 as the governor of Sicily . Due to

4968-693: The life of one of his countrymen by killing his assailant. For this act of gallantry, the Senate ordered an equestrian statue of the young man erected on the Capitoline to commemorate the deed. It was a remarkable honour for one so young and one that marked Lepidus out for the future greatness he would achieve. Later that year, 216 BC, Lepidus' father, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , who had been an augur and twice consul, died and Marcus and his two brothers staged funeral games for three days in his honour. In 201, Lepidus and two colleagues were sent as ambassadors by

5060-446: The loss of essentially all the gains he had made in Italy. Only the city of Tarentum remained under the dominion of the Epirotes. His western campaign had taken a heavy toll on his army as well as his treasury. Despite (or perhaps because of) this, Pyrrhus went to war yet again. The realm of his rival king Antigonus Gonatas of Macedon was the most obvious target. Pyrrhus raised an army from his Epirote garrisons, Gallic mercenaries and

5152-522: The name's actual meaning is "fiery, red-coloured", and was especially used to denote red hair. Pyrrhos was also used as an alternate name for Neoptolemus , son of Achilles and the princess Deidamia in Homeric Greek mythology . In c. 319 BC, Pyrrhus was born to prince Aeacides of Epirus , and Phthia , a Thessalian noblewoman, the daughter of the Thessalian general Menon . Aeacides

5244-468: The ongoing war between Rome and Antiochus in the East, Lepidus was charged with the defence of the island from attack as well as ensuring that one-fifth of all the corn produced was sent to support the armies campaigning in Greece . In 190 Lepidus left Sicily early before his term as governor had expired without first asking the permission of the Senate to do so and hastened back to Rome in order to stand in

5336-542: The paucity of censorial lectiones , – were largely uninfluential and unimportant men. Even when named first in the list of senators, they were largely so named by default or custom and were unable to assert speaking privilege before more influential, but junior, consulars. Pierre Willems and Francis Ryan have suggested that Cicero may have been the last princeps senatus of the Republic, appointed after April 43 by his fellow senators. Such restoration of this ancient office

5428-474: The position; in particular, it stated that the future emperor Valerian held the office in AD 238, during the reigns of Maximinus Thrax and Gordian I , and he continued to hold it through to the reign of Decius . The same source also makes the same claim about Tacitus when the Senate acclaimed him emperor in AD 275. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 187 BC) Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (c. 230 – 152 BC)

5520-488: The possible options on controversial proposals. Some notable principes of this period were the famous Scipio Africanus (appointed in 199, 194, and 189) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , who was appointed a record six times between 179 and 154 and combined his position with that of pontifex maximus – the Roman chief priesthood. The position of princeps senatus was not defined by law ( lex ), but by tradition ( mos ), which makes it more difficult to follow its evolution. For

5612-472: The rearguard. Pyrrhus had little time to mourn, as he was immediately offered an opportunity to intervene in a civic dispute in Argos . Since Antigonus Gonatas was approaching too, he hastened to enter the city with his army by stealth, only to find the place crowded with hostile troops. During the confused Battle of Argos in the narrow city streets, Pyrrhus was trapped. While he was fighting an Argive soldier,

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5704-469: The self-proclaimed king of Sicily Agathocles of Syracuse , deserted him. She claimed that she, a daughter of a Greek king, could no longer bear to share her home with barbarian women. She fled to Corcyra with her dowry, offering it and herself to Demetrius. He accepted, sailed to the island and took possession of both Corcyra and Lanassa. After returning to his army in mainland Greece, Demetrius planned to invade Epirus. In 289 BC, he invaded Pyrrhus' allies,

5796-491: The senior ex-censor. Tuditanus justified his choice by saying that Fabius was the foremost of all the Romans (" princeps Romanae civitatis "). After this date, the princeps was the most important politician of the day, chosen among the ex-consuls, and often one of the sitting censors, appointed by the other censor. When the censors could not agree on a candidate, the choice was solved by lot, as in 209 BC. The status and function of princeps senatus ceased to be relevant after

5888-859: The siege. The Athenians thanked Pyrrhus by erecting a bust to him and allowing him into the city for the celebrations. However, they did not allow his army to enter the city, probably fearing Pyrrhus would install a garrison and make himself overlord of Athens. Pyrrhus made the most of the situation and advised the Athenians never to let a king enter their city again. Pyrrhus and Demetrius made peace once more but, like all previous agreements, it did not last. When Demetrius, in 286 BC, invaded Asia in order to attack Lysimachus's Asian domains, Lysimachus requested that Pyrrhus invade Thessaly and from there attack Demetrius' garrisons in Greece. Pyrrhus agreed, probably in order to keep his fractious Macedonian troops busy and less likely to rebel and also to gain an easy victory over

5980-403: The soldier's old mother, who was watching from a rooftop, threw a tile which knocked him from his horse and broke part of his spine, paralyzing him. Whether he was alive or not after the blow is unknown, but his death was assured when a Macedonian soldier named Zopyrus, though frightened by the look on the face of the unconscious king, hesitantly and ineptly beheaded his motionless body. This story

6072-410: The struggle between Mark Antony and the Senate in 43 BC. The Roman emperors merged the princeps senatus ' prerogatives with their own, although there are occasional mentions of distinctive principes during the later Empire. The princeps senatus was chosen by the pair of censors (that is, every 5 years on average) whenever there was a vacancy on the seat during their tenure. The princeps senatus

6164-488: The support of Ptolemy I Soter . During what came to be known as the Pyrrhic War , Pyrrhus fought Rome at the behest of Tarentum , scoring costly victories at Heraclea and Asculum . He proceeded to take over Sicily from Carthage but was soon driven out, and lost all his gains in Italy after the Battle of Beneventum in 275 BC. Pyrrhus seized the Macedonian throne from Antigonus II Gonatas in 274 BC and invaded

6256-595: The third successive time, Lepidus stood as a consular candidate in 188, and this time he was successful and was elected consul with Gaius Flaminius as his colleague. In 187 BC, as he and Flaminius assumed office, word reached the Senate that the Ligurians were preparing to make war on Rome. This threat so close to Rome caused the Senate to decreed that both consuls should have Liguria assigned as their joint province and command. Lepidus opposed this, protesting that Nobilior and Manlius were still acting like kings in

6348-491: The throne. This time Glaucias was unable to help him. Pyrrhus travelled to the Peloponnese and served his brother-in-law Demetrius Poliorcetes who had married his sister Deidamia, and who was campaigning against Cassander in southern Greece. In 302 BC, Demetrius took his army to Asia Minor to support his father Antigonus Monophthalmus. Pyrrhus impressed Antigonus for he is reputed to have said that Pyrrhus would become

6440-422: The tombs of the Macedonian kings at Aegae. In 272 BC, Cleonymus , a Spartan of royal blood who was hated among fellow Spartans, asked Pyrrhus to attack Sparta and place him in power. Pyrrhus agreed to the plan, intending to win control of the Peloponnese for himself, but unexpected strong resistance thwarted his assault on Sparta . On the retreat he lost his firstborn son Ptolemy , who had been in command of

6532-529: The troops he had brought back from Italy and marched east into Macedon. He won an easy victory at the Battle of the Aous and took most of Macedon. Antigonus managed to hold on to a number of coastal cities. He then waited for an opportunity to reclaim his kingdom while Pyrrhus was already looking for another war to fight. Furthermore, Pyrrhus made himself very unpopular in Macedon by allowing his Gauls to plunder

6624-488: The weakened Antigonids. He quickly defeated Antigonus Gonatas , Demetrius's son, who ceded Thessaly to him in order to make peace. Pyrrhus's Greek Empire was now at its zenith: he ruled an enlarged Epirus, half of Macedonia, and Thessaly. In 285 BC, Demetrius was defeated by Seleucus. This freed the hands of Lysimachus who decided to get rid of his co-ruler in Macedonia. He first isolated Pyrrhus from his traditional ally

6716-471: Was a Roman consul , Pontifex Maximus , Censor and Princeps Senatus . A scion of the ancient Patrician gens Aemilia , he was most likely the son of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , with his brothers being Lucius and Quintus. According to Polybius , Lepidus was "the handsomest man of his time," as well as, in the words of Diodorus , being "gifted with superior intelligence". Combining these qualities with an impeccable aristocratic birth, political skill and

6808-459: Was a cousin of Olympias , making Pyrrhus a second cousin to Alexander the Great . He had two sisters: Deidamia and Troias. In 319/318 BC, Arrybas, Aeacides' father and the regent of Epirus, died leaving Epirus to the joint kings Aeacides and Neoptolemus . Aeacides supported Olympias in her fight against Cassander and marched on Macedon. In 317 BC, when Pyrrhus was only two, Olympias requested Aeacides' support yet again and he marched on Macedon

6900-610: Was dangerously ill, invaded Macedonia. His original intention was merely to raid and pillage, but with Demetrius unable to lead his forces he met almost no opposition. Pyrrhus penetrated as far as the old Macedonian capital of Aegae before Demetrius was well enough to take the field. Since Demetrius commanded a superior force, Pyrrhus had no choice but to retreat. Demetrius, just as restless as Pyrrhus, planned to invade Asia and reclaim his father's old domains. He first made peace with Pyrrhus granting him his holdings in Macedonia while holding on to Corcyra and Leucas, then he started to raise

6992-508: Was designed as a measure against the Italian peoples of Lucania , the Tarentines grew nervous and attacked the Romans in Thurii, driving the Roman garrison from the city and sinking several Roman warships. Tarentum was now faced with a Roman attack and certain defeat, unless they could enlist the aid of greater powers. Rome had already made itself into a major power, and was poised to subdue all

7084-416: Was dissolved and Rome took formal possession of the territoires which constitute modern day Greece, re-organising these territories into province of Macedonia . Finally, in 63 BC, Pompey Magnus delivered the final coup de grace to the already much reduced Seleucid Empire, deposing its last ruler and absorbing its territories into the new Roman province of Syria . Pyrrhus wrote memoirs and several books on

7176-514: Was distracted by his war against Antigonus Monophthalmus , one of the most powerful of the Diadochi . Fearing an invasion from Asia Minor , where Antigonus was building up his forces, he shifted his attention from west to the east. Aeacides took advantage of the situation and returned to Epirus. He appears to have regained popularity and raised a large army. Cassander sent an army under his brother Philip who defeated Aeacides in two battles. Aeacides

7268-539: Was elected pontifex maximus and from 179, he was princeps senatus . That same year he was also elected censor along with his great rival Marcus Fulvius Nobilior . In 175, he was elected consul for the second time. He oversaw construction of the Via Aemilia in 187, a Roman road from the town of Placentia to Ariminum , still in use and one of the most important roads in Northern Italy. He established

7360-415: Was left to deal with. He set out at night in order to reach his enemy secretly. However, the dense vegetation of the area caused problems for his men, who finally arrived at daylight, when they were tired and impossible to pass unnoticed. As a result the attack was repulsed, with Pyrrhus losing half of his elephants. The next day the Romans took the initiative of the attack. Their initial attack, thanks to

7452-497: Was likely Appius Claudius Caecus , who was said to have invented the rhotacism in Latin , perhaps in the process of writing this list, since several Latin names changed in these years. Another reform of the Senate followed a few decades later: senators were by now picked from among former magistrates. As a result, senators were ordered by the censors in several ranks according to their past magistracies. This ordering by seniority led to

7544-527: Was not a lifetime appointment. However, in practice, the incumbent princeps senatus was always re-appointed by the censors. Traditionally, the princeps senatus had the honour of speaking first on any motion or topic presented by the presiding magistrate . By the middle republic, the princeps senatus was the most prestigious position in Rome and had adduced further privileges: he moved all routine senate business, having power to have his input directly moulded into them by choosing their wording. He also set out

7636-542: Was not yet then one of the customary candidates (senior ex-censors). Regardless, Augustus held the office until his death; it then absorbed into the emperor 's offices and powers. In the emperor's absence, it is possible that a senator was granted the privilege of holding this role when the Senate met; the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta claimed that during the Crisis of the Third Century , some others held

7728-500: Was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome , and had been regarded as one of the greatest generals of antiquity. Several of his victorious battles caused him unacceptably heavy losses, from which the phrase " Pyrrhic victory " was coined. Pyrrhus became king of Epirus in 306 BC at the age of 13, but was dethroned by Cassander four years later. He saw action during the Wars of the Diadochi and regained his throne in 297 BC with

7820-672: Was one of the two great powers of the Western Mediterranean . At the same time, the Macedonians , whose King Ptolemy Keraunos had been killed by invading Gauls , asked Pyrrhus to ascend the throne of Macedon. Pyrrhus decided that Sicily offered him a greater opportunity, and sailed his army there. In 278 BC, soon after disembarking his army in Sicily, he lifted the Carthaginian Siege of Syracuse . Pyrrhus

7912-497: Was part of "diehard republicans"' propaganda against Mark Antony , whom Cicero had violently attacked in his Philippicae . Cicero's ascribed leadership of the senate, however, may not necessarily correspond to the traditional princeps senatus' office. The position was revived by Augustus in 28 BC; he, irregularly, appointed himself. If the post was limited to certain gentes , the Julii were possibly ineligible, and Augustus

8004-666: Was probably fighting a war in Illyria to the north. According to Pausanius, "Pyrrhus was roaming around as usual". The Greek city of Tarentum , in southern Italy , fell out with Rome due to a violation of an old treaty that specified Rome was not to send warships into the Tarentine Gulf . In 282 BC, the Romans installed garrisons in the Greek cities of Thurii (on the western end of the Tarentine Gulf), Locri , and Rhegium , and sent warships to Thurii. Although this

8096-650: Was proclaimed king of Sicily. He was already making plans for his son Helenus to inherit the kingdom of Sicily and his other son Alexander to be given Italy. In 277 BC, Pyrrhus captured Eryx , the strongest Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus. In 276 BC, Pyrrhus negotiated with the Carthaginians. Although they were inclined to come to terms with Pyrrhus, supply him money and send him ships once friendly relations were established, he demanded that Carthage abandon all of Sicily and make

8188-508: Was taken hostage to Alexandria , under the terms of a peace treaty made between Demetrius and Ptolemy I Soter . There, he married Ptolemy I's stepdaughter Antigone (a daughter of Berenice I of Egypt from her first husband Philip —respectively, Ptolemy I's wife and a Macedonian noble). In 297 BC, Cassander died and Ptolemy, always looking for allies, decided to help restore Pyrrhus to his kingdom. He provided Pyrrhus with men and funds and sent him back to Epirus. Pyrrhus returned to Epirus at

8280-438: Was the most senior former censor at that date, the first princeps was necessarily appointed after his death. The most probable candidate is therefore Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus , chosen by the censors of 275, whose lectio left a mark in ancient sources. In 209 BC, the censor Publius Sempronius Tuditanus went against the tradition and appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus instead of Titus Manlius Torquatus ,

8372-508: Was wounded in the last battle and died soon after. In 307 BC, Glaucias invaded Epirus and put Pyrrhus on the throne. Pyrrhus was only eleven years old, so his guardians ruled in his stead until he came of age. When he was seventeen he travelled to the court of Glaucias in Illyria to attend the wedding of one of Glaucias' sons. While he was in Illyria the Molossians rose in rebellion, drove out Pyrrhus' supporters, and returned Neoptolemus to

8464-508: Was wounded, but in return wounded his opponent twice, in the thigh and in the neck. Pantauchus' bodyguards had to carry him away. Emboldened by their king's victory, the Epirotes resumed their attack and broke Pantauchus' army, and took 5,000 prisoners. The army then honoured Pyrrhus by bestowing the surname of 'Eagle' upon him. Demetrius, upon hearing of Pyrrhus's victory, marched back to Macedon. Pyrrhus released his prisoners and marched back to Epirus. In 289 BC, Pyrrhus, learning that Demetrius

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