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103-673: According to Strabo , the Molossians, along with the Chaonians and Thesprotians , were the most famous among the fourteen tribes of Epirus, who once ruled over the whole region . The Chaonians ruled Epirus at an earlier time, and afterwards the Thesprotians and Molossians controlled the region. The Thesprotians, the Chaonians, and the Molossians were the three principal clusters of Greek tribes that had emerged from Epirus and were

206-540: A Greek oracle, the latter being a well-established religious sanctuary of Zeus since at least the Geometric Age (c. 1100–800 BC). Aristotle stated that " Hellas " was located around Dodona and Achelous . Moreover, according to Malkin, two of the three comprehensive names used for the Greeks still in use to this day ( Graikoi , Hellenes and Ionians) are associated with Dodona and Epirus. Aristotle also considered

309-530: A date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD ;23 of Juba II , king of Maurousia ( Mauretania ), who is said to have died "just recently". He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, but not always consistently. It is an encyclopaedic chronicle and consists of political, economic, social, cultural, and geographic descriptions covering almost all of Europe and

412-757: A descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime. Although the Geographica was rarely used by contemporary writers, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire . It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469. The first printed edition was published in 1516 in Venice . Isaac Casaubon , classical scholar and editor of Greek texts, provided

515-469: A descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime. Additionally, Strabo authored historical works, but only fragments and quotations of these survive in the writings of other authors. Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus (in present-day Cappadocia ) in around 64   BC. His family had been involved in politics since at least

618-405: A much lower cost of transportation. In comparison, at least 65,000 Sardinians and many other tribes were enslaved in the same year. However, recent research and new interpretations on the scale of the devastation has challenged those traditional views by some contemporary authors, as such those claims about 70 razed settlements and 150,000 captured slaves were not exact, but symbolic figures. Though

721-474: A new chronology for some inscriptions in Dodona (from early 4th century to one century later), if accurate this would have larger implications about local history, but not all historians will be convinced by the interpretations suggested in this account and further investigation is needed. In terms of religion they worshipped the same gods like the rest of the Greeks. No traces of non-Greek deities were found until

824-518: A new coinage was issued with the legend Epirotes . After Alexander's I death, Aeacides of Epirus , who succeeded him, espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander , but was dethroned in 313 BC. Aeacides's son Pyrrhus came to the throne in 295 BC. Pyrrhus, being a skillful general, was encouraged to aid the Greeks of Tarentum and decided to initiate a major offensive in the Italian peninsula and Sicily . Due to its superior martial abilities,

927-563: A regional hub for several small villages of Pindos, and features many shops, schools and a general hospital. Primary aspects of the economy are agriculture and tourism; it is a popular starting point for tourists and hikers who want to explore the Pindos mountains, or who want to go rafting in the river Aoos or parapenting . Due to Konitsa's closeness to places of particular interest, such as the Vikos–Aoös National Park , which includes

1030-413: A rival tribe the Chaonians – a Roman ally – who in order to gain command of the region, pushed for the extermination of the Molossians. This interpretation is based on the negative assessment of Charops, already in ancient sources, as Polybius calls him "the most savage and degenerate of all men". The modern interpretation of the events, focuses more on the structural reasons which led to this decision by

1133-468: A substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament (or synedrion ). In the following years, Epirus faced the growing threat of the expansionist Roman Republic , which fought a series of wars with Macedonia. The League remained neutral in the first two Macedonian Wars . However, they sided with the anti-Roman Macedonian-Illyrian pact in

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1236-491: A valuable source of information on the ancient world of his day, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. He travelled extensively, as he says: "Westward I have journeyed to the parts of Etruria opposite Sardinia; towards the south from the Euxine [Black Sea] to the borders of Ethiopia; and perhaps not one of those who have written geographies has visited more places than I have between those limits." It

1339-527: A very rocky mountain, called the Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and near the caves and the river a village called Troy, an ancient settlement of the captive Trojans who had accompanied Menelaus and settled there. Strabo commented on volcanism ( effusive eruption ) which he observed at Katakekaumene (modern Kula , Western Turkey). Strabo's observations predated Pliny the Younger who witnessed

1442-582: Is "... pro-Roman throughout the Geography. But while he acknowledges and even praises Roman ascendancy in the political and military sphere, he also makes a significant effort to establish Greek primacy over Rome in other contexts." In Europe , Strabo was the first to connect the Danube (which he called Danouios) and the Istros – with the change of names occurring at "the cataracts," the modern Iron Gates on

1545-524: Is Proxenus of Atarneus (early 4th century BC). This use of names from Iliad was contrary to ancient Greek name giving customs of classical antiquity in which names from the Iliad were not given to living people. When the ruling class of the Molossians began to construct such a genealogy is unclear. The various theories place it chronologically from a post-Odyssey framework to the 5th century BC. The initial reasons for doing so are also debated. The conflict with

1648-567: Is a town of Ioannina in Epirus , Greece . It is located north of the capital Ioannina and near the Albanian border . Konitsa lies northeast of a group of villages known as the Zagorochoria . The town was built amphitheatrically-shaped on a mountain slope of the Pindos mountain range from where it overlooks the valley where the river Aoos meets the river Voidomatis . Konitsa acts as

1751-516: Is also attested by the available epigraphic evidence in Epirus. Eugene Borza argues that the Molossians originated from those Proto-Greek tribes that inhabited northwestern Greece in c. 2.600 BC. Linguist Vladimir Georgiev argues that northwestern Greece, including Molossia, was part of the proto-Greek region, before the Late Bronze Age migrations. After the split of proto-Greek (c. 1700 BC)

1854-537: Is decisive because only Greeks were allowed to participate in the Panhellenic games and festivals. The list, which was compiled in 360 BC, includes the sacred envoys (members of the ruling family of each tribe or subtribe) of the Molossians, Kassopeans , Chaonians and Thesprotians . The oracle of Dodona was located in the center of the homeland of the Molossians, the Molossis, which has always been regarded as

1957-645: Is known in Bulgarian as Коница (Konitsa) , Albanian as Konicë , in Aromanian as Cunitsã , and in Turkish as Koniçe . There are two main theories regarding the etymology of the name. The first states that the city takes its name from an ancient Epirote city named Knossos , which was located near modern-day Konitsa. According to this theory, the name is a corruption: Knossos -> Konissos -> Konissa -> Konitsa . The other theory states that

2060-490: Is not known when he wrote Geographica , but he spent much time in the famous library in Alexandria taking notes from "the works of his predecessors". A first edition was published in 7 BC and a final edition no later than 23 AD, in what may have been the last year of Strabo's life. It took some time for Geographica to be recognized by scholars and to become a standard. Alexandria itself features extensively in

2163-616: Is often used for a victory with devastating cost to the victor. In 233 BC, the last surviving member of the Aeacid royal house, Deidamia , was murdered. Her death brought the Epirote royal family to an abrupt extinction and a federal republic was set up. The reasons for the swift fall of the Aeacid dynasty were probably complex. Aetolian pressure must have played a part, and the alliance with Macedonia may have been unpopular; in addition, there were perhaps social tensions. However, Epirus remained

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2266-431: Is proper,' he observes in continuation, ' to derive our explanations from things which are obvious, and in some measure of daily occurrences, such as deluges, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and sudden swellings of the land beneath the sea; for the last raise up the sea also, and when the same lands subside again, they occasion the sea to be let down. And it is not merely the small, but the large islands also, and not merely

2369-612: The Carthaginian fortress in Eryx , Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus. His Italian campaign came to an end following the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum (275 BC). Having lost the vast majority of his army, he decided to return to Epirus, which finally resulted in the loss of all his Italian holdings. Because of his costly victories, the term " Pyrrhic victory "

2472-799: The Lamian War . Pyrrhus was a second cousin of Alexander the Great . Moreover, Olympias , the mother of Alexander the Great, was a member of this celebrated sovereign house. During the Late Bronze Age the Molossians were probably located over much of the central and western ranges of the Pindos . They were among the known Greek tribes of the Mycenaean period (1600–1100 BC) after the Proto-Greek split. The area of Pogoni has been regarded as

2575-547: The Orestae and the Paroroi )—from the region of north Pindus—a region which had evidently entered Molossian rule. The state officials now were: the king, the prostates, the secretary (grammateus) and a board of fifteen synarchontes ( Greek : συνάρχοντες ), literally meaning "co-rulers", instead of the earlier ten damiourgoi. The king also held the military command as an ' Aeacidae '; a descendant of Achilles. An inscription from

2678-603: The Sanjak of Ioannina . The town was the administrative centre of a kaza (Ottoman district) which according to the Ottoman General Census of 1881/82 had a total population of 16.570, consisting of 15.838 Orthodox Greeks , 1.429 Muslims and 3 Jews . During the Ottoman period some local Greek landowners converted to Islam to preserve their holdings. These converts formed a powerful and influential group in

2781-597: The Thessalian tribes to the east (who claimed similar mythological ancestry as the later Molossians) and the beginning of the Hellenization of the Molossians in the 5th century BC have been argued as contributing factors for these constructions. An important point is that the function of this construction of a fictional genealogy by the ruling dynasty of the Molossians was not to Hellenize the ethnic origin of their people, but to heroize their house. In this context,

2884-699: The Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). After the Roman victory, a total of 150,000 Epirotes, mostly Molossians, were enslaved and sent to Italy, by decision of the Roman Senate. This decision is the only such act of the Roman senate and the largest, single, slave-hunting operation in Roman history. In the following years, Epirote slaves in Italy outnumbered slaves of other origins and the majority of slave marriages were between Epirotes. In historiography,

2987-802: The Vikos Gorge , the Aoos Gorge and the Tymfi mountains, where the Vikos spring water brand is collected, the Dragonlakes of Tymfi and Smolikas and the sulfur baths of Kavasila, contributed to the increase of tourism in the region. The town itself is known in Greek as Kónitsa (Κόνιτσα), the villages surrounding it are often known as the Konitsochoria, meaning "the villages of Konitsa". The town

3090-469: The 13th–12th century B.C and Vitsa (from 9th century B.C). At the earliest burial at Liatovouni Mycenaean weapons were unearthed. This Molossian cemetery consist of a total of 103 burials and was in use until late 5th to early 4th century B.C. A large Molossian cemetery, was also found at Koutsokrano, Pogoni. Molossians were also among the Greek colonists that reached the Ionian shore of Asia Minor during

3193-655: The 4th century stated (referring to Alexander I of Epirus ): When King was Alexandros when of Molossoi prostatas was Aristomachos Omphalas secretary was Menedamos Omphalas resolved by the assembly of the Molossoi; Kreston is benefactor hence to give citizenship to Kteson and descent line The shrine of Dodona was used for the display of public decisions. Despite having a monarchy, the Molossians sent princes to Athens to learn of democracy, and they did not consider certain aspects of democracy incompatible with their form of government. The typical emblem inscribed on Molossian coins

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3296-460: The 5th century BC, and notes that it may have been the prestige language without the Molossians themselves necessarily being regarded as Greeks. Moreover, Malkin specifies that they were Greek-speakers, though not universally regarded as "Greek" by other Greeks. According to Johannes Engels, however, the way of life in Epirus was more archaic than that in the Corinthian and Corcyrean colonies on

3399-554: The Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until he reached Philae , after which point there is little record of his travels until AD 17. It is not known precisely when Strabo's Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius . Some place its first drafts around 7 BC, others around AD 17 or AD 18. The latest passage to which

3502-524: The Aristotelian Xenarchus and Tyrannion who preceded him in teaching Strabo, Athenodorus was a Stoic and almost certainly the source of Strabo's diversion from the philosophy of his former mentors. Moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which Strabo would not otherwise have known about. Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented

3605-591: The Epirote army defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea (280 BC). Subsequently, Pyrrhus's forces nearly reached the outskirts of Rome, but had to retreat to avoid an unequal conflict with a more numerous Roman army. The following year, Pyrrhus invaded Apulia (279 BC) and the two armies met in the Battle of Asculum where the Epirotes won the eponymous Pyrrhic victory , at a high cost. In 277 BC, Pyrrhus captured

3708-409: The Epirotes spoke was regarded as a primitive Northwestern Greek dialect, but there was no question that it was Greek. Earlier historians ( Nilsson (1909 and 1951), Meyer (1878)) argued for a possible partial Hellenization of pre-classical Epirus, with Greek elites ruling over a population of non-Greek origin. However, such views were based on subjective ancient testimonies and are not supported by

3811-476: The Epirotes were more similar to the Macedonians and the non-Greek Illyrians than to those ancient Greeks who were organized in city-states . A wider hellenization process among Molossians and other Epirotes continued after the Roman conquest, nevertheless most scholars don't object the fact that they were Greek in terms of language. In the view of Irad Malkin, following Hammond, Greek was spoken at least since

3914-561: The Euxine [Black Sea] was so great, that its bed must be gradually raised, while the rivers still continued to pour in an undiminished quantity of water. He therefore conceived that, originally, when the Euxine was an inland sea, its level had by this means become so much elevated that it burst its barrier near Byzantium, and formed a communication with the Propontis [Sea of Marmara], and this partial drainage had already, he supposed, converted

4017-645: The Greek army. During the 1950s the Muslim population numbered around 70 families and they further decreased over time to a few families due to conversions to Christianity or migration to their Muslim correligionists in Greek Thrace, in both cases for marriage. The present municipality Konitsa was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in brackets): The Konitsa municipality has an area of 951.184 km ,

4120-610: The Hellenistic age (with the introduction of oriental deities in the Greek world). Their supreme deity was Zeus and the Oracle of Dodona found in the land of the Molossians attracted pilgrims from all over the Greek world. As with the rest of the Epirotes they were included in the thearodokoi catalogues where only Greeks were allowed to participate in Panhellenic Games and festivals. In ancient Greece common descent

4223-545: The Illyrians loot freely. The stratagem worked, and the Molossians fell upon the Illyrians, who were encumbered with booty, and defeated them. In 330 BC, upon Alexander the Molossian's death, the term "Epirus" appears as a single political unit in the ancient Greek records for the first time, under the leadership of the Molossian dynasty. Subsequently, the coinages of the three major Epirote tribal groups came to an end, and

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4326-481: The Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes, was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus (27 BC – AD 14). He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, until at least 31 BC. In 29 BC, on his way to Corinth (where Augustus was at the time), he visited the island of Gyaros in

4429-614: The Mediterranean: Britain and Ireland, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Germania, the Alps, Italy, Greece, Northern Black Sea region, Anatolia, Middle East, Central Asia and North Africa. The Geography is the only extant work providing information about both Greek and Roman peoples and countries during the reign of Augustus. On the presumption that "recently" means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or

4532-442: The Molossian led an expedition in southern Italy in support of the Greek cities of Magna Graecia against the nearby Italian tribes and the emerging Roman Republic . After some successes on the battlefield, he was defeated by a coalition of Italic tribes at the Battle of Pandosia in 331 BC. In another Illyrian attack in 360 BC, the Molossian king Arymbas (or Arybbas) evacuated his non-combatant population to Aetolia and let

4635-400: The Molossian princess Olympias , niece of Arybbas of Epirus , married King Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC). She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great . On the death of Arybbas, Alexander the Molossian , uncle of Alexander the Great of Macedon, succeeded to the throne with the title King of Epirus . In 334 BC, the time Alexander the Great crossed into Asia, Alexander I

4738-400: The Molossian state closer to Athens (the traditional enemy of Sparta). The ruling Molossian Aeacidae dynasty managed to create the first centralized state in Epirus c.  370 BC , expanding their power at the expense of rival tribes. The Aeacids allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of Macedon , in part against the common threat of Illyrian raids, and in 359 BC

4841-661: The Romanian/Serbian border. In India , a country he never visited, Strabo described small flying reptiles that were long with snake-like bodies and bat-like wings (this description matches the Indian flying lizard Draco dussumieri ), winged scorpions, and other mythical creatures along with those that were actually factual. Other historians, such as Herodotus , Aristotle , and Flavius Josephus , mentioned similar creatures. Charles Lyell , in his Principles of Geology , wrote of Strabo: He notices, amongst others,

4944-459: The Romans rather than the personal politics of regional actors. The plague of 174 BC caused a great reduction of available labor in Italy, which was supplied almost exclusively by slave labor. In the following years, slave-hunting became a central feature of Roman campaigns. The Roman senate, which represented the landowning elite, specifically targeted the Molossians because of the proximity of their territory to Brundisium and Taranto would require

5047-556: The actual views of the Greeks regarding Epirus is the list of theorodokoi ( Ancient Greek : θεωρόδοκοι or θεαροδόκοι ; sacred envoy-receivers whose duty was to host and assist the theoroi (θεωροί, "viewers") before the Panhellenic games and festivals ), listing Greek cities and tribes, to which the major Panhellenic sanctuaries sent theoroi in Epidaurus , which includes all of the Epirotic tribes. The weight of this evidence

5150-528: The age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus , a highly respected tutor in Augustus's court. Despite Xenarchus's Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations. In Rome, he also learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus . Although Tyrannion was also a Peripatetic, he

5253-689: The area, living in the upper part of Konitsa alongside the Christians. The upper part of Konitsa is the oldest and most populated part of the Konitsa region, while the lower part is the newest and least populated. While Christians were a majority in the upper part of Konitsa, the lower part of Konitsa had a Muslim majority, consisting mostly of Muslim Albanian refugees from nearby settlements and regions like Leskovik , Kolonjë and Frashër (today located in Albania) who became agricultural laborers. Some of

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5356-470: The coast, but there was never a discussion about their Greekness. The ancient historians and geographers did not follow the scientific methods of modern linguists, who record in detail the speech of the groups they study; their information was based, more rarely on personal experiences, and mostly on the impressions of each of their informants, who as a rule, had neither philological training nor particularly linguistic interests. A far more reliable source about

5459-411: The decision of the senate has been the subject of much debate, as the two main anti-Roman powers of the time in that region, the Macedonians and the Illyrians, suffered few consequences in contrast to the Molossians in terms of punishment. In past scholarship, the theory of Howard Hayes Scullard was the most recognized theory. He connected the measures taken by the Romans to Charops of Epirus , member of

5562-474: The dialect in which they are written is not, as was believed, the Doric of the Corinthian colonies, but a Northwest Greek dialect with several distinctive features, so as to rule out the case of it having been borrowed. In the early 4th century BC ( c.  370 –368 BC), the Molossian officials were the king, the prostatai ( Greek : προστάται ) literally meaning "protectors" like most Greek tribal states at

5665-489: The earliest epigraphic evidence. In modern research, the question of identity has arisen about what constituted the ancient Greek identity, with mode of life as the main criterion of ethnicity construction, regardless of what language they spoke. In each given historical era, the Molossians were regarded as "barbarians" by many contemporary Greeks, not on the basis of language, but because of their tribal way of life, their organization, and their pastoral economy. In this context,

5768-586: The eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24 August AD 79 in Pompeii : …There are no trees here, but only the vineyards where they produce the Katakekaumene wines which are by no means inferior from any of the wines famous for their quality. The soil is covered with ashes, and black in colour as if the mountainous and rocky country was made up of fires. Some assume that these ashes were the result of thunderbolts and subterranean explosions, and do not doubt that

5871-435: The explanation of Xanthus the Lydian, who said that the seas had once been more extensive, and that they had afterwards been partially dried up, as in his own time many lakes, rivers, and wells in Asia had failed during a season of drought. Treating this conjecture with merited disregard, Strabo passes on to the hypothesis of Strato , the natural philosopher, who had observed that the quantity of mud brought down by rivers into

5974-477: The faction of Molossian dynasty who had overthrown him and attempted to take power. Dionysius planned to control all the Ionian Sea. Sparta intervened and expelled the Illyrians who were led by Bardyllis . Even with the aid of 2,000 Greek hoplites and 500 suits of Greek armour, the Illyrians were defeated by the Spartans (led by Agesilaus ) but not before ravaging the region and killing 15,000 Molossians. Alcetas eventually managed to restore his power and brought

6077-413: The family's support for Rome might have affected their position in the local community, and whether they might have been granted Roman citizenship as a reward. Strabo's life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush , as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome . Travel throughout

6180-448: The first critical edition in 1587. Although Strabo cited the classical Greek astronomers Eratosthenes and Hipparchus , acknowledging their astronomical and mathematical efforts covering geography, he claimed that a descriptive approach was more practical, such that his works were designed for statesmen who were more anthropologically than numerically concerned with the character of countries and regions. As such, Geographica provides

6283-484: The following Greek Civil War (1946–1949) the surrounding region became a major battleground, while in December 1947 communist guerrilla units unsuccessfully tried to capture the town. Almost all buildings inhabited by Muslim Albanians in Konitsa were destroyed during World War II warfare. The communists guerrillas had the opportunity to withdraw and regroup to the People's Republic of Albania and then launch repeated attacks against Konitsa, but were decisively defeated by

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6386-429: The heartland of the Molossian tribes due to the large number of tumuli burials found in this region dating from that time. They initially lived in small unwalled settlements, kata komas , mainly scattered in the river valleys and lakeside areas of central Epirus. Among those settlements the most excavated were located in Liatovouni at the confluence of the Aoös and Voidomatis rivers at the valley of Konitsa established in

6489-457: The hot masses burst out from the ground as estimated by a logical reasoning. Such type of soil is very convenient for viniculture , just like the Katanasoil which is covered with ashes and where the best wines are still produced abundantly. Some writers concluded by looking at these places that there is a good reason for calling Dionysus by the name ("Phrygenes"). Konitsa Konitsa ( Greek : Κόνιτσα , see also names in other languages )

6592-700: The house and livestock ( canis pastoralis ). "Never, with them on guard," says Virgil, "need you fear for your stalls a midnight thief, or onslaught of wolves, or Iberian brigands at your back." Strabo records that the Thesprotians, Molossians and Macedonians referred to old men as pelioi (πελιοί) and old women as peliai (πελιαί) (< PIE *pel- , "grey"). Cf. Ancient Greek πέλεια peleia , " pigeon ", so-called because of its dusky grey color. Ancient Greek πελός pelos meant "grey". Their senators were called Peligones (Πελιγόνες), similar to Macedonian Peliganes (Πελιγᾶνες). The Molossian ruling dynasty claimed to be descended from mythological Molossus , one of

6695-412: The islands, but the continents, which can be lifted up together with the sea; and both large and small tracts may subside, for habitations and cities, like Bure, Bizona, and many others, have been engulfed by earthquakes.' Strabo commented on fossil formation mentioning Nummulite (quoted from Celâl Şengör ): One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from

6798-430: The king of the Molossians, having sacrificed to Zeus Areios as god of war, made a formal exchange of oaths with the Molossian tribes, swearing to rule in accordance to the laws. A later inscription, dating probably within the reign of Neoptolemus (shortly before c.  360 BC ), named the Molossian state as "koinon of the Molossians" and mentioned not only the previous ten tribes but also additional five (among them

6901-464: The last book of Geographica , which describes it as a thriving port city with a highly developed local economy. Strabo notes the city's many beautiful public parks, and its network of streets wide enough for chariots and horsemen. "Two of these are exceeding broad, over a plethron in breadth, and cut one another at right angles ... All the buildings are connected one with another, and these also with what are beyond it." Lawrence Kim observes that Strabo

7004-494: The late Classical or the Hellenistic era, in which they were under influence from a northwestern Doric dialect also used by the adjacent populations. The epigraphic corpus unearthed during the recent decades also yielded a great number of onomastics which is of Greek origin akin to the onomastic areas of Thessaly and Macedon. Based on these points the possibility of Greek being not the ancestral language among Epirotes can be easily rejected. Historian Elizabeth Meyer, in 2013 suggested

7107-474: The left side into marshy ground, and that, at last, the whole would be choked up with soil. So, it was argued, the Mediterranean had once opened a passage for itself by the Columns of Hercules into the Atlantic, and perhaps the abundance of sea-shells in Africa, near the Temple of Jupiter Ammon , might also be the deposit of some former inland sea, which had at length forced a passage and escaped. But Strabo rejects this theory as insufficient to account for all

7210-458: The legendary story of Typhon takes place in this region. Ksanthos adds that the king of this region was a man called Arimus. However, it is not reasonable to accept that the whole country was burned down at a time as a result of such an event rather than as a result of a fire bursting from underground whose source has now died out. Three pits are called "Physas" and separated by forty stadia from each other. Above these pits, there are hills formed by

7313-444: The local Greek elites had been Islamised there in order to preserve their social status. The native Muslim and Christian population exclusively spoke Greek in the two neighborhoods of the town. A Greek school was operating already from the end of the 18th century under Georgios Mostras, student of Balanos Vasilopoulos . Greek education was flourishing and in 1906 the kaza of Konitsa had 31 schools and 1,036 pupils. The functioning of

7416-455: The most powerful among all other tribes. The Molossians were also renowned for their vicious hounds , which were used by shepherds to guard their flocks. This is where the canine breed Molossoid , native to Greece, received its name. Virgil tells us that in ancient Greece the heavier Molossian dogs were often used by the Greeks and Romans for hunting ( canis venaticus ) and to watch over

7519-526: The name is Slavic , from Koni (horse) and Tza (land), meaning horseland. According to a third theory, the name comes from a local lord named Konis who allegedly built a castle in the city. During the Middle Bronze Age (2100–1900 BC) the region of Konitsa was inhabited by Proto-Greek populations. Latter in classical antiquity, the area was part of the territory of the Molossians . At

7622-469: The next (AD 24), at which time he is thought to have died. He was influenced by Homer , Hecataeus and Aristotle . The first of Strabo's major works, Historical Sketches ( Historica hypomnemata ), written while he was in Rome ( c.  20 BC ), is nearly completely lost. Meant to cover the history of the known world from the conquest of Greece by the Romans, Strabo quotes it himself and other classical authors mention that it existed, although

7725-611: The northern Greek dialect was spoken in Epirus. Greek speech continued to be spoken in Epirus from the beginning of the Mycenaean period (c.1600) and onwards. As such the Molossians were among the 32 known Greek tribes of the Mycenaean Age in particular after the split of Proto-Greek. N. G. L. Hammond (1982) argues that the Molossians and other Epirote tribes spoke Greek at least from the Dark Ages (1100–800 BC). The language

7828-552: The only surviving document is a fragment of papyrus now in the possession of the University of Milan (renumbered [Papyrus] 46). Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialities throughout his early life at different stops during his Mediterranean travels. The first chapter of his education took place in Nysa (modern Sultanhisar , Turkey) under the master of rhetoric Aristodemus , who had formerly taught

7931-446: The period of its colonization (1020–900 BC). The Molossian expansion in Epirus possibly began in the early 6th century BC. As such they became a leading power in the region already from the time of historian Hecataeus ( c.  550 –476 BC). Their expansion was primarily directed towards the Thesprotians. However, the nearby Chaonians also lost some pastures but they kept control of an area stretching from Grammos (ancient Boion) to

8034-401: The phenomena, and he proposes one of his own, the profoundness of which modern geologists are only beginning to appreciate. 'It is not,' he says, 'because the lands covered by seas were originally at different altitudes, that the waters have risen, or subsided, or receded from some parts and inundated others. But the reason is, that the same land is sometimes raised up and sometimes depressed, and

8137-411: The purpose of the constructed genealogy was to provide the Molossian dynasty with a "cultural passport as Greeks" in their relations with other ruling houses. These genealogical claims from the Molossian ruling dynasty were part of a planned effort by them in order to use elements of Greek culture for their own political ends in order to dominate in regional power struggles. Plutarch writes a story that

8240-417: The quarries lie in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble lentils. Some contain substances like grains half peeled. These, it is said, are the remnants of the workmen's food converted into stone; which is not probable. For at home in our country (Amaseia), there is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with pebbles of a porous stone, resembling lentils. The pebbles of

8343-479: The region around Dodona the region where the Hellenes originated. The first inscriptions come from Corinthian colonies or dedications to Dodona and are not representative of sites in Epirus, although some of the early Dodona tablets may be related to Epirus. The first epigraphic evidence in Epirus outside of Dodona and the nearby colonies dates from the beginning of 4th century BC. The Molossian decrees issued during

8446-537: The region witnessed widescale destruction the Greek language in Epirus showed remarkable vitality in the following centuries both in the cities as well as outside them. There is today an overall consensus that the Molossians were among the Greek-speaking population of Epirus, which spoke the North-West Doric dialect of Ancient Greek , akin to that of Aetolia, Phocis, and certain other regions, this

8549-655: The reign of Mithridates V . Strabo was related to Dorylaeus on his mother's side. Several other family members, including his paternal grandfather, had served Mithridates VI during the Mithridatic Wars . As the war drew to a close, Strabo's grandfather had turned several Pontic fortresses over to the Romans. Strabo wrote that "great promises were made in exchange for these services", and as Persian culture endured in Amaseia even after Mithridates and Tigranes were defeated, scholars have speculated about how

8652-403: The reign of king Neoptolemos I (370–368 BC) display considerable experience in the use of Greek language. They used a Greek dialect which was not borrowed by nearby Corinthian colonies, but a distinct northwestern Greek dialect similar to Akarnanian, Aetolian and Lokrian, which also exhibited several unique features. Thus, the possibility of being borrowed is rejected. Most inscriptions comes from

8755-515: The rest of Greece, precluding serious debate about the Greekness of the Epirotes, including the Molossians. The most famed member of the Molossian dynasty was Pyrrhus , who became famous for his several Pyrrhic victories in battle over the Romans . According to Plutarch , Pyrrhus was the son of Aeacides of Epirus and a Greek woman from Thessaly named Phthia , the daughter of a war hero in

8858-461: The ruling dynasty of the Molossians in classical antiquity constructed a prestigious genealogy going back to the Trojan War and then these names from the Trojan cycle were used for contemporary rulers of the dynasty like Neoptolemos and Pyrrhus of Epirus . In the case of the Molossian ruling class, the philosopher who has been credited with much of the mythological construction of their origins

8961-513: The school was interrupted during the turbulent times of Ali Pasha 's rule, however soon after it reopened following the initiative of Kosmas Thesprotos , a student of Athanasios Psalidas . During the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830) a Greek national identity was evident among local Muslims too. During the 19th century until the early 20th century (late Ottoman period), the tekke of Konitsa, similarly to other Albanian Bektashi tekkes,

9064-401: The sea also is simultaneously raised and depressed so that it either overflows or returns into its own place again. We must, therefore, ascribe the cause to the ground, either to that ground which is under the sea, or to that which becomes flooded by it, but rather to that which lies beneath the sea, for this is more moveable, and, on account of its humidity, can be altered with great celerity. It

9167-453: The sea-shore and of rivers suggest somewhat of the same difficulty [respecting their origin]; some explanation may indeed be found in the motion [to which these are subject] in flowing waters, but the investigation of the above fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere, that in sight of the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone quarries from which they are built, is

9270-575: The sons of the Roman general who had taken over Pontus. Aristodemus was the head of two schools of rhetoric and grammar, one in Nysa and one in Rhodes . The school in Nysa possessed a distinct intellectual curiosity in Homeric literature and the interpretation of the ancient Greek epics. Strabo was an admirer of Homer 's poetry, perhaps as a consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around

9373-535: The southwest of Ohrid-Prespa. The Epirotes were traditionally on friendly terms with the Corinthians , however in 5th century BC during the last decades of the reign of Tharyps , the Molossians adopted a pro- Athenian policy. This change had also its effects in trade. In 385 BC, Alcetas , the deposed Molossian king who was exiled to the court of Dionysius of Syracuse with aid by the Illyrians , attacked

9476-426: The three sons of Neoptolemus , son of Achilles and Deidamia . Following the sack of Troy , Neoptolemus and his armies settled in Epirus where they joined with the local population. Molossus inherited the kingdom of Epirus after the death of Helenus , son of Priam and Hecuba of Troy, who had married his erstwhile sister-in-law Andromache after Neoptolemus's death. According to some historians, their first king

9579-509: The time of the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus (297–272 BC) a number of forts existed in strategically important positions. The town of Konitsa is recorded for the first time under its modern name in the Chronicle of Ioannina of 1380. The chronicle mentioned that the defences of the castle of Konitsa were strengthened by the local Despot of Epirus , due to an imminent attack. In 15th century Konitsa came under Ottoman rule and became part of

9682-402: The time, the grammateus ( Greek : γραμματεύς ) meaning "secretary", the hieromnemones (Greek: ἱερομνήμονες) literally meaning "of the sacred memory" and the ten damiourgoi (Greek: δημιουργοί) literally meaning "creators"; one each for the ten tribes which made up the Molossian group (Arctanes, Tripolies, Celaethoi, Genoaei, Ethnestes, Triphyles, Omphales , Onopernoi and Amymnoi. Once a year

9785-478: The town witnessed a first short-term occupation by units from Fascist Italy. The occupation units that entered Konitsa consisted of approximately 150 Muslim Albanians and 12 Italian soldiers, under the guidance of an Italian officer. They perpetrated lootings and broke into shops. In November 14, with the withdrawal of the Italians from the area, they proceeded to arrests and kidnappings of the local population. In

9888-515: Was Phaethon, one of those who came into Epirus with Pelasgus . According to Plutarch , Deucalion and Pyrrha , having set up the worship of Zeus at Dodona , settled there among the Molossians. At the time, among writers of the classical era these stories were not doubted . According to Johannes Engels (2010) in the Oxford Companion to Macedonia, genealogical links through the Trojan cycle and other myths strongly connected Epirus with

9991-516: Was a covert center of culture, learning and tolerance, but also Albanian national activism against the Ottoman Empire . In that period some Konitsa residents developed a national consciousness resulting in individuals such as Faik Konitza and Mehmet Konica becoming important figures in the Albanian national movement . Apart from a small number of Albanian families, the local Muslim community had Greek as its mother tongue. Albanian speech

10094-451: Was a small town that consisted of a total of 800 dwellings, 200 of which were considered Albanian or Turkish . As a result of the population exchange agreement of 1923 between Greece and Turkey, roughly two-thirds of Konitsa's Muslims, were considered "Turks by origin" and left for Turkey in 1925. Another part moved to Albania. They were replaced with around 1,000 Greeks from Cappadocia . In early November 1940, during World War II,

10197-653: Was demonstrated thorough genealogies and foundation legends. As such the local royal household, the settlements and tribes traced their origin to Achaean mythical heroes of the Mycenaean era. Such genealogies were known and widely accepted in Ancient Greece at least from the end of the Archaic period , as demonstrated in the poems of Pindar ( c.  518 – 438 BC) dedicated to the Achaean Neoptolemos. As such, in order to increase their prestige,

10300-510: Was limited to the local Ottoman officials. On the other hand, the local Greek population displayed tolerance towards actions by the Albanians that did not reveal chauvinist inclinations. In c. 1856 the town had a Muslim majority population of 62% and was mainly Greek-speaking, while the kaza had a Christian majority. During the late 19th century Konitsa had a population of 7,000 of whom 4,000 were Christians and 3,000 Muslims. In 1924 Konitsa

10403-400: Was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, a fact of some significance considering Strabo's future contributions to the field. The final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites , a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus passed onto Strabo his philosophy, his knowledge and his contacts. Unlike

10506-406: Was related to him, according to which, the Molossian king Tharrhypas was the first in his dynasty to become renowned, as he organized his cities on a system of Greek customs, rules and regulations. He was probably responsible for the earliest known decrees of the Molossian state in 370–368   BC, during the reign of his grandson Neoptolemus I; though, the institutions originated much earlier, and

10609-631: Was the molossian dog on a shield with the legend Μολοσσοί . Strabo Strabo ( / ˈ s t r eɪ b oʊ / ; Greek : Στράβων Strábōn ; 64 or 63 BC – c.  24 AD ) was a Greek geographer , philosopher , and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . He is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented

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