Priscillianism was a Christian sect developed in the Roman province of Hispania in the 4th century by Priscillian . It is derived from the Gnostic doctrines taught by Marcus, an Egyptian from Memphis . Priscillianism was later considered a heresy by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church .
145-475: Marcus, a native of Memphis in Egypt, came to Spain and taught Gnostic theories. Two of his followers, a Spanish woman named Agape and the rhetorician Helpidius, converted Priscillian, who was a layman "of noble birth, of great riches, bold, restless, eloquent, learned through much reading, very ready at debate and discussion". Through his oratorical gifts and reputation for extreme asceticism , Priscillian attracted
290-673: A Roman-Suebi-Gothic coalition led by the Roman patrician Castinus at the Battle of Tarraco . It is likely that many Roman and Gothic troops deserted to Gunderic following the battle. For the next five years, according to Hydatius , Gunderic created widespread havoc in the western Mediterranean . In 425, the Vandals pillaged the Balearic Islands , Hispania and Mauritania , sacking Cartagena and Seville in 425. The capture of
435-589: A civic art of rhetoric, combining the almost incompatible properties of techne and appropriateness to citizens." Each of Aristotle's divisions plays a role in civic life and can be used in a different way to affect the polis . Because rhetoric is a public art capable of shaping opinion, some of the ancients, including Plato found fault in it. They claimed that while it could be used to improve civic life, it could be used just as easily to deceive or manipulate. The masses were incapable of analyzing or deciding anything on their own and would therefore be swayed by
580-640: A close follower. According to Raymond Brown's Epistle of John , the source of the Comma Johanneum appears to be the Latin book Liber Apologeticus by Priscillian. The potential influence of Zoroastrian thought on Priscillianism remains a matter of scholarly debate. While direct evidence of Persian religious influence in 4th-century Hispania is limited, several scholars have identified theological parallels between Priscillianist and Zoroastrian concepts. Jerome, in his Letter to Ctesiphon, provides one of
725-406: A common late antique heresiological strategy of linking heterodox Christian movements to "eastern" or "Persian" influences. While this does not necessarily demonstrate direct Zoroastrian influence on Priscillianism, it shows that such connections were perceived or constructed by contemporary critics. Rhetoric Rhetoric ( / ˈ r ɛ t ə r ɪ k / ) is the art of persuasion . It
870-473: A conservative status quo" and they held that "skilled speech should support, not question, society". In ancient China , rhetoric dates back to the Chinese philosopher , Confucius (551–479 BCE ). The tradition of Confucianism emphasized the use of eloquence in speaking. Vandals The Vandals were a Germanic people who were first reported in the written records as inhabitants of what
1015-601: A course of study has evolved since its ancient beginnings, and has adapted to the particular exigencies of various times, venues, and applications ranging from architecture to literature. Although the curriculum has transformed in a number of ways, it has generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of composition as a means for moving audiences. Rhetoric began as a civic art in Ancient Greece where students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical persuasion, especially in legal disputes. Rhetoric originated in
1160-576: A good man, a person enlightened on a variety of civic topics. He describes the proper training of the orator in his major text on rhetoric, De Oratore , which he modeled on Plato's dialogues. Modern works continue to support the claims of the ancients that rhetoric is an art capable of influencing civic life. In Political Style , Robert Hariman claims that "questions of freedom, equality, and justice often are raised and addressed through performances ranging from debates to demonstrations without loss of moral content". James Boyd White argues that rhetoric
1305-473: A group. This definition of rhetoric as identification broadens the scope from strategic and overt political persuasion to the more implicit tactics of identification found in an immense range of sources . Among the many scholars who have since pursued Burke's line of thought, James Boyd White sees rhetoric as a broader domain of social experience in his notion of constitutive rhetoric . Influenced by theories of social construction , White argues that culture
1450-529: A guide to creating persuasive messages and arguments: Memory was added much later to the original four canons. During the Renaissance rhetoric enjoyed a resurgence, and as a result nearly every author who wrote about music before the Romantic era discussed rhetoric. Joachim Burmeister wrote in 1601, "there is only little difference between music and the nature of oration". Christoph Bernhard in
1595-545: A large following, including Helpidus and two bishops, Instantius and Salvianus. They established a new sect as an oath-bound society, attracting the attention of the bishop Hyginus of Cordoba . Hyginus made his fears known to Hydatius, Bishop of Emerita , and Ithacius of Ossonoba . The bishops of Hispania and Aquitaine held a synod at Zaragoza in 380. Though summoned, the Priscillianists refused to appear. The synod pronounced sentence of excommunication against
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#17327795228441740-729: A large group of tribes between the Vistula and the Oder. Strabo and Ptolemy do not mention the Vandals at all, only the Lugii, Tacitus mentions them in a passage about the ancestry of the Germanic peoples without saying where they lived, and Pliny the Elder in contrast mentions the Vandals but not the Lugii. Walter Pohl and Walter Goffart have noted that Ptolemy seems to distinguish the Silingi from
1885-641: A large part of the Vandal army and navy was led by Tzazo , Gelimer's brother, to Sardinia to deal with a rebellion. As a result, the armies of the Byzantine Empire commanded by Belisarius were able to land unopposed 10 miles (16 km) from Carthage. Gelimer quickly assembled an army, and met Belisarius at the Battle of Ad Decimum ; the Vandals were winning the battle until Gelimer's brother Ammatas and nephew Gibamund fell in battle. Gelimer then lost heart and fled. Belisarius quickly took Carthage while
2030-518: A limited field, ignoring many critical applications of rhetorical theory, criticism, and practice. Simultaneously, the neo-Sophists threaten to expand rhetoric beyond a point of coherent theoretical value. In more recent years, people studying rhetoric have tended to enlarge its object domain beyond speech. Kenneth Burke asserted humans use rhetoric to resolve conflicts by identifying shared characteristics and interests in symbols. People engage in identification , either to assign themselves or another to
2175-475: A persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: invention , arrangement , style , memory , and delivery . From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in Western education in training orators , lawyers , counsellors, historians , statesmen , and poets . Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to
2320-404: A positive image, potentially at the expense of suppressing dissent or criticism. An example of this is the government's actions in freezing bank accounts and regulating internet speech, ostensibly to protect the vulnerable and preserve freedom of expression, despite contradicting values and rights. The origins of the rhetoric language begin in Ancient Greece. It originally began by a group named
2465-473: A revival with the rise of democratic institutions during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Hugh Blair was a key early leader of this movement. In his most famous work, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres , he advocates rhetorical study for common citizens as a resource for social success. Many American colleges and secondary schools used Blair's text throughout the 19th century to train students of rhetoric. Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in
2610-532: A school of pre-Socratic philosophers known as the Sophists c. 600 BCE . Demosthenes and Lysias emerged as major orators during this period, and Isocrates and Gorgias as prominent teachers. Modern teachings continue to reference these rhetoricians and their work in discussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion. Rhetoric was taught in universities during the Middle Ages as one of
2755-891: A successor to Agape and Elpidius. The connection to Zoroastrian practices in Jerome's account may have been influenced by Orosius' earlier report of Priscillian's interest in astrology. Analysis of the Würzburg Tractates identifies astrological elements in Priscillian's teachings that show similarities to Zoroastrian priestly traditions, particularly in their understanding of celestial bodies' spiritual significance. These elements demonstrate sophisticated cosmological frameworks that parallel Persian models. The movement's dualistic tendencies, often criticized by orthodox Christians as Manichaean, may indicate earlier Zoroastrian influences. Burrus argues that while Priscillianism's dualism
2900-664: A surprise attack by Western Emperor Majorian at the mouth of the Garigliano river. As a result of the Vandal sack of Rome and piracy in the Mediterranean , it became important to the Roman Empire to destroy the Vandal kingdom. In 460, Majorian launched an expedition against the Vandals, but was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena . In 468 the Western and Eastern Roman empires launched an enormous expedition against
3045-443: A tool to influence communities from local to national levels. Political parties employ "manipulative rhetoric" to advance their party-line goals and lobbyist agendas. They use it to portray themselves as champions of compassion, freedom, and culture, all while implementing policies that appear to contradict these claims. It serves as a form of political propaganda, presented to sway and maintain public opinion in their favor, and garner
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#17327795228443190-425: Is "reconstituted" through language. Just as language influences people, people influence language. Language is socially constructed, and depends on the meanings people attach to it. Because language is not rigid and changes depending on the situation, the very usage of language is rhetorical. An author, White would say, is always trying to construct a new world and persuading his or her readers to share that world within
3335-438: Is Epistemic?". In it, he focuses on uncovering the most appropriate definitions for the terms "rhetoric", "knowledge", and "certainty". According to Harpine, certainty is either objective or subjective. Although both Scotts and Cherwitz and Hikins theories deal with some form of certainty, Harpine believes that knowledge is not required to be neither objectively nor subjectively certain. In terms of "rhetoric", Harpine argues that
3480-538: Is also known for describing her process of invention in "The Exaltation of Inanna," moving between first- and third-person address to relate her composing process in collaboration with the goddess Inanna, reflecting a mystical enthymeme in drawing upon a Cosmic audience. Later examples of early rhetoric can be found in the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the time of Sennacherib (704–681 BCE ). In ancient Egypt , rhetoric had existed since at least
3625-464: Is an overwhelming majority that does support the concept of certainty as a requirement for knowledge , but it is at the definition of certainty where parties begin to diverge. One definition maintains that certainty is subjective and feeling-based, the other that it is a byproduct of justification . The more commonly accepted definition of rhetoric claims it is synonymous with persuasion . For rhetorical purposes, this definition, like many others,
3770-468: Is capable not only of addressing issues of political interest but that it can influence culture as a whole. In his book, When Words Lose Their Meaning , he argues that words of persuasion and identification define community and civic life. He states that words produce "the methods by which culture is maintained, criticized, and transformed". Rhetoric remains relevant as a civic art. In speeches, as well as in non-verbal forms, rhetoric continues to be used as
3915-516: Is difficult to define. Political discourse remains the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing specific techniques and conceptions of persuasion or rhetoric. Throughout European History , rhetoric meant persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts. Because of its associations with democratic institutions, rhetoric is commonly said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of free speech , free assembly, and political enfranchisement for some portion of
4060-496: Is especially used by the fields of marketing, politics, and literature. Another area of rhetoric is the study of cultural rhetorics, which is the communication that occurs between cultures and the study of the way members of a culture communicate with each other. These ideas can then be studied and understood by other cultures, in order to bridge gaps in modes of communication and help different cultures communicate effectively with each other. James Zappen defines cultural rhetorics as
4205-694: Is known about the Vandalic language itself, but it is believed to be of the extinct East Germanic linguistic branch, like Gothic. The Goths left behind the only text corpus of the East Germanic language type, especially a 4th-century translation of the Gospels. In the 2nd century, two or three distinct Vandal peoples came to the attention of Roman authors, the Silingi , the Hasdingi , and possibly
4350-655: Is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to culinary arts , which mask the undesirability of unhealthy food by making it taste good. Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Some scholars, however, contest the idea that Plato despised rhetoric and instead view his dialogues as a dramatization of complex rhetorical principles. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric— deliberative , forensic or judicial, and epideictic . Yet, even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, Aristotle generalized
4495-552: Is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish." With this statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in the foundation of all aspects of society. He further argues in Against the Sophists that rhetoric, although it cannot be taught to just anyone, is capable of shaping the character of man. He writes, "I do think that
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4640-754: Is now Poland , during the period of the Roman empire . Much later, in the fifth century, a group of Vandals led by kings established Vandal kingdoms first within the Iberian Peninsula , and then in the western Mediterranean islands , and North Africa . Archaeologists associate the early Vandals with the Przeworsk culture , which has led to some authors equating them to the Lugii , who were another group of Germanic peoples associated with that same archaeological culture and region. Expanding into Dacia during
4785-477: Is one of the three ancient arts of discourse ( trivium ) along with grammar and logic / dialectic . As an academic discipline within the humanities , rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writers use to inform, persuade, and motivate their audiences . Rhetoric also provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case
4930-521: Is still associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists —disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to Sophists like Gorgias , a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on a topic in any field, regardless of his experience in that field. This suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen , Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking, for his amusement, to prove
5075-528: Is too broad. The same issue presents itself with definitions that are too narrow. Rhetoricians in support of the epistemic view of rhetoric have yet to agree in this regard. Philosophical teachings refer to knowledge as a justified true belief . However, the Gettier Problem explores the room for fallacy in this concept. Therefore, the Gettier Problem impedes the effectivity of the argument of Richard A. Cherwitz and James A. Hikins, who employ
5220-736: The Alans got lands in Lusitania (West) and the region around Carthago Nova . The Suebi also controlled part of Gallaecia . The Visigoths , who invaded Iberia on the orders of the Romans before receiving lands in Septimania (Southern France), crushed the Silingi Vandals in 417 and the Alans in 418, killing the western Alan king Attaces . The remainder of his people and the remnants of
5365-468: The Arian Vandals and their Trinitarian subjects (including both Catholics and Donatists ) were a constant source of tension in their African state. Catholic bishops were exiled or killed by Genseric and laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property. He protected his Catholic subjects when his relations with Rome and Constantinople were friendly, as during
5510-649: The Burgundiones , Varini , Carini (otherwise unknown), and the Gutones . Tacitus mentioned the Vandilii , but only in a passage explaining legends about the origins of the Germanic peoples. He names them as one of the groups sometimes thought to be one of the oldest divisions of these peoples, along with the Marsi , Gambrivii , Suebi but does not say where they live, or which peoples are within this category. On
5655-598: The Goths , nor Norsemen (early Scandinavians), were counted among the Germani by the Romans. Since the Vandals spoke a Germanic language (mainly: Vandalic ) and belonged to early Germanic culture , they are classified as a Germanic people by modern scholars. The earliest mention of the Vandals is from Pliny the Elder , who used the term Vandili in a broad way to define one of the major groupings of all Germanic peoples . Tribes within this category who he mentions are
5800-853: The Lacringi , who appear together with the Hasdingi. Only the Silingi had been mentioned in early Roman works, and are associated with Silesia . These peoples appeared during the Marcomannic Wars , which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period. During the Marcomannic Wars (166–180) the Hasdingi (or Astingi), led by the kings Raus and Rapt (or Rhaus and Raptus) moved south, entering Dacia as allies of Rome. However they eventually caused problems in Dacia and moved further south, towards
5945-586: The Lech , and sent many of them to Britain. During this same period, the 11th panegyric to Maximian delivered in 291, reported two different conflicts outside the empire wherein Burgundians were associated with Alamanni , and other Vandals, probably Hasdingi in the Carpathian region, were associated with Gepids . According to Jordanes ' Getica , the Hasdingi came into conflict with the Goths around
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6090-676: The Marcomannic Wars and to Pannonia during the Crisis of the Third Century , the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle from Constantine the Great . Around 400, raids by the Huns from the east forced many Germanic tribes to migrate west into the territory of the Roman Empire and, fearing that they might be targeted next,
6235-718: The Mediterranean Sea . The Germanic mythological figure of Aurvandill has been interpreted by Rudolf Much to mean 'Shining Vandal'. Much forwarded the theory that the tribal name Vandal reflects worship of Aurvandil or the Divine Twins , possibly involving an origin myth that the Vandalic kings were descended from Aurvandil (comparable to the case of many other Germanic tribal names ). Some medieval authors equated two classical ethnonyms, "Vandals" and Veneti , and applied both to West Slavs , leading to
6380-558: The Middle Kingdom period ( c. 2080–1640 BCE ). The five canons of eloquence in ancient Egyptian rhetoric were silence, timing, restraint, fluency, and truthfulness. The Egyptians held eloquent speaking in high esteem. Egyptian rules of rhetoric specified that "knowing when not to speak is essential, and very respected, rhetorical knowledge", making rhetoric a "balance between eloquence and wise silence". They also emphasized "adherence to social behaviors that support
6525-707: The deuterocanonical books of the Bible, not as being inspired but as helpful in discerning truth and error; however, several of the books were considered to be genuine and inspired. It was long thought that all the writings of Priscillian himself had perished, but in 1885, Georg Schepss discovered at the University of Würzburg eleven genuine tracts, published as Priscilliani quae supersunt . Edited by Georg Schepss. (Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, 18.) Vienna, 1889. Though they bear Priscillian's name, four describing Priscillian's trial appear to have been written by
6670-402: The justified true belief standpoint in their argument for rhetoric as epistemic . Celeste Condit Railsback takes a different approach, drawing from Ray E. McKerrow's system of belief based on validity rather than certainty . William D. Harpine refers to the issue of unclear definitions that occurs in the theories of "rhetoric is epistemic" in his 2004 article "What Do You Mean, Rhetoric
6815-640: The "barbarian" defacing of artwork. However, some modern historians have emphasised the role of Vandals as continuators of aspects of Roman culture , in the transitional period from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages . The ethnonym is attested as Wandali and Wendilenses by Saxo , as Vendill in Old Norse , and as Wend(e)las in Old English , all going back to a Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as * Wanđilaz . The etymology of
6960-647: The African province, and sacked the city of Rome in 455. Their kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War of 533–534, in which Emperor Justinian I 's forces reconquered the province for the Eastern Roman Empire . As the Vandals plundered Rome for fourteen days, Renaissance and early-modern writers characterized the Vandals as prototypical barbarians . This led to the use of the term " vandalism " to describe any pointless destruction, particularly
7105-549: The Athenians did, indeed rely on persuasive speech, more during public speak, and four new political processes, also increasing the sophists trainings leading too many victories for legal cases, public debate, and even a simple persuasive speech. This ultimately led to concerns rising on falsehood over truth, with highly trained, persuasive speakers, knowingly, misinforming. Rhetoric has its origins in Mesopotamia . Some of
7250-469: The Athenians persuasive speech, with the goal of navigating the courts and senate. The sophists became speech teachers known as Sophia; Greek for "wisdom" and root for philosophy, or " love of wisdom" – the sophists came to be common term for someone who sold wisdom for money. Although there is no clear understanding why the Sicilians engaged to educating the Athenians persuasive speech. It is known that
7395-547: The Catholics and ceased persecution once more. Externally, the Vandal power had been declining since Genseric's death, and Gunthamund lost early in his reign all but a small wedge of western Sicily to the Ostrogoths which was lost in 491 and had to withstand increasing pressure from the autochthonous Moors . According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia : "While Thrasamund (496–523), owing to his religious fanaticism,
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#17327795228447540-525: The Celtic Lugii and their more Germanic successors the Vandals. In archaeology, the Vandals are associated with the Przeworsk culture, but the culture probably extended over several central and eastern European peoples. Their origin, ethnicity and linguistic affiliation are heavily debated. The bearers of the Przeworsk culture mainly practiced cremation and occasionally inhumation. Very little
7685-694: The Danube without much difficulty, but when they reached the Rhine, they met resistance from the Franks , who populated and controlled Romanized regions in northern Gaul . According to the Frigeridus fragment cited by Gregory of Tours , around 20,000 Vandals, including Godigisel himself, died in this Vandal-Frankish war , but then with the help of the Alans they managed to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 405
7830-556: The Epistle to the Hebrews) into a series of texts based on their theological points and wrote an introduction to each section. These "canons" survived in a form edited by Peregrinus . They contain a strong call to a life of personal piety and asceticism, including celibacy and abstinence from meat and wine. The charismatic gifts of all believers are equally affirmed. Study of scripture is urged. Priscillian placed considerable weight on
7975-504: The Great (in about 330) granted them lands on the right bank of the Danube, they lived for the next sixty years. In the late 4th century and early 5th, the famous magister militum Stilicho (died 408), the chief minister of the Emperor Honorius , was described as being of Vandal descent. Vandals raided the Roman province of Raetia in the winter of 401/402. From this, historian Peter Heather concludes that at this time
8120-567: The Lugii, and in the 2nd century the Hasdings, when they appear in the Roman record, are also distinguished from the Lugii. Herwig Wolfram notes that "In all likelihood the Lugians and the Vandals were one cultic community that lived in the same region of the Oder in Silesia, where it was first under Celtic and then under Germanic domination." This may account for the differentiation between
8265-471: The Oder. The Hasdingi, who later led the invasion of Carthage, do not appear in written records until the 2nd century and the time of the Marcomannic wars. The Lacringi appear in 3rd century records. The Lugii, who were also mentioned in early classical sources in the same region, are likely to have been the same people as the Vandals. The Lugii are mentioned by Strabo , Tacitus and Ptolemy as
8410-495: The Priscillianist viewpoint. The upheaval in the Hispania due to the invasion of the Vandals , the Alans and the Suevi aided the spread of Priscillianism. Paulus Orosius , a Gallaecian priest from northwest Hispania, wrote to St. Augustine (415 CE) to enlist his aid in combating the heresy. Pope Leo I at a later date took active steps for its repression and at his urgent insistence, councils were held in 446 and 447 at Astorga , Toledo and Braga . In spite of these efforts,
8555-438: The Silingi, who were nearly wiped out, subsequently appealed to the Vandal king Gunderic to accept the Alan crown. Later Vandal kings in North Africa styled themselves Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum ("King of the Vandals and Alans"). In 419 AD the Hasdingi Vandals were defeated by a joint Roman-Suebi coalition. Gunderic fled to Baetica , where he was also proclaimed king of the Silingi Vandals. In 422, Gunderic decisively defeated
8700-408: The Sophists, who wanted to teach the Athenians to speak persuasively in order to be able to navigate themselves in the court and senate. What inspired this form of persuasive speech came about through a new form of government, known as democracy, that was being experimented with. Consequently people began to fear that persuasive speech would overpower truth. Aristotle however believed that this technique
8845-399: The Vandal rule of North Africa was a time of economic instability. When the Vandals raided Sicily in 440, the Western Roman Empire was too preoccupied with war with Gaul to react. Theodosius II, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, dispatched an expedition to deal with the Vandals in 441; however, it only progressed as far as Sicily. The Western Empire under Valentinian III secured peace with
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#17327795228448990-449: The Vandals crossed the Rhine , probably while it was frozen, to invade Gaul, which they devastated terribly. Under Godigisel's son Gunderic , the Vandals plundered their way westward and southward through Aquitaine . On October 13, 409 they crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian peninsula . There, the Hasdingi received land from the Romans, as foederati , in Asturia (Northwest) and the Silingi in Hispania Baetica (South), while
9135-442: The Vandals and Alans numbered 80,000 when they moved to North Africa, Peter Heather estimates that they could have fielded an army of around 15,000–20,000. According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of Bonifacius , the military ruler of the region. Seeking to establish himself as an independent ruler in Africa or even become Roman Emperor, Bonifacius had defeated several Roman attempts to subdue him, until he
9280-455: The Vandals and Burgundians, transferred many of them to Britain. It is unknown where they were settled, though Silchester seems to be a likely candidate. The city bears the name of the Silingi, is only one of six that existed in Roman Britain that did not survive the Sub-Roman era, and appears to have been ritually cursed – likely by the Anglo-Saxons – before being abandoned. In 405 AD the Vandals advanced from Pannonia travelling west along
9425-404: The Vandals departed Spain which remained almost totally in Roman hands until 439, when the Sueves, confined to Gallaecia moved south and captured Emerita Augusta (Mérida), the see city of Roman administration for the whole peninsula. Genseric is often regarded by historians as the most able barbarian leader of the Migration Period. Michael Frassetto writes that he probably contributed more to
9570-427: The Vandals in 442. Under the treaty the Vandals gained Byzacena , Tripolitania , and the eastern half of Numidia, and were confirmed in control of Proconsular Africa as well as the Vandal Kingdom as the first barbarian kingdom was officially recognized as an independent kingdom in former Roman territory instead of foederati . The Empire retained western Numidia and the two Mauretanian provinces until 455. During
9715-413: The Vandals into the fold of the Empire, Valentinian III offered his daughter's hand in marriage to Genseric's son. Before this treaty could be carried out, however, politics again played a crucial part in the blunders of Rome. Petronius Maximus killed Valentinian III and claimed the Western throne. Petronius then forced Valentinian III's widow, empress Licinia Eudoxia , to marry him. Diplomacy between
9860-405: The Vandals took 500 hostages at Zakynthos , hacked them to pieces and threw the pieces overboard on the way to Carthage. In 469 the Vandals gained control of Sicily but were forced by Odoacer to relinquish it in 477 except for the western port of Lilybaeum (lost in 491 after a failed attempt on their part to re-take the island). In the 470s, the Romans abandoned their policy of war against
10005-424: The Vandals under the command of Basiliscus , which reportedly was composed of 100,000 soldiers and 1,000 ships. The Vandals defeated the invaders at the Battle of Cap Bon , capturing the Western fleet, and destroying the Eastern through the use of fire ships . Following up the attack, the Vandals tried to invade the Peloponnese , but were driven back by the Maniots at Kenipolis with heavy losses. In retaliation,
10150-463: The Vandals were also pushed westwards, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406. In 409, the Vandals crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula , where the Hasdingi and the Silingi settled in Gallaecia (northwest Iberia) and Baetica (south-central Iberia). On the orders of the Romans, the Visigoths invaded Iberia in 418. They almost wiped out the Alans and Silingi Vandals who voluntarily subjected themselves to
10295-437: The Vandals were located in the region around the Middle and Upper Danube. It is possible that such Middle Danubian Vandals were part of the Gothic king Radagaisus ' invasion of Italy in 405–406 AD. While the Hasdingian Vandals were already established in the Middle Danube for centuries, it is less clear where the Silingian Vandals had been living though it may have been in Silesia . In AD 278, Emperor Probus on defeating
10440-400: The Vandals. The Western general Ricimer reached a treaty with them, and in 476 Genseric was able to conclude a "perpetual peace" with Constantinople. Relations between the two states assumed a veneer of normality. From 477 onwards, the Vandals produced their own coinage, restricted to bronze and silver low-denomination coins. The high-denomination imperial money was retained, demonstrating in
10585-442: The aid of Pope Damasus I (also from Hispania) in having this sentence revoked. On their journey they were joined by many supporters from Gaul, including a large number of women mentioned in contemporary sources. Reports of improper behavior by their followers and benefactors – possibly fabricated – were circulated against them. Denied an audience by Pope Damasus, they went to Milan to make a similar request of St. Ambrose , but with
10730-427: The assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator's skill are observers. From this it follows that there are three divisions of oratory—(1) political, (2) forensic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display". Eugene Garver, in his critique of Aristotle's Rhetoric , confirms that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a civic art. Garver writes, " Rhetoric articulates
10875-437: The available means of persuasion", and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civic ceremonies, he called it "a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics". Aristotle also identified three persuasive audience appeals: logos , pathos , and ethos . The five canons of rhetoric , or phases of developing
11020-539: The blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War . Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric to deceive rather than to discover truth. In Gorgias , one of his Socratic Dialogues , Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Plato's opinion,
11165-475: The city area – the citizens of Athens formed institutions to the red processes: are the Senate, jury trials, and forms of public discussions, but people needed to learn how to navigate these new institutions. With no forms of passing on the information, other than word of mouth the Athenians needed an effective strategy to inform the people. A group of wandering Sicilian's later known as the Sophists , began teaching
11310-539: The definition of rhetoric as "the art of persuasion" is the best choice in the context of this theoretical approach of rhetoric as epistemic. Harpine then proceeds to present two methods of approaching the idea of rhetoric as epistemic based on the definitions presented. One centers on Alston's view that one's beliefs are justified if formed by one's normal doxastic while the other focuses on the causal theory of knowledge. Both approaches manage to avoid Gettier's problems and do not rely on unclear conceptions of certainty. In
11455-432: The definition of rhetoric to be the ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in a given situation based upon the art of rhetoric ( technê ). This made rhetoric applicable to all fields, not just politics. Aristotle viewed the enthymeme based upon logic (especially, based upon the syllogism) as the basis of rhetoric. Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within
11600-415: The destruction of Rome than any of his contemporaries. Although the barbarians controlled Hispania, they still comprised a tiny minority among a much larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000. Shortly after seizing the throne, Genseric was attacked from the rear by a large force of Suebi under the command of Heremigarius who had managed to take Lusitania . This Suebi army
11745-414: The discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, cartography , and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law. Because the ancient Greeks valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as an important curriculum for those desiring to influence politics. Rhetoric
11890-418: The discussion of rhetoric and epistemology , comes the question of ethics . Is it ethical for rhetoric to present itself in the branch of knowledge ? Scott rears this question, addressing the issue, not with ambiguity in the definitions of other terms, but against subjectivity regarding certainty . Ultimately, according to Thomas O. Sloane, rhetoric and epistemology exist as counterparts, working towards
12035-423: The division between the Sophists and Aristotle. Neo-Aristotelians generally study rhetoric as political discourse, while the neo-Sophistic view contends that rhetoric cannot be so limited. Rhetorical scholar Michael Leff characterizes the conflict between these positions as viewing rhetoric as a "thing contained" versus a "container". The neo-Aristotelian view threatens the study of rhetoric by restraining it to such
12180-405: The domain of public political practice. He restricted rhetoric to the domain of the contingent or probable: those matters that admit multiple legitimate opinions or arguments. Since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric. The contemporary neo-Aristotelian and neo-Sophistic positions on rhetoric mirror
12325-558: The earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in the Akkadian writings of the princess and priestess Enheduanna ( c. 2285–2250 BCE ). As the first named author in history, Enheduanna's writing exhibits numerous rhetorical features that would later become canon in Ancient Greece. Enheduanna's "The Exaltation of Inanna ," includes an exordium , argument , and peroration , as well as elements of ethos , pathos , and logos , and repetition and metonymy . She
12470-464: The emperor at Trier . Ithacius acted as his accuser and was so vehement in his denunciations that St. Martin of Tours , who was then in Trier, intervened. After expressing his disapproval of bringing an ecclesiastical case before a civil tribunal, he obtained from the emperor a promise not to carry his condemnation to the extent of shedding blood. After St. Martin had left the city, the emperor appointed
12615-601: The emperor was murdered in Lyon, and Magnus Maximus had taken his place. Maximus treated the matter not as one of ecclesiastical rivalry, but as one of morality and society. As he wished to curry favour with the orthodox bishops and to replenish his treasury through confiscations, the Emperor gave orders for a synod, which was held in Bordeaux in 384. Instantius was first tried and condemned to deposition. Priscillian appealed to
12760-503: The expanse of implications these words hold. Those who have identified this inconsistency maintain the idea that Scott's relation is important, but requires further study. The root of the issue lies in the ambiguous use of the term rhetoric itself, as well as the epistemological terms knowledge , certainty , and truth . Though counterintuitive and vague, Scott's claims are accepted by some academics, but are then used to draw different conclusions. Sonja K. Foss , for example, takes on
12905-407: The fall of the Roman republic, poetry became a tool for rhetorical training since there were fewer opportunities for political speech. Letter writing was the primary way business was conducted both in state and church, so it became an important aspect of rhetorical education. Rhetorical education became more restrained as style and substance separated in 16th-century France, and attention turned to
13050-481: The first capital of the Vandal kingdom. The Romans and the Vandals concluded a treaty in 435 giving the Vandals control of the Mauretania and the western half of Numidia. Genseric chose to break the treaty in 439 when he invaded the province of Africa Proconsularis and seized Carthage on October 19. The city was captured without a fight; the Vandals entered the city while most of the inhabitants were attending
13195-492: The four leaders, Instantius, Salvianus, Helpidius and Priscillian. Ithacius was chosen to enforce the synod's decrees, but he failed to bring the heretics to terms. In defiance Priscillian was ordained to the priesthood and appointed Bishop of Avila . Ithacius then appealed to the imperial authorities. The emperor Gratian issued a decree which deprived the Priscillianists of their churches and sentenced them to exile. Instantius, Salvianus and Priscillian proceeded to Rome to gain
13340-420: The great age of around 88 years. According to the law of succession which he had promulgated, the oldest male member of the royal house was to succeed. Thus he was succeeded by his son Huneric (477–484), who at first tolerated Catholics, owing to his fear of Constantinople, but after 482 began to persecute Manichaeans and Catholics." Gunthamund (484–496), his cousin and successor, sought internal peace with
13485-626: The growth of the study of rhetoric in colleges across the United States. Harvard's rhetoric program drew inspiration from literary sources to guide organization and style, and studies the rhetoric used in political communication to illustrate how political figures persuade audiences. William G. Allen became the first American college professor of rhetoric, at New-York Central College , 1850–1853. Debate clubs and lyceums also developed as forums in which common citizens could hear speakers and sharpen debate skills. The American lyceum in particular
13630-502: The heresy. The Church did not invoke civil authority to punish heretics. The pope censured not only the actions of Ithacius but also that of the emperor. St. Ambrose was equally stern in his denunciation of the case. Some of the Gallican bishops, who were in Trier under the leadership of Theognistus, broke off communion with Ithacius. He was subsequently deposed from his see by a synod of Hispanic bishops, and his friend and abettor Hydatius
13775-448: The idea that rhetoric is concerned with negotiation and listening, not persuasion, which differs from ancient definitions. Some ancient rhetoric was disparaged because its persuasive techniques could be used to teach falsehoods. Communication as studied in cultural rhetorics is focused on listening and negotiation, and has little to do with persuasion. Rhetorical education focused on five canons . The Five Canons of Rhetoric serve as
13920-549: The late Germanic Iron Age leading up to the Viking Age . The connection is considered tenuous at best and more plausibly the result of chance, though Scandinavia is considered the probable homeland of the tribe prior to the Migration Period . As the Vandals eventually came to live outside of Germania , they were not considered Germani by ancient Roman authors. Neither another East Germanic -speaking group,
14065-481: The latter half of the century said "...until the art of music has attained such a height in our own day, that it may indeed be compared to a rhetoric, in view of the multitude of figures" . Epistemology and rhetoric have been compared to one another for decades, but the specifications of their similarities have gone undefined. Since scholar Robert L. Scott stated that, "rhetoric is epistemic ," rhetoricians and philosophers alike have struggled to concretely define
14210-548: The lower Danube area. Together with the Hasdingi were the Lacringi, who were possibly also Vandals. In about 271 AD the Roman Emperor Aurelian was obliged to protect the middle course of the Danube against Vandals. They made peace and stayed on the eastern bank of the Danube. In 278, Zosimus reported that emperor Probus had defeated the Vandals and Burgundians near a river (sometimes proposed to be
14355-458: The lower kingdom. The salvation of man consists in liberation from the domination of matter. The twelve heavenly spirits having failed to accomplish their release, the Saviour came in a heavenly body that appeared to be like that of other men. Through His doctrine and His apparent death, he released the souls of the men from the influence of earthly matter. These doctrines could be harmonized with
14500-399: The maritime city of Cartagena enabled the Vandals to engage in widespread naval activities. In 428 Gunderic captured Seville for a second time but died while laying siege to the city's church. He was succeeded by his half-brother Genseric , who although he was illegitimate (his mother was a slave) had held a prominent position at the Vandal court, rising to the throne unchallenged. In 429,
14645-499: The modes of persuasion: ethos , pathos , and logos ) and trace rhetorical development through history. Rhetoric earned a more esteemed reputation as a field of study with the emergence of Communication Studies departments and of Rhetoric and Composition programs within English departments in universities, and in conjunction with the linguistic turn in Western philosophy . Rhetorical study has broadened in scope, and
14790-403: The most direct contemporary sources linking Priscillianism to Zoroastrian practices. Writing as part of a polemic against Pelagius and his followers, Jerome describes Priscillian as "a most devoted student of a magus of Zoroaster" (Zoroastris magi studiosissimum) who "from a magus became bishop." This characterization appears within a catalog of heretical pairs, where Jerome positions Priscillian as
14935-551: The most persuasive speeches. Thus, civic life could be controlled by whoever could deliver the best speech. Plato explores the problematic moral status of rhetoric twice: in Gorgias and in The Phaedrus , a dialogue best-known for its commentary on love. More trusting in the power of rhetoric to support a republic, the Roman orator Cicero argued that art required something more than eloquence. A good orator needed also to be
15080-777: The name remains unclear. According to linguist Vladimir Orel , it may stem from the Proto-Germanic adjective * wanđaz ('turned, twisted'), itself derived from the verb * wenđanan (or *winđanan ), meaning 'to wind'. Alternatively, it has been derived from a root * wanđ- , meaning 'water', based on the idea that the tribe was originally located near the Limfjord (a sea inlet in Denmark). The stem can also be found in Old High German wentilsēo and Old English wendelsǣ , both literally meaning 'Vandal-sea' and designating
15225-615: The next thirty-five years, with a large fleet, Genseric looted the coasts of the Eastern and Western Empires. Vandal activity in the Mediterranean was so substantial that the sea's name in Old English was Wendelsæ (i. e. Sea of the Vandals). After Attila the Hun 's death, however, the Romans could afford to turn their attention back to the Vandals, who were in control of some of the richest lands of their former empire. In an effort to bring
15370-507: The other hand, Tacitus and Ptolemy give information about the position of Varini, Burgundians, and Gutones in this period, and these indications suggest that the Vandals in this period lived between the Oder and Vistula rivers. Ptolemy furthermore mentioned the Silingi who were later counted as Vandals, as living south of the Semnones , who were Suebians living on the Elbe, and stretching to
15515-555: The pope's influence saved Rome is, however, questioned. The Vandals departed with countless valuables. Eudoxia and her daughter Eudocia were taken to North Africa. In 456 a Vandal fleet of 60 ships threatening both Gaul and Italy was ambushed and defeated at Agrigentum and Corsica by the Western Roman general Ricimer . In 457 a mixed Vandal-Berber army returning with loot from a raid in Campania were soundly defeated in
15660-478: The population. Those who classify rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power to shape communities, form the character of citizens, and greatly affect civic life. Rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the ancient philosophers. Aristotle and Isocrates were two of the first to see rhetoric in this light. In Antidosis , Isocrates states, "We have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts; and, generally speaking, there
15805-499: The prefect Evodius as judge. He found Priscillian and some others guilty of the crime of magic. This decision was reported to the emperor, who ordered the execution of Priscillian and several of his followers. The property of others was confiscated and they were banished. The conduct of Ithacius was severely criticized. St. Martin, hearing what had taken place, returned to Trier and compelled the emperor to rescind an order to military tribunes , who were on their way to Hispania to extirpate
15950-539: The primary religion in North Africa. Generally most Vandal kings, except Hilderic , persecuted Trinitarian Christians to a greater or lesser extent, banning conversion for Vandals, exiling bishops and generally making life difficult for Trinitarians. According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia : "Genseric, one of the most powerful personalities of the "era of the Migrations", died on 25 January 477, at
16095-480: The races at the hippodrome. Genseric made it his capital, and styled himself the King of the Vandals and Alans , to denote the inclusion of the Alans of northern Africa into his alliance. His forces also occupied Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands . His siege of Palermo in 440 was a failure as was the second attempt to invade Sicily near Agrigento in 442 (the Vandals occupied the island from 468 to 476 when it
16240-453: The royal family led a revolt, raising the banner of national Arianism, and his cousin Gelimer (530–534) became king. Hilderic, Hoamer and their relatives were thrown into prison. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I declared war, with the stated intention of restoring Hilderic to the Vandal throne. The deposed Hilderic was murdered in 533 on Gelimer's orders. While an expedition was en route,
16385-428: The rule of Hasdingian leader Gunderic . Gunderic was then pushed from Gallaecia to Baetica by a Roman- Suebi coalition in 419. In 429, under king Genseric (reigned 428–477), the Vandals entered North Africa . By 439 they established a kingdom which included the Roman province of Africa as well as Sicily , Corsica , Sardinia , Malta and the Balearic Islands . They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture
16530-536: The same purpose of establishing knowledge , with the common enemy of subjective certainty . Rhetoric is a persuasive speech that holds people to a common purpose and therefore facilitates collective action. During the fifth century BCE, Athens had become active in metropolis and people all over there. During this time the Greek city state had been experimenting with a new form of government – democracy, demos , "the people". Political and cultural identity had been tied to
16675-522: The same result. They then resorted to intrigue and bribery at the Court with such success that they were not only freed from the sentence of exile, but permitted to regain possession of their churches in Hispania, where, under the patronage of the imperial officials, they enjoyed such power as to compel Ithacius to leave the country. He, in turn, appealed to Gratian , but before anything had been accomplished
16820-639: The scientific method. Influential scholars like Peter Ramus argued that the processes of invention and arrangement should be elevated to the domain of philosophy, while rhetorical instruction should be chiefly concerned with the use of figures and other forms of the ornamentation of language. Scholars such as Francis Bacon developed the study of "scientific rhetoric" which rejected the elaborate style characteristic of classical oration. This plain language carried over to John Locke 's teaching, which emphasized concrete knowledge and steered away from ornamentation in speech, further alienating rhetorical instruction—which
16965-461: The sect continued to spread during the fifth century. In the following century it began to decline. After the First Council of Braga (561), which specifically targeted its doctrines, it soon died out. The Priscillianists taught a Gnostic doctrine of dualism , a belief in the existence of two kingdoms, one of Light and one of Darkness. Angels and the souls of men were said to be severed from
17110-402: The siege of Hippo Regius, which enabled Bonifacius to retreat from Hippo Regius to Carthage , where he was joined by Aspar's army. During the summer of 432, Genseric soundly defeated the joint forces of both Bonifacius and Aspar, which enabled him to seize Hippo Regius unopposed. Genseric and Aspar subsequently negotiated a peace treaty of some sorts. Upon seizing Hippo Regius, Genseric made it
17255-454: The specific realm of political discourse , to many modern scholars it encompasses every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and in institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse writ large . Rhetoricians have studied
17400-558: The study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character." Aristotle, writing several years after Isocrates, supported many of his arguments and argued for rhetoric as a civic art. In the words of Aristotle, in the Rhetoric , rhetoric is "...the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion". According to Aristotle, this art of persuasion could be used in public settings in three different ways: "A member of
17545-685: The substance of the Deity. Human souls were intended to conquer the Kingdom of Darkness, but fell and were imprisoned in material bodies. Thus both kingdoms were represented in man. Their conflict was symbolized on the side of Light by the Twelve Patriarchs, heavenly spirits, who corresponded to certain of man's powers, and on the side of Darkness by the Signs of the Zodiac , the symbols of matter and
17690-686: The teaching of Scripture only by a complex system of exegesis , rejecting conventional interpretations and relying on personal inspiration. The Priscillians respected most of the Old Testament but rejected the Creation story. They believed that several of the apocryphal Scriptures were genuine and inspired. Because the Priscillians believe that matter and nature were evil, they became ascetics and fasted on Sundays and Christmas Day. Because their doctrines were esoteric and exoteric, and because it
17835-574: The term Wends , which has been used for various Slavic-speaking groups and is still used for Lusatians . However, modern scholars derive "Wend" from "Veneti", and do not equate the Veneti and Vandals. The name of the Vandals has been connected to that of Vendel , the name of a province in Uppland , Sweden, which is also eponymous of the Vendel Period of Swedish prehistory, corresponding to
17980-453: The text. People engage in rhetoric any time they speak or produce meaning. Even in the field of science , via practices which were once viewed as being merely the objective testing and reporting of knowledge, scientists persuade their audience to accept their findings by sufficiently demonstrating that their study or experiment was conducted reliably and resulted in sufficient evidence to support their conclusions. The vast scope of rhetoric
18125-470: The three original liberal arts or trivium (along with logic and grammar ). During the medieval period, political rhetoric declined as republican oratory died out and the emperors of Rome garnered increasing authority. With the rise of European monarchs, rhetoric shifted into courtly and religious applications. Augustine exerted strong influence on Christian rhetoric in the Middle Ages, advocating
18270-789: The time of Constantine the Great . At the time, these Vandals were living in lands later inhabited by the Gepids , where they were surrounded "on the east [by] the Goths, on the west [by] the Marcomanni , on the north [by] the Hermanduri and on the south [by] the Hister ( Danube )." The Vandals were attacked by the Gothic king Geberic , and their king Visimar was killed. The Vandals then migrated to neighbouring Pannonia , where, after Constantine
18415-503: The two factions broke down, and in 455 with a letter from Licinia Eudoxia, begging Genseric's son to rescue her, the Vandals took Rome, along with the Empress and her daughters Eudocia and Placidia . The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine offers the only fifth-century report that, on 2 June 455, Pope Leo the Great received Genseric and implored him to abstain from murder and destruction by fire, and to be satisfied with pillage. Whether
18560-416: The use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understanding, especially in the church. The study of liberal arts, he believed, contributed to rhetorical study: "In the case of a keen and ardent nature, fine words will come more readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by pursuing the rules of rhetoric." Poetry and letter writing became central to rhetorical study during the Middle Ages. After
18705-483: The view that, "rhetoric creates knowledge," whereas James Herrick writes that rhetoric assists in people's ability to form beliefs , which are defined as knowledge once they become widespread in a community. It is unclear whether Scott holds that certainty is an inherent part of establishing knowledge , his references to the term abstract. He is not the only one, as the debate's persistence in philosophical circles long predates his addition of rhetoric. There
18850-497: The wake of the U.S. and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero and others to inspire defenses of the new republics. Leading rhetorical theorists included John Quincy Adams of Harvard , who advocated the democratic advancement of rhetorical art. Harvard's founding of the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory sparked
18995-779: The wheat fields outside the city lay dormant and unharvested. The death of Augustine shocked the Regent of the Western Roman Empire , Galla Placidia , who feared the consequences if her realm lost its most important source of grain. She raised a new army in Italy and convinced her nephew in Constantinople , the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II , to send an army to North Africa led by Aspar . Around July–August 431, Genseric raised
19140-516: The words of Merrills "reluctance to usurp the imperial prerogative". Although the Vandals had fended off attacks from the Romans and established hegemony over the islands of the western Mediterranean, they were less successful in their conflict with the Berbers . Situated south of the Vandal kingdom, the Berbers inflicted two major defeats on the Vandals in the period 496–530. Differences between
19285-474: The years 454–457, when the Catholic community at Carthage, being without a head, elected Deogratias bishop. The same was also the case during the years 476–477 when Bishop Victor of Cartenna sent him, during a period of peace, a sharp refutation of Arianism and suffered no punishment. Huneric, Genseric's successor, issued edicts against Catholics in 483 and 484 in an effort to marginalise them and make Arianism
19430-576: Was defeated near Mérida and its leader Hermigarius drowned in the Guadiana River while trying to flee. It is possible that the name Al-Andalus (and its derivative Andalusia ) is derived from the Arabic adoption of the name of the Vandals. The Vandals under Genseric (also known as Geiseric) crossed to Africa in 429 . Although numbers are unknown and some historians debate the validity of estimates, based on Procopius' assertion that
19575-445: Was an art, and that persuasive speech could have truth and logic embedded within it. In the end, rhetoric speech still remained popular and was used by many scholars and philosophers. The study of rhetoric trains students to speak and/or write effectively, and to critically understand and analyze discourse. It is concerned with how people use symbols, especially language, to reach agreement that permits coordinated effort. Rhetoric as
19720-485: Was believed that men in general could not understand the higher paths, the Priscillianists, or at least those of them who were enlightened, were permitted to tell lies for the sake of a holy end. Augustine wrote a famous work, Contra Mendacium ("Against Lying"), in reaction to this doctrine. Some writings by Priscillian were accounted Orthodox and were not burned. For instance, he divided the Pauline epistles (including
19865-494: Was ceded to Odovacer). Historian Cameron suggests that the new Vandal rule may not have been unwelcomed by the population of North Africa as the great landowners were generally unpopular. The impression given by ancient sources such as Victor of Vita , Quodvultdeus , and Fulgentius of Ruspe was that the Vandal take-over of Carthage and North Africa led to widespread destruction. However, recent archaeological investigations have challenged this assertion. Although Carthage's Odeon
20010-505: Was compelled to resign. After the executions of Priscillian and his followers by the emperor, however, the numbers and zeal of the heretics increased. In 400 another synod was held in Toledo to deal with this problem; many, including bishops Symphonius and Dictinnius, were reconciled to the Church through this synod. Dictinnius was the author of a book Libra (Scales), a moral treatise from
20155-522: Was destroyed, the street pattern remained the same and some public buildings were renovated. The political centre of Carthage was the Byrsa Hill. New industrial centres emerged within towns during this period. Historian Andy Merrills uses the large amounts of African Red Slip ware discovered across the Mediterranean dating from the Vandal period of North Africa to challenge the assumption that
20300-591: Was hostile to Catholics, he contented himself with bloodless persecutions". Hilderic (523–530) was the Vandal king most tolerant towards the Catholic Church . He granted it religious freedom; consequently, Catholic synods were once more held in North Africa. However, he had little interest in war, and left it to a family member, Hoamer . When Hoamer suffered a defeat against the Moors , the Arian faction within
20445-465: Was identified wholly with such ornamentation—from the pursuit of knowledge. In the 18th century, rhetoric assumed a more social role, leading to the creation of new education systems (predominantly in England): " Elocution schools" in which girls and women analyzed classic literature, most notably the works of William Shakespeare , and discussed pronunciation tactics. The study of rhetoric underwent
20590-776: Was less absolute than that found in Manichaeism, it shows distinct patterns that could suggest indirect Zoroastrian sources. The emphasis on the struggle between light and darkness in Priscillian's theology bears notable similarities to Zoroastrian concepts of cosmic conflict. Archaeological evidence from late Roman Hispania shows trading connections with the East, providing possible channels for Persian religious ideas.[8] However, Van Dam suggests that many of Priscillianism's apparently "eastern" elements could be explained by broader ascetic trends in late antique Christianity. Jerome's association of Priscillian with Zoroastrian practices reflects
20735-517: Was mastered by the newly appointed Gothic count of Africa, Sigisvult , who captured both Hippo Regius and Carthage . It is possible that Bonifacius had sought Genseric as an ally against Sigisvult, promising him a part of Africa in return. Advancing eastwards along the coast, the Vandals were confronted on the Numidian border in May–June 430 by Bonifacius. Negotiations broke down, and Bonifacius
20880-467: Was seen as both an educational and social institution, featuring group discussions and guest lecturers. These programs cultivated democratic values and promoted active participation in political analysis. Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study, with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental Greek theories (such as
21025-442: Was soundly defeated. Bonifacius subsequently barricaded himself inside Hippo Regius with the Vandals besieging the city. Inside, Saint Augustine and his priests prayed for relief from the invaders, knowing full well that the fall of the city would spell conversion or death for many Roman Christians. On 28 August 430, three months into the siege, St. Augustine (who was 75 years old) died, perhaps from starvation or stress, as
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