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90-545: The Medal of Pushkin was established on May 9, 1999 by Presidential Decree № 574, its statute was amended on September 7, 2010 by Presidential Decree № 1099 which completely revamped the awards and honours system of the Russian Federation. The Medal of Pushkin is awarded to citizens of the Russian Federation with at least 20 years in socio-humanitarian activities for achievements in the arts and culture, education, humanities and literature, for great contributions to

180-474: A Cardinal-Secretary to run these bodies on a day-to-day basis. Due to the enduring Roman Question , after the announcement of his election to the papacy by the Cardinal Protodeacon , Benedict XV, following in the footsteps of his two most recent predecessors, did not appear on the balcony of St. Peter's basilica overlooking St. Peter's Square to grant the urbi et orbi blessing. Benedict XV

270-690: A Frenchman. The Belgian Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier , known as a brave patriot during German occupation but also famous for his anti-German propaganda, was said to have been favored by Benedict XV for his enmity to the German cause. After the war, Benedict also allegedly praised the Treaty of Versailles , which humiliated the Germans. These allegations were rejected by the Vatican's Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri , who wrote on 4 March 1916 that

360-459: A delegation from Bologna visited him to ask for della Chiesa's promotion to the College of Cardinals, he jokingly replied by making fun of his own family name, Sarto (meaning "tailor"), for he said, "Sorry, but a Sarto has not been found yet to make the cardinal's robe." Cardinal Rampolla died on 16 December 1913. On 25 May 1914, della Chiesa was created a cardinal , becoming Cardinal-Priest of

450-481: A general sense all documents promulgated by an ecumenical council can be called decrees, in a specific sense some of these documents, as at the Second Vatican Council , were called more precisely constitutions or declarations. Canon 29 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law defines general decrees: General decrees, by which a competent legislator makes common provisions for a community capable of receiving

540-637: A gold tassel sash". Benedict XV's pontificate was dominated by World War I , which he termed, along with its turbulent aftermath, "the suicide of Europe." Benedict's first encyclical extended a heartfelt plea for an end to hostilities. His early call for a general Christmas truce in 1914 was ignored, although informal truces were organized. Late in the war, in May–October 1917, the apparitions of Our Lady of Fatima occurred in Fatima, Portugal , apparitions that would be declared "worthy of belief" in 1930 during

630-525: A law, are true laws and are regulated by the provisions of the canons on laws. The Holy See uses decrees from the pope such as papal bull , papal brief or motu proprio as legislative acts. The word décret , literally "decree", is an old legal usage in France and is used to refer to executive orders issued by the French President or Prime Minister . Any such order must not violate

720-598: A letter to the President imploring him to visit the pope after learning that Wilson was to go to Europe. Not long after, Wilson confirmed the visit and went to meet the pope accompanied by the Pontifical North American College rector Charles O'Hearn. Benedict XV took Wilson by the hand and led him into the study for their meeting, with the pope later presenting Wilson with a gift: a mosaic of Saint Peter . The interpreter had to be present for

810-799: A part of the Jesuit's Gregorian Consortium in Rome (along with the Gregorian University and the Biblicum ). In 1921, France re-established diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The end of the war caused the revolutionary development, which Benedict XV had foreseen in his first encyclical. With the Russian Revolution , the Vatican was faced with a new, so far unknown, situation. The relations with Russia changed drastically for

900-571: A personal letter to Sultan Mehmed V , who was also Caliph of Islam. It had no success "as over a million Armenians died, either killed outright by the Turks or from maltreatment or starvation". At the time, the anti-Vatican resentment, combined with Italian diplomatic moves to isolate the Vatican in light of the unresolved Roman Question, contributed to the exclusion of the Vatican from the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (although it

990-531: A proclamation of a secular republic. In Bologna itself, citizens and the Catholic Church opposed such developments successfully. The Socialists overwhelmingly won the following regional elections with great majorities. As World War I approached, the question was hotly discussed in Italy as to which side to be on. Officially, Italy was still in an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary . However, in

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1080-654: A public letter to Archbishop Aleksander Kakowski of Warsaw , he remembered their loyalty and the many efforts of the Holy See to assist them. He expressed his hopes that Poland would again take its place in the family of nations and continue its history as an educated Christian nation. In March 1919, he nominated 10 new bishops and, soon after, Achille Ratti , who was already in Warsaw as his representative, as papal nuncio . He repeatedly cautioned Polish authorities against persecuting Lithuanian and Ruthenian clergy. During

1170-506: A ring through the medal suspension loop. The mount is covered by an overlapping 24mm wide azure silk moiré ribbon with a 2.5mm golden stripe situated 5mm from the ribbon's right edge. A medal awarded to Ian Blatchford in 2015, and personally presented by Vladimir Putin , was returned in March 2022, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine . Presidential Decree A decree

1260-479: A second reason. The Baltic states and Poland gained their independence from Russia after World War I , thus enabling a relatively free Church life in those former Russia-controlled countries. Estonia was the first country to look for Vatican ties. On 11 April 1919, Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri informed the Estonian authorities that the Vatican would agree to have diplomatic relations. A concordat

1350-596: A surgence of the Italian People's Party under Luigi Sturzo . Anti-Catholic politicians were gradually replaced by persons who were neutral or even sympathetic to the Catholic Church. King Victor Emmanuel III himself gave signals of his desire for better relations, when, for example, he sent personal condolences to the Pontiff on the death of his brother. Benedict XV, along with most traditional Catholics of his time, opposed voting rights for women in principle, on

1440-554: A village priest or provincial monsignore . Della Chiesa entered the Almo Collegio Capranica and was there in Rome when, in 1878, Pope Pius IX died and was followed by Pope Leo XIII . The new pope received the students of the Capranica in private audience only a few days after his coronation. Shortly thereafter, della Chiesa was ordained a priest by Cardinal Raffaele Monaco La Valletta on 21 December 1878 at

1530-880: Is a legal proclamation , usually issued by a head of state , judge , royal figure , or other relevant authorities , according to certain procedures. These procedures are usually defined by the constitution , Legislative laws , or customary laws of a government . In Belgium , a decree is a law of a community or regional parliament , e.g. the Flemish Parliament . Jus novum ( c.  1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c.  1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of

1620-468: Is a decree inasmuch as these documents are legislative acts of the pope . In this sense, the term is quite ancient. The Roman Congregations were formerly empowered to issue decrees in matters which come under their particular jurisdiction but were forbidden from continuing to do so under Pope Benedict XV in 1917. Each ecclesiastical province and also each diocese may issue decrees in their periodical synods within their sphere of authority. While in

1710-520: Is a presidential decree. Such an ukaz has the force of law, but may not alter the Russian constitution or the regulations of existing laws, and may be superseded by laws passed by the Federal Assembly . The Government of Russia can also issue decrees formally called Decisions ( Постановления Postanovleniya or Orders ( Распоряжения Rasporyazheniya ) and may not contradict

1800-527: Is not wholly oriented towards reconciliation. Prophetically, the Pope wrote that "if almost everywhere the war somehow ended and some peace pacts were signed, the germs of ancient grudges still remain. No peace has value if hatred and enmities are not put down together by means of a reconciliation based on mutual charity". The pope was also disturbed by the communist revolution in Russia. He reacted with horror to

1890-473: The titulus Santi Quattro Coronati , which before him was occupied by Pietro Respighi . When the new cardinal tried to return to Bologna after the consistory in Rome, an unrelated socialist, anti-monarchic and anti-Catholic uprising began to take place in Central Italy. This was accompanied by a general strike, the looting and destruction of churches, telephone connections and railway buildings, and

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1980-617: The Code of Canon Law , which was released on 27 May, the creation of which he had prepared with Eugenio Pacelli (the future Pope Pius XII ) and Pietro Gasparri during the pontificate of Pope Pius X . The new Code of Canon Law is considered to have stimulated religious life and activities throughout the Church. He named Gasparri to be his Cardinal Secretary of State and personally consecrated Nuncio Pacelli on 13 May 1917 as Archbishop. World War I caused great damage to Catholic missions throughout

2070-550: The French Constitution or Civil Code , and a party has the right to request an order be annulled in the French Council of State . Orders must be ratified by Parliament before they can be modified into legislative Acts. Special orders known as décret-loi , literally "decree-act" or "decree-law", usually considered an illegal practice under the 3rd and 4th Republic, were finally abolished and replaced by

2160-728: The French National Assembly , the calling of new legislative elections, and the grant of the title Marshal of France . Decrees are published in the Journal Officiel de la République Française ( French Gazette ). According to clause 77 of the Italian Constitution , The Government may not, without an enabling act from the Houses [of Parliament], issue decrees having the force of ordinary law. When in extraordinary cases of necessity and urgency

2250-578: The Irish Republic that saw to the end of the Irish War of Independence . Negotiations were conducted in London , however, there was a rise in tension during the negotiations over separate telegrams sent to Benedict XV by both King George V and Éamon de Valera . The telegram sent by de Valera took issue with the language that George V used in his message to the pope and responded to simply clarify

2340-799: The Lateran basilica . From 1878 until 1883 he studied at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy in Rome. It was there, on every Thursday, that students were required to defend a research paper, to which cardinals and high members of the Roman Curia were invited. Mariano Rampolla , then Secretary for Oriental Affairs of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith , took note of him and furthered his entry in

2430-454: The League of Nations as a secular organization that was not built on Christian values. On the other hand, he also condemned European nationalism that was rampant in the 1920s and asked for "European Unification" in his 1920 encyclical Pacem Dei Munus Pulcherrimum , "peace, a beautiful gift of God". Similarly, Benedict XV extolled the virtues of peace, denouncing the fragility of a peace that

2520-561: The Polish occupation of Vilnius , a city and archiepiscopal seat, which Lithuania claimed as its own. Polish forces had occupied Vilnius and committed acts of brutality in its Catholic seminary there. This generated several protests by Lithuania to the Holy See. Before all other heads of state, Pope Benedict XV in October 1918 congratulated the Polish people on their independence. In

2610-482: The Tyrol , an integral part of Austria which was mostly German-speaking, the southern part, the province of Trentino , was exclusively Italian-speaking. The clergy of Bologna was not totally free from nationalistic fervor either. Therefore, in his capacity as Archbishop, on the outbreak of World War I , della Chiesa made a speech on the Church's position and duties, emphasizing the need for neutrality , promoting peace and

2700-616: The University of Genoa , which after the unification of Italy was largely dominated by anti-Catholic and anti-clerical politics. With his doctorate in Law and at legal age, he again asked his father for permission to study for the priesthood, which was now reluctantly granted. He insisted, however, that his son conduct his theological studies in Rome , not in Genoa , so that he would not end up as

2790-600: The constitution , the Supreme Leader delineates the general policies of the Islamic Republic. After the Russian Revolution , a government proclamation of wide meaning was called a "decree" ( декрет dekret ); a more specific proclamation was called an указ ukaz . Both terms are usually translated as 'decree'. According to the Russian Federation's 1993 constitution , an ukaz

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2880-427: The obverse and reverse. The obverse bears a self-portrait (line drawing) of Pushkin's left profile. On the reverse center the horizontal relief signature of Pushkin himself. The signature takes most of the total width of the medal. Under the signature near the lower rim of the medal, the letter "N" in relief and a line reserved for the award serial number. The medal hangs from a standard Russian pentagonal mount by

2970-656: The 50th anniversary of the apparition. The unexpected death of his friend, supporter and mentor Rampolla on 16 December 1913 was a major blow to della Chiesa, who was one of the beneficiaries of his will. It was a custom that the Archbishop of Bologna would be made a cardinal in one of the coming consistories . In Bologna this was surely expected of della Chiesa as well, since, in previous years, either cardinals were named as archbishops, or archbishops as cardinals soon thereafter. Pius X did not follow this tradition and left della Chiesa waiting for almost seven years. When

3060-637: The Bolshevik advance against Warsaw during the Polish–Soviet War , he asked for worldwide public prayers for Poland. Nuncio Ratti was the only foreign diplomat to stay in the Polish capital. On 11 June 1921, he wrote to the Polish episcopate, warning against political misuses of spiritual power, urging again for peaceful coexistence with neighbouring peoples, stating that "love of country has its limits in justice and obligations". He sent nuncio Ratti to Silesia to act against potential political agitations of

3150-656: The Catholic Pope was neutral on paper only, strongly favoring the allies instead. Benedict was said to have prompted Austria-Hungary to go to war in order to weaken the German war machine. Also, allegedly, the Papal Nuncio in Paris explained in a meeting of the Institut Catholique , "to fight against France is to fight against God", and the Pope was said to have exclaimed that he was sorry not to be

3240-641: The Catholic clergy. Ratti, a scholar, intended to work for Poland and build bridges to the Soviet Union , hoping even to shed his blood for Russia. Pope Benedict XV needed him as a diplomat and not as a martyr and forbade any trip into the USSR even though he was the official papal delegate to Russia. However, he continued his contacts with Russia. This did not generate much sympathy for him within Poland at

3330-541: The Council of State. There exists a procedure for the Prime Minister to issue ordinances in such areas, but this procedure requires Parliament's express consent (see Art 38 of the 1958 Constitution). Orders issued by the Prime Minister take two forms: Sometimes, people refer to décrets en Conseil d'État improperly as décrets du Conseil d'État . This would imply that it is the Council of State that makes

3420-569: The Government adopts provisional measures having the force of law, it must on the same day present said measures for confirmation to the Houses which, even if dissolved, shall be extraordinally summoned for this purpose and shall convene within five days. The decrees lose effect from their inception if they are not confirmed within sixty days from their publication. The Houses may however regulate by law legal relationships arising out of unconfirmed decrees. The effectiveness for sixty days produces

3510-469: The Holy Office, and his alignment with the policies of Pius X, other cardinals such as Andrea Carlo Ferrari and Désiré-Joseph Mercier believed that the new pope needed to focus not on Modernism and doctrinal debates, but rather, a softer focus after the somewhat harsh reign of Pius X. To that end, those cardinals turned towards electing the liberal Archbishop of Pisa Pietro Maffi . Della Chiesa, on

3600-538: The Holy See in 1933, is the allegation that Benedict XV, in a private interview with Count George Noble Plunkett in mid-April 1916, imparted an Apostolic blessing to the Irish Republic just two weeks before the Easter Rising . The fact that the Pope is purported to have done so was widely accepted by Republicans , though categorically denied later by L'Osservatore Romano in 1933. Additionally, it

3690-435: The Holy See is completely impartial and does not favor the allied side. This was even more important, so Gasparri noted, after the diplomatic representatives of Germany and Austria-Hungary to the Vatican were expelled from Rome by Italian authorities. However, considering all this, German Protestants rejected any "Papal Peace", calling it insulting. French politician Georges Clemenceau , a fierce anti-clerical, claimed to regard

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3780-426: The Vatican initiative as anti-French. Benedict made many unsuccessful attempts to negotiate peace, but these pleas for a negotiated peace made him unpopular, even in Catholic countries like Italy, among many supporters of the war who were determined to accept nothing less than total victory. On 1 August 1917, Benedict issued a seven-point peace plan stating that: Great Britain reacted favorably though popular opinion

3870-495: The Vatican. Almost a third of it concerned missing persons. Some 40,000 people had asked for help in the repatriation of sick POWs and 50,000 letters were sent from families to their loved ones who were POWs. Both during and after the war, Benedict was primarily concerned about the fate of the children, on whose behalf he issued an encyclical. In 1916 he appealed to the people and clergy of the United States to help him feed

3960-786: The anti-clerical Republican government of France, and canonized the French national heroine Saint Joan of Arc . In the mission territories of the Third World , he emphasized the necessity of training native priests to quickly replace the European missionaries, and founded the Pontifical Oriental Institute and the Coptic College in the Vatican. Pius XI would entrust the "Orientale" to the Jesuits and make it

4050-403: The cardinals, hence, deep suspicion in many cardinals of their European colleagues. During the conclave, Cardinal Domenico Serafini and his faction had enough votes to ensure that della Chiesa was not elected, particularly since the eighth ballot had della Chiesa with a majority, though below the two-thirds needed for election. While Serafini was considered " papabile " due to his position at

4140-550: The constitution/laws or presidential decrees. Pope Benedict XV Pope Benedict XV ( Latin : Benedictus XV ; Italian : Benedetto XV ), born Giacomo Paolo Giovanni Battista della Chiesa ( Italian: [ˈdʒaːkomo ˈpaːolo dʒoˈvanni batˈtista della ˈkjɛːza] ; 21 November 1854 – 22 January 1922), was head of the Catholic Church from 1914 until his death in January 1922. His pontificate

4230-417: The decree, whereas the power of decreeing is restricted to the president or prime minister; the role of the administrative sections of the council is purely advisory. Decrees may be classified into: Only the prime minister may issue regulatory or application decrees. Presidential decrees are generally nominations or exceptional measures where the law mandates a presidential decree, such as the dissolution of

4320-565: The demise of Imperial Russia , Austria-Hungary, and Germany. Large food shipments, and information about and contacts with POWs, were to be the first steps for a better understanding of the papacy in Europe. Regarding the Versailles Peace Conference , the Vatican believed that the economic conditions imposed on Germany were too harsh and threatened the European economic stability as a whole. Cardinal Gasparri believed that

4410-521: The diplomatic service of the Vatican in 1882, where he was employed by Rampolla as a secretary and in January 1883 accompanied nuncio Rampolla to Madrid . Just after Leo XIII 's death in 1903, Rampolla tried to make della Chiesa the secretary of the conclave, but the Sacred College elected Rafael Merry del Val , a conservative young prelate, the first sign that Rampolla would not be the next Pope. When Cardinal Rampolla had to leave his post with

4500-415: The easing of suffering. Following the death of Pius X , the resulting conclave opened at the end of August 1914. The war would clearly be the dominant issue of the new pontificate, so the cardinals' priority was to choose a man with great diplomatic experience. Thus on 3 September 1914, della Chiesa, despite having been a cardinal only three months, was elected pope, taking the name of Benedict XV. He chose

4590-410: The effects immediately, giving rights or expectations whose legal basis was precarious, especially when the conversion law never intervened. In Portugal there are several types of decree ( Portuguese : decreto ) issued by the various bodies of sovereignty or by the bodies of local government of autonomous regions . As of 2022 , there are the following types of decree: According to article 110 of

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4680-620: The election of his opponent Pope Pius X , and was succeeded by Merry del Val, della Chiesa was retained in his post. Della Chiesa's association with Rampolla, the architect of Pope Leo XIII 's (1878–1903) foreign policy, made his position in the Secretariat of State under the new pontificate somewhat uncomfortable. Italian papers announced that on 15 April 1907 the papal nuncio Aristide Rinaldini in Madrid would be replaced by della Chiesa, who had worked there before. Pius X , chuckling over

4770-452: The episcopal consecration from Pope Pius X himself. The Pope donated his own episcopal ring and crosier to the new bishop and spent much time with the della Chiesa family on the following day. On 23 February 1908, della Chiesa took possession of his new diocese, which included 700,000 persons, 750 priests, as well as 19 male and 78 female religious institutes . In the episcopal seminary, some 25 teachers educated 120 students preparing for

4860-520: The existence and freedom of the Church. To deal with these and related issues, Benedict engaged in what he knew best, a large scale diplomatic offensive to secure the rights of the faithful in all countries. Leo XIII already had agreed to the participation of Catholics in local but not national politics. Relations with Italy improved as well under Benedict XV, who de facto reversed the stiff anti-Italian policy of his predecessors by allowing Catholics to participate in national elections as well. This led to

4950-487: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life A decree ( Latin : decretum ) in the usage of the canon law of the Catholic Church has various meanings. Any papal bull , brief , or motu proprio

5040-532: The field of international diplomacy Pope Benedict also tried to bring about peace through Christian faith, as he published a special prayer in 1915 to be spoken by Catholics throughout the world. Almost from the beginning of the war, November 1914, Benedict negotiated with the warring parties about an exchange of wounded and other prisoners of war who were unable to continue fighting. Tens of thousands of such prisoners were exchanged through his intervention. On 15 January 1915, he proposed an exchange of civilians from

5130-440: The grounds that it would take them out of their "natural sphere". However, he was pragmatic and recognized female suffrage could be a "social necessity in some countries...in order to counter the generally subversive views of the socialists with the supposedly conservative votes of women", believing that women would help support traditional Catholic positions if granted suffrage. Benedict XV also attempted to improve relations with

5220-488: The impacts of the war, such as attending prisoners of war, the exchange of wounded soldiers and food deliveries to needy populations in Europe. After the war, he repaired the difficult relations with France , which re-established relations with the Vatican in 1921. During his pontificate, relations with Italy improved as well, as Benedict XV now permitted Catholic politicians led by Don Luigi Sturzo to participate in national Italian politics. In 1917, Benedict XV promulgated

5310-421: The journalist's knowledge, commented, "Unfortunately, the paper forgot to mention whom I nominated as the next Archbishop of Bologna ." The Vatican had supposedly "gone so far as to make out the papers naming him the papal nuncio, but [della Chiesa] refused to accept them". On 18 December 1907, in the presence of his family, the diplomatic corps, numerous bishops and cardinals, and his friend Rampolla, he received

5400-417: The meeting, since the pope was speaking in French, and Wilson only spoke English. The presidential party was presented to the pope, and after presenting his personal physician Admiral Grayson (telling the pope that he "is the man who keeps me well"), the pope said: "Apparently, he has done a splendid job", before offering words to Grayson. The pope blessed the entourage, despite Wilson's slight confusion, after

5490-415: The name because of his devotion to St. Benedict of Nursia , perhaps also in honour of Pope Benedict XIV , who had been an archbishop from Bologna. Upon being elected pope, he was also formally the Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . There was, however,

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5580-483: The nature between both parties and the reasons that there had been tension between the two. In his letter to George V, the Pope praised the ongoing efforts for peace, saying that "We rejoice at the resumption of the Anglo-Irish negotiations" and that the negotiations would "end the age-long dissention" between both sides. Benedict XV further declared himself "overjoyed with the agreement happily reached in regard to Ireland". A source of contention, despite firm denials by

5670-477: The new international system that had emerged. The papacy was faced with the emergence of numerous new states such as Poland , Lithuania , Estonia , Yugoslavia , Czechoslovakia , Finland, and others. Germany , France , Italy, and Austria were impoverished from the war. In addition, the traditional social and cultural European order was threatened by right-wing nationalism and fascism as well as left-wing socialism and communism, all of which potentially threatened

5760-521: The occupied zones, which resulted in 20,000 persons being sent to unoccupied Southern France in one month. In 1916, Benedict managed to hammer out an agreement between both sides by which 29,000 prisoners with lung disease from the gas attacks could be sent into Switzerland. In May 1918, he also negotiated an agreement whereby prisoners on both sides with at least 18 months of captivity and four children at home would also be sent to neutral Switzerland. He succeeded in 1915 in reaching an agreement by which

5850-442: The other and was unwilling to accept the terms he proposed. Still, although unsuccessful, his diplomatic efforts during the war are credited with an increase of papal prestige and served as a model in the 20th century for the peace efforts of Pius XII before and during World War II , the policies of Paul VI during the Vietnam War , and the position of John Paul II before and during the Iraq War . In addition to his efforts in

5940-486: The other hand, was wedged between Maffi and Serafini as representing the best and worst of both factions, hence his contention in the balloting. While della Chiesa seemed to secure support from some conservative cardinals, Maffi lagged considerably and hence Serafini was positioned as della Chiesa's main rival. Since Maffi had lagged in the balloting, his supporters decided to counter Serafini and threw their support for della Chiesa, securing his election by only one vote in what

6030-411: The papacy of his successor, Pius XI . The national antagonisms between the warring parties were accentuated by religious differences before the war, with France, Italy and Belgium being largely Catholic. Vatican relations with Great Britain were good, while neither Prussia nor Imperial Germany had any official relations with the Vatican. In Protestant circles of Germany, the notion was popular that

6120-464: The part of the deceased pontiff that there were fewer moderate and progressive cardinals in the Sacred College. However, the cardinals feared that one of the sides in World War I might potentially influence the conclave to elect a pope that would prove amenable to their side and their positions. While the cardinals expressed relief in the abolition of the veto in 1904, there was still a palpable fear that there would be subtle attempts to exert control over

6210-503: The peace conditions and the humiliation of the Germans would likely result in another war as soon as Germany would be militarily in a position to start one. The Vatican also rejected the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, seeing in this step an inevitable and eventual strengthening of Germany. The Vatican also had great reservations about the creation of small successor states which, in the view of Gasparri, were not viable economically and therefore condemned to economic misery. Benedict rejected

6300-414: The poor." A meeting of all priests in a synod had to be postponed at the wish of the Vatican considering ongoing changes in Canon Law . Numerous churches were built or restored. He personally originated a major reform of the educational orientation of the seminary, adding more science courses and classic education to the curriculum . He organized pilgrimages to Marian shrines in Loreto and Lourdes at

6390-422: The pope assured Wilson his blessing did not discriminate those of other faiths, since Wilson was a Presbyterian . Following the declaration of the Irish Republic in 1919, Benedict XV was visited by Seán T. O'Kelly in May 1920, who explained Irish politics and presented a memorandum, hoping for support from the "Sovereign Pontiff". In 1921, a peace agreement was formalized between the British Empire and

6480-614: The preliminary diplomatic negotiations leading to the Balfour Declaration , Pope Benedict gave his support to a Jewish homeland in Palestine to Zionist diplomat Nahum Sokolow on 4 May 1917, describing the return of the Jews to Palestine as "providential; God has willed it." Cardinal James Gibbons helped secure a meeting between the pope and President Woodrow Wilson which took place on 4 January 1919. The cardinal had sent

6570-429: The priesthood. As bishop, he visited all parishes, making a special effort to see the smaller ones in the mountains which could only be accessed on horse-back. He always saw preaching as the main obligation of a bishop. He usually gave two or more sermons a day during his visitations. His emphasis was on cleanliness inside all churches and chapels and on saving money wherever possible, for he said, "Let us save to give to

6660-531: The regulations under the 1958 Constitution. Except for the reserve powers of the President (as stated in Art. 16 of the 1958 Constitution, exercised only once so far), the executive can issue decrees in areas that the Constitution grants as the responsibility of Parliament only if a law authorizes it to do so. In other cases, orders are illegal and, should anyone sue for the order's annulment, it would be voided by

6750-616: The start of that month. He was buried in the grottoes of Saint Peter's Basilica . With his diplomatic skills and his openness towards modern society, "he gained respect for himself and the papacy." Giacomo della Chiesa was born prematurely at Pegli , a suburb of Genoa , Italy, the third son and sixth child of Marchese Giuseppe della Chiesa (1821–1892) and his wife Marchesa Giovanna Migliorati (1827–1904). Genealogy findings report that his father's side produced Pope Callixtus II and also claimed descent from Berengar II of Italy and that his maternal family produced Pope Innocent VII . He

6840-883: The starving children in German-occupied Belgium. His aid to children was not limited to Belgium but extended to children in Lithuania, Poland, Lebanon, Montenegro, Syria and Russia. Benedict was particularly appalled at the new military invention of aerial warfare and protested several times against it to no avail. In May and June 1915, the Ottoman Empire waged a genocide against the Armenian Christian minorities in Anatolia . The Vatican attempted to get Germany and Austria-Hungary involved in protesting to its Turkish ally. The Pope himself sent

6930-400: The strongly anti-religious policies adopted by Vladimir Lenin 's government along with the bloodshed and widespread famine which occurred during the subsequent Russian Civil War . He undertook the greatest efforts trying to help the victims of the Russian famine with millions in relief. In the post-war period, Pope Benedict XV was involved in developing the Church administration to deal with

7020-481: The study and preservation of the Russian cultural heritage, in the rapprochement and mutual enrichment of cultures of nations and peoples, for the creation of highly artistic images. The Russian Federation order of precedence dictates the medal is to be worn on the left breast with other medals immediately after the Medal of Nesterov . The Medal of Pushkin is a circular 32mm diameter silver medal with raised rims on both

7110-574: The suicide of civilized Europe ". The war and its consequences were the main focus of Benedict XV. He immediately declared the neutrality of the Holy See and attempted from that perspective to mediate peace in 1916 and 1917. Both sides rejected his initiatives. German Protestants rejected any "Papal Peace" as insulting. The French politician Georges Clemenceau regarded the Vatican initiative as being anti-French. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives, Benedict XV focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen

7200-569: The time. He was asked to go. While he tried honestly to show himself as a friend of Poland, Warsaw forced his departure after his neutrality in Silesian voting was questioned by Germans and Poles. Nationalistic Germans objected to a Polish nuncio supervising elections, and Poles were upset because he curtailed agitating clergy. On 20 November, when German Cardinal Adolf Bertram announced a papal ban on all political activities of clergymen, calls for Ratti's expulsion climaxed in Warsaw. As part of

7290-461: The warring parties promised not to let prisoners of war (POWs) work on Sundays and holidays . Several individuals on both sides were spared the death penalty after his intervention. Hostages were exchanged and corpses repatriated. The Pope founded the Opera dei Prigionieri to assist in distributing information on prisoners. By the end of the war, some 600,000 items of correspondence were processed by

7380-780: The world. Benedict XV revitalized these activities, asking in Maximum illud for Catholics throughout the world to participate. For that, he has been referred to as the "Pope of Missions". His last concern was the emerging persecution of the Catholic Church in Soviet Russia and the famine there after the revolution. Benedict XV was devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary and authorized the Feast of Mary, Mediatrix of all Graces . After seven years in office, Pope Benedict XV died on 22 January 1922 after battling pneumonia since

7470-602: Was crowned in the Sistine Chapel on 6 September 1914, and, also as a form of protest due to the Roman question , there was no ceremony for the formal possession of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran . In the 1914 conclave, the cardinals were divided into two factions: the "reactionaries" and the "conservatives". The decade-long campaign waged against Modernism cast a cloud over the conclave, and also ensured on

7560-417: Was a protracted conclave. Upon his election, Benedict XV was unable to locate a suitable cassock to wear since the three that were available to him did not appropriately fit his frail form. From a diary that recorded the events of the conclave, "the papal habit that was chosen was the small one, but lacking in some part, and being a little long, it was adapted with clothespin pins, and raised and covered with

7650-478: Was agreed upon in principle a year later in June 1920. It was signed on 30 May 1922. It guaranteed freedom for the Catholic Church, established archdioceses, liberated clergy from military service, allowed the creation of seminaries and Catholic schools, and enshrined church property rights and immunity. The Archbishop swore alliance to Estonia. Relations with Catholic Lithuania were slightly more complicated because of

7740-422: Was alleged that Plunkett pledged the Irish Republic to fidelity to the Holy See, with the Pope formally imparting his blessing on the endeavors of the Irish Republic, prompting the Archbishop of Armagh Michael Logue to send a telegram to the Pope on 30 April 1916 asking for a clarification as to what occurred during the meeting. When L'Osservatore Romano denied these claims in 1933, the paper said that "the news

7830-445: Was also a descendant of Blessed Antonio della Chiesa . His brother, Giovanni Antonio Della Chiesa, married the niece of Cardinal Angelo Jacobini . Due to his premature birth, Giacomo was left with a limp and completed much of his early education at home. His wish to become a priest was rejected early on by his father, who insisted on a legal career for his son. At age 21 he acquired a doctorate in Law on 2 August 1875. He had attended

7920-505: Was also part of a historical pattern of political and diplomatic marginalization of the papacy after the loss of the Papal States). Despite this, he wrote an encyclical pleading for international reconciliation, Pacem, Dei Munus Pulcherrimum. After the war, Benedict focused the Vatican's activities on overcoming famine and misery in Europe and establishing contacts and relations with the many new states which were created because of

8010-434: Was largely overshadowed by World War I and its political, social, and humanitarian consequences in Europe. Between 1846 and 1903, the Catholic Church had experienced two of its longest pontificates in history up to that point. Together Pius IX and Leo XIII ruled for a total of 57 years. In 1914, the College of Cardinals chose della Chiesa at the relatively young age of 59 at the outbreak of World War I, which he labeled "

8100-567: Was mixed. President of the United States Woodrow Wilson rejected the plan. Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary were also favorable, but Germany replied ambiguously. Benedict also called for outlawing conscription, a call he repeated in 1921. Some of the proposals eventually were included in Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points call for peace in January 1918. In Europe, each side saw him as biased in favor of

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