118-1782: Legend： 1： Mount Everest , 2： Kangchenjunga , 3： Lhotse , 4： Yalung Kang, Kanchenjunga West , 5： Makalu , 6： Kangchenjunga South , 7： Kangchenjunga Central , 8： Cho Oyu , 9： Dhaulagiri , 10： Manaslu (Kutang) , 11： Nanga Parbat (Diamer) , 12： Annapurna , 13： Shishapangma (Shishasbangma, Xixiabangma) , 14： Manaslu East , 15： Annapurna East Peak , 16： Gyachung Kang , 17： Annapurna II , 18： Tenzing Peak (Ngojumba Kang, Ngozumpa Kang, Ngojumba Ri) , 19： Kangbachen , 20： Himalchuli (Himal Chuli) , 21： Ngadi Chuli (Peak 29, Dakura, Dakum, Dunapurna) , 22： Nuptse (Nubtse) , 23： Nanda Devi , 24： Chomo Lonzo (Chomolonzo, Chomolönzo, Chomo Lönzo, Jomolönzo, Lhamalangcho) , 25： Namcha Barwa (Namchabarwa) , 26： Zemu Kang (Zemu Gap Peak) , 27： Kamet , 28： Dhaulagiri II , 29： Ngojumba Kang II , 30： Dhaulagiri III , 31： Kumbhakarna Mountain (Mount Kumbhakarna, Jannu) , 32： Gurla Mandhata (Naimona'nyi, Namu Nan) , 33： Hillary Peak (Ngojumba Kang III) , 34： Molamenqing (Phola Gangchen) , 35： Dhaulagiri IV , 36： Annapurna Fang , 37： Silver Crag , 38： Kangbachen Southwest , 39： Gangkhar Puensum (Gangkar Punsum) , 40： Annapurna III , 41： Himalchuli West , 42： Annapurna IV , 43： Kula Kangri , 44： Liankang Kangri (Gangkhar Puensum North, Liangkang Kangri) , 45： Ngadi Chuli South Mount Everest , known locally as Sagarmatha or Qomolangma ,
236-687: A belt of Late Oligocene – Miocene intrusive rocks known as the Higher Himalayan leucogranite. They formed as the result of partial melting of Paleoproterozoic to Ordovician high-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Higher Himalayan Sequence about 20 to 24 million years ago during the subduction of the Indian Plate. Mount Everest consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that have been faulted southward over continental crust composed of Archean granulites of
354-572: A distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite - biotite phyllite and semischist . Petrographic analysis of marble collected from about 8,300 m (27,200 ft) found it to consist as much as five per cent of the ghosts of recrystallised crinoid ossicles. The upper five metres of the Yellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detachment is badly deformed. A 5–40 cm (2.0–15.7 in) thick fault breccia separates it from
472-646: A feat accomplished by Tim Macartney-Snape's team in 1990. Climbers usually begin their ascent from base camps above 5,000 m (16,404 ft). The amount of elevation climbed from below these camps varies. On the Tibetan side, most climbers drive directly to the North Base Camp . On the Nepalese side, climbers generally fly into Kathmandu , then Lukla , and trek to the South Base Camp , making
590-475: A given distance, causing the geoid to move towards the mass deficit. The presence of a localized inclusion in the background medium will rotate the gravity acceleration vectors slightly towards or away from a denser or lighter body, respectively, causing a bump or dimple in the equipotential surface. The largest absolute deviation can be found in the Indian Ocean Geoid Low , 106 meters below
708-529: A huge mountain massif . The massif's five highest peaks are listed in the following table. The main ridge of the massif runs from north-northeast to south-southwest and forms a watershed to several rivers. Together with ridges running roughly from east to west they form a giant cross. These ridges contain a host of peaks between 6,000 and 8,586 m (19,685 and 28,169 ft). The northern section includes Yalung Kang, Kangchenjunga Central and South, Kangbachen, Kirat Chuli and Gimmigela Chuli , and runs up to
826-587: A large sloping plateau at around 7,500 m (24,600 ft), covered by a hanging glacier. The route is almost entirely on snow, glacier and one icefall ; the summit ridge itself can involve a small amount of travel on rock. The first ascent expedition made six camps above their base camp, two below the Shelf, two on it, and two above it. They started on 18 April, and everyone was back to base camp by 28 May. Other members of this expedition included John Angelo Jackson and Tom Mackinnon. Despite improved climbing gear
944-506: A new survey in 2019 to determine if the April 2015 Nepal earthquake affected the height of the mountain. In May 1999, an American Everest expedition directed by Bradford Washburn anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device. Although as of 2001, it has not been officially recognised by Nepal, this figure
1062-579: A new weather station at about 8,000 m (26,000 ft) elevation went online. The project was orchestrated by Stations at High Altitude for Research on the Environment (SHARE), which also placed the Mount Everest webcam in 2011. The solar-powered weather station is on the South Col . Mount Everest extends into the upper troposphere and penetrates the stratosphere . The air pressure at
1180-433: A reference coordinate surface for various vertical coordinates , such as orthometric heights , geopotential heights , and dynamic heights (see Geodesy#Heights ). All points on a geoid surface have the same geopotential (the sum of gravitational potential energy and centrifugal potential energy). At this surface, apart from temporary tidal fluctuations, the force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to
1298-416: A reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history." There is very little native flora or fauna on Everest. A type of moss grows at 6,480 metres (21,260 ft) on Mount Everest and it may be the highest altitude plant species. An alpine cushion plant called Arenaria is known to grow below 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) in the region. According to
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#17327719049731416-438: A sequence of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks that were derived from the alteration of high-grade metasedimentary rocks. During the collision of India with Asia, these rocks were thrust downward and to the north as they were overridden by other strata; heated, metamorphosed, and partially melted at depths of over 15 to 20 kilometres (9.3 to 12.4 mi) below sea level; and then forced upward to surface by thrusting towards
1534-634: A specific value of n {\displaystyle n} there are two coefficients for every value of m {\displaystyle m} except for m = 0 {\displaystyle m=0} . There is only one coefficient when m = 0 {\displaystyle m=0} since sin ( 0 λ ) = 0 {\displaystyle \sin(0\lambda )=0} . There are thus ( 2 n + 1 ) {\displaystyle (2n+1)} coefficients for every value of n {\displaystyle n} . Using these facts and
1652-409: A survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak "b", but clouds thwarted his attempts. In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area, who made two observations from Jirol, 190 km (120 mi) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being 174 km (108 mi) from
1770-651: Is Earth's highest mountain above sea level , located in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas . The China–Nepal border runs across its summit point . Its elevation (snow height) of 8,848.86 m (29,031 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) was most recently established in 2020 by the Chinese and Nepali authorities. Mount Everest attracts many climbers, including highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching
1888-409: Is Sagarmāthā ( IAST transcription) or Sagar-Matha (सगर-माथा, [sʌɡʌrmatʰa] , lit. "goddess of the sky"), which means "the head in the great blue sky", being derived from सगर (sagar), meaning "sky", and माथा (māthā), meaning "head". The Tibetan name for Everest is Qomolangma ( ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ , lit. "holy mother"). The name was first recorded (in a Chinese transcription) in
2006-411: Is defined so that it has negative values and is inversely proportional to distance from the body. So, while a mass excess will strengthen the gravity acceleration, it will decrease the gravity potential. As a consequence, the geoid's defining equipotential surface will be found displaced away from the mass excess. Analogously, a mass deficit will weaken the gravity pull but will increase the geopotential at
2124-417: Is despite Chimborazo having a peak of 6,268 m (20,564.3 ft) above sea level versus Mount Everest's 8,848 m (29,028.9 ft). Nearby peaks include Lhotse , 8,516 m (27,940 ft); Nuptse , 7,855 m (25,771 ft), and Changtse , 7,580 m (24,870 ft) among others. Another nearby peak is Khumbutse , and many of the highest mountains in the world are near Mount Everest. On
2242-602: Is not standardized, as different countries use different mean sea levels as reference, but most commonly refers to the EGM96 geoid. In maps and common use, the height over the mean sea level (such as orthometric height , H ) is used to indicate the height of elevations while the ellipsoidal height , h , results from the GPS system and similar GNSS : H = h − N {\displaystyle H=h-N} (An analogous relationship exists between normal heights and
2360-538: Is positive, opposite to what should be expected if the thickening affects the entire lithosphere . Mantle convection also changes the shape of the geoid over time. The surface of the geoid is higher than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a positive gravity anomaly or negative disturbing potential (mass excess) and lower than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a negative gravity anomaly or positive disturbing potential (mass deficit). This relationship can be understood by recalling that gravity potential
2478-486: Is so high the jet stream can hit it. Climbers can be faced with winds beyond 320 km/h (200 mph) when the weather shifts. At certain times of the year the jet stream shifts north, providing periods of relative calm at the mountain. Other dangers include blizzards and avalanches. In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent , president of the Alpine Club , suggested that climbing Mount Everest was possible in his book Above
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#17327719049732596-453: Is taller than Everest as well. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,190 m (20,308 ft), Denali sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300 to 900 m (980 to 2,950 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300 to 5,900 m (17,400 to 19,400 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft). By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on
2714-648: Is the third-highest mountain in the world . Its summit lies at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) in a section of the Himalayas , the Kangchenjunga Himal , which is bounded in the west by the Tamur River , in the north by the Lhonak River and Jongsang La , and in the east by the Teesta River . It lies in the border region between Koshi Province of Nepal and Sikkim state of India , with
2832-586: Is the point at which Earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level . Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,200 m (33,464.6 ft) from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level. By the same measure of base to summit, Denali , in Alaska , formerly known as Mount McKinley,
2950-418: Is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth , including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation , if other influences such as winds and tides were absent. This surface is extended through the continents (such as might be approximated with very narrow hypothetical canals ). According to Gauss , who first described it, it is the "mathematical figure of
3068-568: Is thus non-uniform over the geoid. The geoid surface is irregular, unlike the reference ellipsoid (which is a mathematical idealized representation of the physical Earth as an ellipsoid ), but is considerably smoother than Earth's physical surface. Although the "ground" of the Earth has excursions on the order of +8,800 m ( Mount Everest ) and −11,000 m ( Marianas Trench ), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total. If
3186-508: Is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 (see § 21st-century surveys ) surveys. In 1955, a detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse . In
3304-407: The quasigeoid , which disregards local density variations.) In practice, many handheld GPS receivers interpolate N in a pre-computed geoid map (a lookup table ). So a GPS receiver on a ship may, during the course of a long voyage, indicate height variations, even though the ship will always be at sea level (neglecting the effects of tides). That is because GPS satellites , orbiting about
3422-591: The Great Trigonometrical Survey . From 1952 to 1954, the Survey of India , using triangulation methods, determined that the height of Everest was 8,847.73 m (29,028 ft). In 1975 it was subsequently reaffirmed by a Chinese measurement of 8,848.13 m (29,029.30 ft). In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. The 8,848 m (29,029 ft) height given was officially recognised by Nepal and China. Nepal planned
3540-635: The International Association of Geodesy (IAG), e.g., through the International Gravity Bureau (BGI, Bureau Gravimétrique International). Another approach for geoid determination is to combine multiple information sources: not just terrestrial gravimetry, but also satellite geodetic data on the figure of the Earth, from analysis of satellite orbital perturbations, and lately from satellite gravity missions such as GOCE and GRACE . In such combination solutions,
3658-736: The Lhonak Chu , Goma Chu and Jongsang La , and in the east by the Teesta River. The western limit runs from the Jongsang La down the Gingsang and Kangchenjunga glaciers and the rivers of Ghunsa and Tamur . It lies in the border region between Koshi Province of Nepal and Sikkim state of India , with the peaks West and Kangbachen in Nepal's Taplejung District , and three of the five peaks, namely Main, Central and South, directly on
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3776-463: The North Col , the 1922 expedition pushed the north ridge route up to 8,320 m (27,300 ft), marking the first time a human had climbed above 8,000 m (26,247 ft). The 1924 expedition resulted in one of the greatest mysteries on Everest to this day: George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, sparking debate as to whether they were
3894-526: The South Col at 7,920 metres (25,980 ft) and yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as 7,900 metres (26,000 ft). Yaks are often used to haul gear for Mount Everest climbs. They can haul around 100 kg (220 pounds), have thick fur and large lungs. Other animals in the region include the Himalayan tahr , which is sometimes the prey of the snow leopard . The Himalayan black bear can be found up to about 4,300 metres (14,000 ft) and
4012-547: The Stokesian approach to geoid computation. Their solution enables millimetre-to-centimetre accuracy in geoid computation , an order-of-magnitude improvement from previous classical solutions. Geoid undulations display uncertainties which can be estimated by using several methods, e.g., least-squares collocation (LSC), fuzzy logic , artificial neural networks , radial basis functions (RBF), and geostatistical techniques. Geostatistical approach has been defined as
4130-754: The Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands . The Kangchenjunga transboundary landscape is shared by Nepal, India, Bhutan and China , and comprises 14 protected areas with a total of 6,032 km (2,329 sq mi): These protected areas are habitats for many globally significant plant species such as rhododendrons and orchids and many endangered flagship species such as snow leopard ( Panthera uncia ), Asian black bear ( Ursus thibetanus ), red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ), white-bellied musk deer ( Moschus leucogaster ), blood pheasant ( Ithaginis cruentus ) and chestnut-breasted partridge ( Arborophila mandellii ). There are four climbing routes to reach
4248-498: The convergent boundary between the Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate , are adding to the height and moving the summit northeastwards. Two accounts suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16 in) per year vertically and 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in) per year horizontally, but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm or 1.1 in), and even shrinkage has been suggested. The summit of Everest
4366-451: The geocentric radius , i.e., distance from the Earth's centre. The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute. The gradient of this potential also provides a model of the gravitational acceleration. The most commonly used EGM96 contains a full set of coefficients to degree and order 360 (i.e., n max = 360 {\displaystyle n_{\text{max}}=360} ), describing details in
4484-470: The red panda is also present in the region. One expedition found a surprising range of species in the region including a pika and ten new species of ants. Mount Everest has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF ) with all months averaging well below freezing. The base camp for Everest expeditions based out of Nepal is located by Khumbu Glacier , which is rapidly thinning and destabilizing due to climate change , making it unsafe for climbers. As recommended by
4602-579: The viscosity of Earth's mantle . Spherical harmonics are often used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM2020 (Earth Gravitational Model 2020), determined in an international collaborative project led by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency , or NGA). The mathematical description of
4720-797: The 1721 Kangxi Atlas, issued during the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi ; it first appeared in the West in 1733 as Tchoumour Lancma , on a map prepared by the French geographer D'Anville and based on Kangxi Atlas. The Tibetan name is also popularly romanised as Chomolungma and (in Wylie ) as Jo-mo-glang-ma . The official Chinese transcription is 珠穆朗玛峰 ( t 珠穆朗瑪峰 ), or Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng in pinyin . While other Chinese names have been used historically, including Shèngmǔ Fēng ( t 聖母峰 , s 圣母峰 , lit. "holy mother peak"), these names were largely phased out after
4838-702: The British continued the survey and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240 km (150 mi) distant. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Scott Waugh , the British Surveyor General of India , made several observations from the Sawajpore station at the east end of the Himalayas. Kangchenjunga
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4956-855: The Chinese Ministry of Internal Affairs issued a decree to adopt a sole name in May 1952. The British geographic survey of 1849 attempted to preserve local names when possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri .) However, Andrew Waugh , the British Surveyor General of India , claimed that he could not find a commonly used local name, and that his search for one had been hampered by the Nepalese and Tibetan policy of exclusion of foreigners. Waugh argued that – because there were many local names – it would be difficult to favour one name over all others; he therefore decided that Peak XV should be named after British surveyor Sir George Everest , his predecessor as Surveyor General of India. Everest himself opposed
5074-466: The EGM96 value of n max = 360 {\displaystyle n_{\text{max}}=360} . For many applications, the complete series is unnecessarily complex and is truncated after a few (perhaps several dozen) terms. Still, even higher resolution models have been developed. Many of the authors of EGM96 have published EGM2008. It incorporates much of the new satellite gravity data (e.g.,
5192-409: The Earth ", a smooth but irregular surface whose shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of Earth. It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations. Despite being an important concept for almost 200 years in the history of geodesy and geophysics , it has been defined to high precision only since advances in satellite geodesy in
5310-869: The European Space Agency. ESA launched the satellite in March 2009 on a mission to map Earth's gravity with unprecedented accuracy and spatial resolution. On 31 March 2011, a new geoid model was unveiled at the Fourth International GOCE User Workshop hosted at the Technical University of Munich , Germany. Studies using the time-variable geoid computed from GRACE data have provided information on global hydrologic cycles, mass balances of ice sheets , and postglacial rebound . From postglacial rebound measurements, time-variable GRACE data can be used to deduce
5428-461: The Himalaya is a journey around Kangchenjunga. The area around Kangchenjunga is said to be home to a mountain deity, called Dzö-nga or "Kangchenjunga Demon", a type of yeti or rakshasa . A British geological expedition in 1925 spotted a bipedal creature which they asked the locals about, who referred to it as the "Kangchenjunga Demon". For generations, there have been legends recounted by
5546-589: The Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of their intentions. Several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were denied. The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai , a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult because of torrential rains and malaria . Three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire because of failing health. Nonetheless, in 1847,
5664-583: The Indian Plate during the Cenozoic collision of India with Asia . Current interpretations argue that the Qomolangma and North Col formations consist of marine sediments that accumulated within the continental shelf of the northern passive continental margin of India before it collided with Asia. The Cenozoic collision of India with Asia subsequently deformed and metamorphosed these strata as it thrust them southward and upward. The Rongbuk Formation consists of
5782-657: The Jongsang La. The eastern ridge in Sikkim includes Siniolchu . The southern section runs along the Nepal–Sikkim border and includes Kabru I to III. This ridge extends southwards to the Singalila Ridge . The western ridge culminates in the Kumbhakarna, also known as Jannu . Four main glaciers radiate from the peak, pointing roughly to the northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest. The Zemu glacier in
5900-583: The Kanchenjunga Himal, of which 17 are debris -covered. Between 1958 and 1992, more than half of 57 examined glaciers had retreated, possibly due to rising of air temperature . Kangchenjunga Main is the highest elevation of the Brahmaputra River basin, which forms part of the southeast Asian monsoon regime and is among the globally largest river basins. Kangchenjunga is one of six peaks above 8,000 m (26,000 ft) located in
6018-585: The Kangchenjunga region has just recently been permitted. The Goecha La trek is gaining popularity amongst tourists. It goes to the Goecha La Pass, located right in front of the huge southeast face of Kangchenjunga. Another trek to Green Lake Basin has recently been opened for trekking. This trek goes to the Northeast side of Kangchenjunga along the famous Zemu Glacier . The film Singalila in
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#17327719049736136-606: The North Col Formation is a regional low-angle normal fault called the "Lhotse detachment". Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation underlies the North Col Formation and forms the base of Mount Everest. It consists of sillimanite - K-feldspar grade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills and dikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to 1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft). These leucogranites are part of
6254-1904: The Snow Line . Kangchenjunga Legend： 1： Mount Everest , 2： Kangchenjunga , 3： Lhotse , 4： Yalung Kang, Kanchenjunga West , 5： Makalu , 6： Kangchenjunga South , 7： Kangchenjunga Central , 8： Cho Oyu , 9： Dhaulagiri , 10： Manaslu (Kutang) , 11： Nanga Parbat (Diamer) , 12： Annapurna , 13： Shishapangma (Shishasbangma, Xixiabangma) , 14： Manaslu East , 15： Annapurna East Peak , 16： Gyachung Kang , 17： Annapurna II , 18： Tenzing Peak (Ngojumba Kang, Ngozumpa Kang, Ngojumba Ri) , 19： Kangbachen , 20： Himalchuli (Himal Chuli) , 21： Ngadi Chuli (Peak 29, Dakura, Dakum, Dunapurna) , 22： Nuptse (Nubtse) , 23： Nanda Devi , 24： Chomo Lonzo (Chomolonzo, Chomolönzo, Chomo Lönzo, Jomolönzo, Lhamalangcho) , 25： Namcha Barwa (Namchabarwa) , 26： Zemu Kang (Zemu Gap Peak) , 27： Kamet , 28： Dhaulagiri II , 29： Ngojumba Kang II , 30： Dhaulagiri III , 31： Kumbhakarna Mountain (Mount Kumbhakarna, Jannu) , 32： Gurla Mandhata (Naimona'nyi, Namu Nan) , 33： Hillary Peak (Ngojumba Kang III) , 34： Molamenqing (Phola Gangchen) , 35： Dhaulagiri IV , 36： Annapurna Fang , 37： Silver Crag , 38： Kangbachen Southwest , 39： Gangkhar Puensum (Gangkar Punsum) , 40： Annapurna III , 41： Himalchuli West , 42： Annapurna IV , 43： Kula Kangri , 44： Liankang Kangri (Gangkhar Puensum North, Liangkang Kangri) , 45： Ngadi Chuli South Kangchenjunga , also spelled Kanchenjunga , Kanchanjanghā and Khangchendzonga ,
6372-526: The air pressure further, reducing available oxygen by up to 14 percent. To avoid the harshest winds, climbers typically aim for a 7- to 10-day window in the spring and fall when the Asian monsoon season is starting up or ending. Mount Everest hosts several weather stations that collect important data on high-altitude weather conditions. Among them is the Balcony Station, the highest weather station on
6490-760: The average sea level. Another large feature is the North Atlantic Geoid High (or North Atlantic Geoid Swell), caused in part by the weight of ice cover over North America and northern Europe in the Late Cenozoic Ice Age . Recent satellite missions, such as the Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) and GRACE , have enabled the study of time-variable geoid signals. The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through
6608-575: The basin of the Kosi River , which is among the largest tributaries of the Ganges . The Kangchenjunga massif forms also part of the Ganges Basin . Although it is the third highest peak in the world, Kangchenjunga is only ranked 29th by topographic prominence , a measure of a mountain's independent stature. The key col for Kangchenjunga lies at a height of 4,664 metres (15,302 ft), along
6726-477: The border. Kanchenjunga rises about 20 km (12 mi) south of the general alignment of the Great Himalayan range about 125 km (78 mi) east-southeast of Mount Everest as the crow flies. South of the southern face of Kanchenjunga runs the 3,000–3,500 m (9,800–11,500 ft) high Singalila Ridge that separates Sikkim from Nepal and northern West Bengal . Until 1852, Kangchenjunga
6844-408: The center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid. To obtain one's orthometric height , a raw GPS reading must be corrected. Conversely, height determined by spirit leveling from a tide gauge , as in traditional land surveying, is closer to orthometric height. Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from
6962-505: The center of the Earth to that location. The geoid level coincides with where the water would be. Generally the geoid rises where the Earth's material is locally more dense, exerts greater gravitational force, and pulls more water from the surrounding area. The geoid undulation (also known as geoid height or geoid anomaly ), N , is the height of the geoid relative to a given ellipsoid of reference . N = h − H {\displaystyle N=h-H} The undulation
7080-441: The climb from Lukla to the summit about 6,000 m (19,685 ft) in elevation gain. The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers . As Nepal did not allow foreigners to enter the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7,000 m (22,970 ft) on
7198-536: The committee formed by Nepal's government to facilitate and monitor mountaineering in the Everest region, Taranath Adhikari—the director general of Nepal's tourism department—said they have plans to move the base camp to a lower altitude. This would mean a longer distance for climbers between the base camp and Camp 1. However, the present base camp is still useful and could still serve its purpose for three to four years. The move may happen by 2024, per officials. In 2008,
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#17327719049737316-570: The current position, the height of the geoid (e.g., the EGM96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid. They are then able to correct the height above the WGS ellipsoid to the height above the EGM96 geoid. When height is not zero on a ship, the discrepancy is due to other factors such as ocean tides, atmospheric pressure (meteorological effects), local sea surface topography , and measurement uncertainties. The undulation of
7434-453: The density and weight of different geological compositions in the Earth's crust , mountain ranges, deep sea trenches, crust compaction due to glaciers, and so on. If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere. Instead, the water level would be higher or lower with respect to Earth's center, depending on the integral of the strength of gravity from
7552-508: The effort and attention poured into expeditions, only about 200 people had summited by 1987. Everest remained a difficult climb for decades, even for serious attempts by professional climbers and large national expeditions, which were the norm until the commercial era began in the 1990s. By March 2012, Everest had been climbed 5,656 times with 223 deaths. By 2013, The Himalayan Database recorded 6,871 summits by 4,042 different people. Although lower mountains have longer or steeper climbs, Everest
7670-403: The fatality rate of climbers attempting to summit Kanchenjunga is high. Since the 1990s, more than 20% of people died while climbing Kanchenjunga's main peak. Because of its remote location in Nepal and the difficulty involved in accessing it from India, the Kangchenjunga region is not much explored by trekkers. It has, therefore, retained much of its pristine beauty. In Sikkim too, trekking into
7788-462: The first to reach the top. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first documented ascent of Everest in 1953 , using the southeast ridge route. Norgay had reached 8,595 m (28,199 ft) the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition . The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou , Gonpo , and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the north ridge on 25 May 1960. Mount Everest's Nepali / Sanskrit name
7906-603: The formula, ∑ I = 1 L I = 1 2 L ( L + 1 ) {\textstyle \sum _{I=1}^{L}I={\frac {1}{2}}L(L+1)} , it follows that the total number of coefficients is given by ∑ n = 2 n max ( 2 n + 1 ) = n max ( n max + 1 ) + n max − 3 = 130317 {\displaystyle \sum _{n=2}^{n_{\text{max}}}(2n+1)=n_{\text{max}}(n_{\text{max}}+1)+n_{\text{max}}-3=130317} using
8024-411: The fully normalized associated Legendre polynomials of degree n {\displaystyle n\ } and order m {\displaystyle m\ } , and C ¯ n m {\displaystyle {\overline {C}}_{nm}} and S ¯ n m {\displaystyle {\overline {S}}_{nm}} are
8142-666: The geoid N is closely related to the disturbing potential T according to Bruns' formula (named after Heinrich Bruns ): where γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is the force of normal gravity , computed from the normal field potential U {\displaystyle U} . Another way of determining N is using values of gravity anomaly Δ g {\displaystyle \Delta g} , differences between true and normal reference gravity, as per Stokes formula (or Stokes' integral ), published in 1849 by George Gabriel Stokes : The integral kernel S , called Stokes function ,
8260-418: The geoid and the local horizon tangential to it. Likewise, spirit levels will always be parallel to the geoid. Earth's gravitational field is not uniform. An oblate spheroid is typically used as the idealized Earth, but even if the Earth were spherical and did not rotate, the strength of gravity would not be the same everywhere because density varies throughout the planet. This is due to magma distributions,
8378-445: The geoid, meaning that plumb lines point perpendicular and bubble levels are parallel to the geoid. Being an equigeopotential means the geoid corresponds to the free surface of water at rest (if only the Earth's gravity and rotational acceleration were at work); this is also a sufficient condition for a ball to remain at rest instead of rolling over the geoid. Earth's gravity acceleration (the vertical derivative of geopotential)
8496-453: The global geoid as small as 55 km (or 110 km, depending on the definition of resolution). The number of coefficients, C ¯ n m {\displaystyle {\overline {C}}_{nm}} and S ¯ n m {\displaystyle {\overline {S}}_{nm}} , can be determined by first observing in the equation for V {\displaystyle V} that for
8614-416: The heights of continental points above the geoid by spirit leveling . Being an equipotential surface , the geoid is, by definition, a surface upon which the force of gravity is perpendicular everywhere, apart from temporary tidal fluctuations. This means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulation of the geoid ; neglecting tides, the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to
8732-699: The honor, and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that "Everest" could neither be written in Hindi nor pronounced by " the native of India ". Despite Everest's objections, Waugh's proposed name prevailed, and the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted the name "Mount Everest" in 1865. The modern pronunciation of Everest ( / ˈ ɛ v ər ɪ s t / ) is different from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname ( / ˈ iː v r ɪ s t / EEV -rist ). In
8850-518: The inhabitants of the areas surrounding Kanchenjunga, both in Sikkim and in Nepal, that there is a valley of immortality hidden on its slopes. These stories are well known to both the original inhabitants of the area, the Lepcha people and Limbu people , and those of the Tibetan Buddhist cultural tradition. In Tibetan, this valley is known as Beyul Demoshong. In 1962, a Tibetan Lama by
8968-506: The late 1980s, an even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography . On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m (29,017.16 ft) with accuracy of ±0.21 m (8.3 in), claiming it
9086-541: The late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was Gaurishankar , a mountain between Kathmandu and Everest. In 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India to fix the locations, heights, and names of the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern India, the survey teams moved northward using giant theodolites , each weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb) and requiring 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached
9204-411: The late 20th century. The geoid is often expressed as a geoid undulation or geoidal height above a given reference ellipsoid , which is a slightly flattened sphere whose equatorial bulge is caused by the planet's rotation. Generally the geoidal height rises where the Earth's material is locally more dense and exerts greater gravitational force than the surrounding areas. The geoid in turn serves as
9322-407: The limestone from near the summit revealed them to be composed of carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains of trilobites , crinoids, and ostracods . Other samples were so badly sheared and recrystallised that their original constituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is 60 m (200 ft) thick comprises the foot of the " Third Step ", and base of
9440-528: The line which John Kempe's party had reconnoitered the previous year. Because of the difficulties on that line they turned to the Yalung Face, which had first been explored by Aleister Crowley's party in 1905. The route starts on the Yalung Glacier to the southwest of the peak, and climbs the Yalung Face, which is 3,000 m (10,000 ft) high. The main feature of this face is the "Great Shelf",
9558-399: The low-resolution part of the geoid solution is provided by the satellite data, while a 'tuned' version of the above Stokes equation is used to calculate the high-resolution part, from terrestrial gravimetric data from a neighbourhood of the evaluation point only. Calculating the undulation is mathematically challenging. The precise geoid solution by Petr Vaníček and co-workers improved on
9676-438: The lower part of the North Col Formation consists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin layers of quartzose marble . These metamorphic rocks appear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle to Early Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbedded, mudstone , shale , clayey sandstone , calcareous sandstone, graywacke , and sandy limestone. The base of
9794-402: The most-improved technique in prediction of geoid undulation. Variations in the height of the geoidal surface are related to anomalous density distributions within the Earth. Geoid measures thus help understanding the internal structure of the planet. Synthetic calculations show that the geoidal signature of a thickened crust (for example, in orogenic belts produced by continental collision )
9912-494: The mountain and have not been removed due to the dangerous conditions. Climbers typically ascend only part of Mount Everest's elevation, as the mountain's full elevation is measured from the geoid , which approximates sea level . The closest sea to Mount Everest's summit is the Bay of Bengal , almost 700 km (430 mi) away. To approximate a climb of the entire height of Mount Everest, one would need to start from this coastline,
10030-418: The mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924, although this has never been confirmed, as neither of the men making the attempt returned. Several climbing routes have been established over several decades of climbing expeditions to the mountain. Everest's summit is first known to have been reached by a human in 1953, and interest from climbers increased thereafter. Despite
10148-534: The name of Tulshuk Lingpa led over 300 followers into the high snow slopes of Kanchenjunga, to ‘open the way’ to Beyul Demoshong. The story of this expedition is recounted in the 2011 book A Step Away from Paradise . The above Himalayan Journal references were all also reproduced in the "50th Anniversary of the First Ascent of Kangchenjunga" The Himalayan Club, Kolkata Section 2005. Geoid The geoid ( / ˈ dʒ iː . ɔɪ d / JEE -oyd )
10266-1164: The non-rotating part of the potential function in this model is: V = G M r ( 1 + ∑ n = 2 n max ( a r ) n ∑ m = 0 n P ¯ n m ( sin ϕ ) [ C ¯ n m cos m λ + S ¯ n m sin m λ ] ) , {\displaystyle V={\frac {GM}{r}}\left(1+{\sum _{n=2}^{n_{\text{max}}}}\left({\frac {a}{r}}\right)^{n}{\sum _{m=0}^{n}}{\overline {P}}_{nm}(\sin \phi )\left[{\overline {C}}_{nm}\cos m\lambda +{\overline {S}}_{nm}\sin m\lambda \right]\right),} where ϕ {\displaystyle \phi \ } and λ {\displaystyle \lambda \ } are geocentric (spherical) latitude and longitude respectively, P ¯ n m {\displaystyle {\overline {P}}_{nm}} are
10384-608: The northeast and the Talung glacier in the southeast drain to the Teesta River; the Yalung glacier in the southwest and the Kangchen glacier in the northwest drain to the Arun and Kosi rivers . The glaciers spread over the area above approximately 5,000 m (16,000 ft), and the glacialized area covers about 314 km (121 sq mi) in total. There are 120 glaciers in
10502-465: The numbers, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Calcutta . Kangchenjunga was declared to be 8,582 m (28,156 ft), while Peak XV was given the height of 8,840 m (29,002 ft). Waugh concluded that Peak XV
10620-414: The numerical coefficients of the model based on measured data. The above equation describes the Earth's gravitational potential V {\displaystyle V} , not the geoid itself, at location ϕ , λ , r , {\displaystyle \phi ,\;\lambda ,\;r,\ } the co-ordinate r {\displaystyle r\ } being
10738-413: The ocean were of constant density and undisturbed by tides, currents or weather, its surface would resemble the geoid. The permanent deviation between the geoid and mean sea level is called ocean surface topography . If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid. Geodesists are able to derive
10856-525: The overlying Qomolangma Formation. The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed between 7,000 to 8,200 m (23,000 to 26,900 ft) on Mount Everest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist, phyllite , and minor marble. Between 7,600 and 8,200 m (24,900 and 26,900 ft), the North Col Formation consists chiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyllite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite- sericite -quartz schist. Between 7,000 and 7,600 m (23,000 and 24,900 ft),
10974-658: The peak. Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of 9,200 m (30,200 ft) for peak "b", but this did not consider light refraction , which distorts heights. However, the number clearly indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga. Nicolson contracted malaria and was forced to return home without finishing his calculations. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on Roman numerals , with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX. Peak "b" now became known as Peak XV. In 1852, stationed at
11092-442: The planet, located at about 8,430 meters (27,657 feet) above sea level. Set up by climate scientists Tom Matthews and Baker Perry in 2019, this station is positioned just below the summit of Everest, which is the highest point on Earth. As of January 20, 2020, the Balcony Station ceased transmitting data. Because Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. Whether
11210-489: The snow height (8,848 m, Nepal). In 2010, both sides agreed that the height of Everest is 8,848 m, and Nepal recognises China's claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. On 8 December 2020, it was jointly announced by the two countries that the new official height is 8,848.86 metres (29,031.7 ft). It is thought that the plate tectonics of the Main Himalayan Thrust and related faults, which form
11328-772: The south between two major detachments. Mount Everest is rising by about 2 mm per year. In respect of the recognition of the "highest rocks on the planet" as fossiliferous, marine limestone, the Ordovician Rocks of Mount Everest were included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as
11446-526: The south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau , yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 to 4,650 m (11,980 to 15,260 ft). The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from Earth's centre (6,384.4 km, 3,967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km, 3,965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the equator. This
11564-415: The southwest side, a major feature in the lower areas is the Khumbu icefall and glacier , an obstacle to climbers on those routes but also to the base camps. Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising Mount Everest into three units called formations . Each formation is separated from the other by low-angle faults , called detachments , along which they have been thrust southward over each other. From
11682-658: The spelling used by the Indian Government since the late 19th century. Alternative spellings include Kanchenjunga, Khangchendzonga and Kangchendzönga. The brothers Hermann , Adolf and Robert Schlagintweit explained the local name 'Kanchinjínga' meaning "The five treasures of the high snow" as originating from the Tibetan word "gangs" pronounced [kaŋ] meaning snow, ice; "chen" pronounced [tɕen] meaning great; "mdzod" meaning treasure; "lnga" meaning five. Local Lhopo people believe that
11800-539: The study based on satellite data from 1993 to 2018, vegetation is expanding in the Everest region. Researchers have found plants in areas that were previously deemed bare. A minute black jumping spider of the genus Euophrys has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 metres (22,000 ft), possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. Another Euophrys species, E. everestensis , has been found at 5,030 metres (16,500 ft), and may feed on insects that have been blown there by
11918-520: The summit from the southeast in Nepal (known as the "standard route") and the other from the north in Tibet . While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness , weather, and wind, as well as hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall . As of May 2024, 340 people have died on Everest . Over 200 bodies remain on
12036-469: The summit is generally about one-third what it is at sea level. The altitude can expose the summit to the fast and freezing winds of the jet stream . Winds commonly attain 160 km/h (100 mph); in February 2004, a wind speed of 280 km/h (175 mph) was recorded at the summit. These winds can hamper or endanger climbers, by blowing them into chasms or (by Bernoulli's principle ) by lowering
12154-708: The summit of Kangchenjunga, three of which are in Nepal from the southwest, northwest, and northeast, and one from northeastern Sikkim in India. To date, the northeastern route from Sikkim has been successfully used only three times. The Indian government has banned expeditions to Kanchenjunga; therefore, this route has been closed since 2000. In 1955, Joe Brown and George Band made the first ascent on 25 May, followed by Norman Hardie and Tony Streather on 26 May. The full team also included John Clegg (team doctor), Charles Evans (team leader), John Angelo Jackson , Neil Mather and Tom Mackinnon. The team first made an attempt on
12272-946: The summit of Mount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qomolangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and the Rongbuk Formation . The Qomolangma Formation, also known as the Jolmo Lungama Formation, runs from the summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about 8,600 m (28,200 ft) above sea level. It consists of greyish to dark grey or white, parallel laminated and bedded, Ordovician limestone interlayered with subordinate beds of recrystallised dolomite with argillaceous laminae and siltstone . Gansser first reported finding microscopic fragments of crinoids in this limestone . Later petrographic analysis of samples of
12390-447: The summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which crops out starting about 70 m (230 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound, and cemented by the biofilms of micro-organisms, especially cyanobacteria , in shallow marine waters. The Qomolangma Formation is broken up by several high-angle faults that terminate at the low angle normal fault , the Qomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates it from
12508-535: The survey headquarters in Dehradun , Radhanath Sikdar , an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements. An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on
12626-433: The top of the mountain would remain inviolate. The Indian side of the mountain is off-limits to climbers. In 2016, the adjoining Khangchendzonga National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Kangchenjunga is the official spelling adopted by Douglas Freshfield , Alexander Mitchell Kellas and the Royal Geographical Society that gives the best indication of the Tibetan pronunciation. Freshfield referred to
12744-408: The treasures are hidden but reveal themselves to the devout when the world is in peril; the treasures comprise salt , gold , turquoise and precious stones , sacred scriptures, invincible armor or ammunition, grain and medicine. The Kangchenjunga Himal section of the Himalayas lies both in Nepal and India and encompasses 16 peaks over 7,000 m (23,000 ft). In the north, it is limited by
12862-454: The two peaks West and Kangbachen in Nepal's Taplejung District and the other three peaks Main, Central and South directly on the border. Until 1852, Kangchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world , but calculations and measurements by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 showed that Mount Everest , known as Peak XV at the time, is actually higher. After allowing for further verification of all calculations, it
12980-482: The underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metres of the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment are very highly deformed. The bulk of Mount Everest, between 7,000 and 8,600 m (23,000 and 28,200 ft), consists of the North Col Formation, of which the Yellow Band forms the upper part between 8,200 to 8,600 m (26,900 to 28,200 ft). The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Middle Cambrian diopside - epidote -bearing marble , which weathers
13098-562: The watershed boundary between Arun and Brahmaputra rivers in Tibet. It is, however, the fourth-most-prominent peak in the Himalayas, after Everest, and the western and eastern anchors of the Himalaya, Nanga Parbat and Namcha Barwa , respectively. The Kangchenjunga landscape is a complex of three distinct ecoregions : the eastern Himalayan broad-leaved and coniferous forests , the Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows and
13216-400: The wind. There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes. The bar-headed goose migrates over the Himalayas and have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain. In 1953, George Lowe (part of the expedition of Tenzing and Hillary) said that he saw bar-headed geese flying over Everest's summit. Another bird species, the chough , have been spotted as high as
13334-616: Was "most probably the highest in the world". Peak XV (measured in feet) was calculated to be exactly 29,000 ft (8,839.2 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 ft (8,839.8 m) in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet (8,839.2 m) was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is sometimes playfully credited with being "the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest". In 1856, Andrew Waugh announced Everest (then known as Peak XV) as 8,840 m (29,002 ft) high, after several years of calculations based on observations made by
13452-453: Was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world , but calculations and measurements by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 showed that Mount Everest , known as Peak XV at the time, is actually higher. After allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga was the third-highest mountain after Everest and K2 of Karakoram. Kangchenjunga and its satellite peaks form
13570-428: Was derived by Stokes in closed analytical form. Note that determining N {\displaystyle N} anywhere on Earth by this formula requires Δ g {\displaystyle \Delta g} to be known everywhere on Earth , including oceans, polar areas, and deserts. For terrestrial gravimetric measurements this is a near-impossibility, in spite of close international co-operation within
13688-532: Was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga is the third-highest mountain of the world. The Kangchenjunga is a sacred mountain in Nepal and Sikkim and was first climbed on 25 May 1955 by Joe Brown and George Band , who were part of the 1955 British Kangchenjunga expedition . They stopped just short of the true summit, keeping a promise given to Tashi Namgyal , the Chogyal of the Kingdom of Sikkim , that
13806-412: Was the most accurate and precise measurement to date. This height is based on the highest point of rock and not the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team measured a snow-ice depth of 3.5 m (11 ft), which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft). An argument arose between China and Nepal as to whether the official height should be the rock height (8,844 m, China) or
13924-436: Was then considered the highest peak in the world , and with interest, he noted a peak beyond it, about 230 km (140 mi) away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's subordinates, also saw the peak from a site farther west and called it peak "b". Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga, but closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent
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