Spanish victory, rebellion suppressed
58-664: Quechua people ( / ˈ k ɛ tʃ u ə / , US also / ˈ k ɛ tʃ w ɑː / ; Spanish: [ˈketʃwa] ) , Quichua people or Kichwa people may refer to any of the Indigenous peoples of South America who speak the Quechua languages , which originated among the Indigenous people of Peru . Although most Quechua speakers are native to Peru, there are some significant populations in Ecuador , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , and Argentina . The most common Quechua dialect
116-421: A chumpi which protects the lower back when working in the fields is also worn. Men's fine dress includes a woolen waistcoat, similar to a sleeveless juyuna as worn by women but referred to as a chaleco , and often richly decorated. The most distinctive part of men's clothing is the handwoven poncho . Nearly every Quechua man and boy has a poncho, generally red decorated with intricate designs. Each district has
174-534: A Quechua word for a pit cooking technique used in Peru, includes several types of meat such as chicken, beef, pork, lamb, and/or mutton; tubers such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, yucca , uqa / ok’a ( oca in Spanish), and mashwa ; other vegetables such as maize/corn and fava beans; seasonings; and sometimes cheese in a small pot and/or tamales . Guinea pigs are also raised for meat. Other foods and crops include
232-422: A base from which they launched attacks all across Upper Peru. Cristóbal would hold the town and much of the surrounding territory until mounting losses and diminishing support convinced him to accept a general amnesty from Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui . A preliminary treaty and prisoner exchange were conducted on 12 December, and Cristóbal's forces formally surrendered on 26 January 1782. Though some rebels resisted,
290-478: A distinctive pattern. In some communities such as Huilloc, Patacancha, and many villages in the Lares Valley ponchos are worn as daily attire. However, most men use their ponchos on special occasions such as festivals, village meetings, weddings, etc. As with the women, ajotas, sandals made from recycled tires, are the standard footwear. They are cheap and durable. A ch'ullu , a knitted hat with earflaps,
348-431: A family to accomplish a large private project, for example, house construction, and in turn can expect to be similarly helped later with a project of their own. In almost all Quechua ethnic groups, many traditional handicrafts are an important aspect of material culture . This includes a tradition of weaving handed down from Inca times or earlier, using cotton, wool (from llamas , alpacas , guanacos , and vicuñas ), and
406-807: A few hundred in Brazil. They have an only slight sense of common identity. The various Quechua dialects are in some cases so different that mutual understanding is not possible. Quechua was spoken not only by the Incas , but also by long-term enemies of the Inca Empire , including the Huanca ( Wanka is a Quechua dialect spoken today in the Huancayo area ) and the Chanka (the Chanca dialect of Ayacucho ) of Peru, and
464-471: A loss of both ethnic identity and the Quechua language. This is also a result of steady migration to large cities (especially Lima ), which has resulted in acculturation by Hispanic society there. Quechua people cultivate and eat a variety of foods. They domesticated potatoes, which originated in the region, and cultivated thousands of potato varieties, which are used for food and medicine. Climate change
522-440: A majority-Indigenous population is Bolivia, with 62% of Bolivians identifying as a member of an Indigenous group. South American indigenous peoples include: [REDACTED] Africa [REDACTED] Eurasia [REDACTED] North America [REDACTED] Oceania [REDACTED] South America Rebellion of T%C3%BApac Amaru II The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (4 November 1780 – 15 March 1783)
580-522: A multitude of natural dyes , and incorporating numerous woven patterns ( pallay ). Houses are usually constructed using air-dried clay bricks ( tika , or in Spanish adobe ), or branches and clay mortar (" wattle and daub "), with the roofs being covered with straw, reeds, or puna grass ( ichu ). The disintegration of the traditional economy, for example, regionally through mining activities and accompanying proletarian social structures, has usually led to
638-403: A religious significance, but this belief is not uniform across communities. Quinine , which is found naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree, is known to be used by Quechuas people for malaria -like symptoms. When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue; it is also used to alleviate altitude sickness . Coca leaves are chewed during work in
SECTION 10
#1732771716123696-633: A song about a bloody river. In their myth of Wiraquchapampa , the Q'ero people describe the victory of the Apus over the Spaniards. Of the myths still alive today, the Inkarrí myth common in southern Peru is especially interesting; it forms a cultural element linking the Quechua groups throughout the region from Ayacucho to Cusco . Some Quechuas consider classic products of the region such as corn beer , chicha , coca leaves , and local potatoes as having
754-512: A total of about 270,000 (and 22,000 men) according to official figures. The sterilization program lasted for over five years between 1996 and 2001. During this period, women were coerced into forced sterilization. Sterilizations were often performed under dangerous and unsanitary conditions, as the doctors were pressured to perform operations under unrealistic government quotas, which made it impossible to properly inform women and receive their consent. The Bolivian film director Jorge Sanjinés dealt with
812-967: Is Southern Quechua . The Kichwa people of Ecuador speak the Kichwa dialect ; in Colombia, the Inga people speak Inga Kichwa . The Quechua word for a Quechua speaker is runa or nuna ("person"); the plural is runakuna or nunakuna ("people"). "Quechua speakers call themselves Runa -- simply translated, "the people". Some historical Quechua people are: The speakers of Quechua total some 5.1 million people in Peru, 1.8 million in Bolivia, 2.5 million in Ecuador (Hornberger and King, 2001), and according to Ethnologue (2006) 33,800 in Chile, 55,500 in Argentina, and
870-597: Is a mixture of styles from Pre-Spanish days and Spanish Colonial peasant dress. Starting at puberty, Quechua girls begin wearing multiple layers of petticoats and skirts, showing off the family's wealth and making her a more desirable bride. Married women also wear multiple layers of petticoats and skirts. Younger Quechua men generally wear Western-style clothing, the most popular being synthetic football shirts and tracksuit trousers. In certain regions, women also generally wear Western-style clothing. Older men still wear dark wool knee-length handwoven bayeta pants. A woven belt called
928-704: Is believed that the first human populations of South America either arrived from Asia into North America via the Bering Land Bridge and migrated southwards or alternatively from Polynesia across the Pacific. The earliest generally accepted archaeological evidence for human habitation in South America dates to 14,000 years ago, and is located at the Monte Verde site in southern Chile . The descendants of these first inhabitants would become
986-544: Is estimated at 100,000 Indians and 10,000–40,000 non-Indians. Viceroy Jáuregui lessened mita obligations in an attempt to ameliorate some of the Indians' complaints. In 1784, his successor, Teodoro de Croix , abolished the corregidors and reorganized the colonial administration around eight intendants . In 1787, an audiencia was established in Cuzco. Areche's decrees following the execution of Túpac Amaru II included
1044-554: Is frequently worn. The first ch'ullu that a child receives is traditionally knitted by their father. In the Ausangate region, chullos are often ornately adorned with white beads and large tassels called t'ikas. Men sometimes wear a felt hat called a sombrero over the top of the ch'ullu decorated with centillo , finely decorated hat bands. Since ancient times men have worn small woven pouches called ch'uspa used to carry their coca leaves. The following list of Quechua ethnic groups
1102-790: Is only a selection and delimitations vary. In some cases, these are village communities of just a few hundred people, in other cases ethnic groups of over a million. Dixon, Melissa, "Against all odds: UM grad charts new course with $ 90,000 fellowship" Indigenous peoples of South America In South America , Indigenous peoples comprise the Pre-Columbian peoples and their descendants, as contrasted with people of European ancestry and those of African descent. In Spanish, indigenous peoples are referred to as pueblos indígenas ( lit. ' indigenous peoples ' ), or pueblos nativos ( lit. ' native peoples ' ). The term aborigen ( lit. ' aborigine ' )
1160-591: Is threatening their potato and other traditional crops but they are undertaking conservation and adaptation efforts. Quinoa is another staple crop grown by the Quechua people. Ch’arki (the origin of the English word jerky ) is a dried (and sometimes salted) meat. It was traditionally made from llama meat that was sun- and freeze-dried in the Andean sun and cold nights, but is now also often made from horse and beef, with variation among countries. Pachamanca ,
1218-748: Is used in Argentina , and pueblos aborígenes ( lit. ' aboriginal peoples ' ) is commonly used in Colombia . The English term Amerindian (short for "Indians of the Americas") is often used in the Guianas . Latin Americans of mixed European and Indigenous descent are usually referred to as mestizos (Spanish) and mestiços (Portuguese), while those of mixed African and Indigenous ancestry are referred to as zambos . It
SECTION 20
#17327717161231276-478: The Altiplano combined with systemic oppression of Indian and mestizo underclasses (a recurring source of localized uprisings throughout Spanish colonial South America) to create an environment in which a large-scale uprising could occur. In 1778 Spain raised sales taxes (known as the alcabala ) on goods such as rum and pulque (the common alcoholic beverages of the peasants and commoners) while tightening
1334-756: The Kañari (Cañari) in Ecuador. Quechua was spoken by some of these people, for example, the Wanka, before the Incas of Cusco , while other people, especially in Bolivia but also in Ecuador, adopted Quechua only in Inca times or afterward. Quechua became Peru's second official language in 1969 under the military dictatorship of Juan Velasco Alvarado . There have been later tendencies toward nation-building among Quechua speakers, particularly in Ecuador (Kichwa) but also in Bolivia, where there are only slight linguistic differences from
1392-553: The Puna . The typical Andean community extends over several altitude ranges and thus includes the cultivation of a variety of arable crops and/or livestock. The land is usually owned by the local community ( ayllu ) and is either cultivated jointly or redistributed annually. Beginning with the colonial era and intensifying after the South American states had gained their independence, large landowners appropriated all or most of
1450-509: The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by separating Upper Peru (modern Bolivia ) and the territory that is now Argentina from the Viceroyalty of Peru . These territories included the economically important silver mines at Potosí , whose economic benefits began to flow to Buenos Aires in the east instead of Cuzco and Lima to the west. The economic hardship this introduced to parts of
1508-757: The Education Council of the Quechua Nation ( Consejo Educativo de la Nación Quechua , CENAQ), which is responsible for Quechua instruction or bilingual intercultural schools in the Quechua-speaking regions of Bolivia. Some Quechua speakers say that if nation-states in Latin America had been built following the European pattern, they should be a single, independent nation. Despite their ethnic diversity and linguistic distinctions,
1566-438: The Spanish army eventually brought them down. Government efforts to destroy the rebellion were frustrated by, among other things, a high desertion rate, hostile locals, scorched-earth tactics, the onset of winter, and the region's altitude (most of the troops were from the lowlands and had trouble adjusting). An army led by Diego Cristóbal occupied the strategically important city of Puno on 7 May 1781 and proceeded to use it as
1624-496: The Spanish in 1781, the rebellion continued for at least another year under other rebel leaders. Amaru II's rebellion was simultaneous with the uprising of Túpac Katari in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia). The government of Spain , to streamline the operation of its colonial empire, began introducing what became known as the Bourbon Reforms throughout South America . In 1776, as part of these reforms, it created
1682-486: The Spanish military proved to be too strong for his army of 40,000–60,000 followers. After being repelled from the capital of the Incan empire, the rebels march around the country, gathering forces to attempt to fight back. Troops from Lima were instrumental in helping repel Túpac's siege of Cuzco from 28 December 1780 to 10 January 1781. Following these failures, his coalition of disparate malcontents began to fall apart, with
1740-464: The banning of the Quechua language, the wearing of indigenous clothing, and virtually any mention or commemoration of Inca culture and history. Areche's attempts to destroy Inca culture after the execution of Túpac Amaru II were confirmed by royal decree in April 1782 however, colonial authorities lacked the resources to enforce these laws, and they were soon largely forgotten. Still, paintings depicting
1798-580: The base of the labor used to mine silver, leading to increased unrest. On 4 November 1780, after a party in Tungasuca, where Túpac was a cacique , Túpac and supporters seized Antonio Arriaga, the corregidor of his hometown of Tinta. They forced him to write letters to his treasurer in Tinta requesting money and arms and to other influential individuals and kurakas ordering them to congregate in Tungasuca. On 10 November, six days after his capture, Arriaga
Quechua people - Misplaced Pages Continue
1856-563: The case of the community of Sarayaku has become well known among the Kichwa of the lowlands, who after years of struggle were able to successfully resist expropriation and exploitation of the rain forest for petroleum recovery . A distinction is made between two primary types of joint work. In the case of mink'a , people work together for projects of common interest (such as the construction of communal facilities). Ayni is, in contrast, reciprocal assistance, whereby members of an ayllu help
1914-539: The corrupt and treacherous colonial administration. He was motivated in part by reading of a prophecy that the Inca would rule again with British support. He may have been aware of the British colonial rebellion in North America and Spanish involvement in the war. Additionally, the growth of mining as a source of colonial revenue was largely caused by the increased burden placed on indigenous workers who formed
1972-523: The fields as well as during breaks in construction projects in Quechua provinces. Coca leaves are the raw material from which cocaine , one of Peru's most historically important exports, is chemically extracted. Many Indigenous women wear colorful traditional attire, complete with bowler-style hats . The hat has been worn by Quechua and Aymara women since the 1920s when it was brought to the country by British railway workers. They are still commonly worn today. The traditional dress worn by Quechua women today
2030-624: The indigenous populations of South America. Before the Spanish colonization of the Americas , many of the indigenous peoples of South America were hunter-gatherers and indeed many still are, especially in the Amazon rainforest . Others, especially the Andean cultures , practised sophisticated agriculture, utilized advanced irrigation and kept domesticated livestock , such as llamas and alpacas . The only South American country that presently has
2088-424: The issue of forced sterilization in 1969 in his Quechua-language feature film Yawar Mallku . Quechuas have been left out of their nation's regional economic growth in recent years. The World Bank has identified eight countries on the continent to have some of the highest inequality rates in the world. The Quechuas have been subject to these severe inequalities, as many of them have a much lower life expectancy than
2146-539: The land and forced the Native population into bondage (known in Ecuador as Huasipungo , from Kichwa wasipunku , "front door"). Harsh conditions of exploitation repeatedly led to revolts by the Indigenous farmers, which were forcibly suppressed. The largest of these revolts occurred in 1780–1781 under the leadership of Husiy Qawriyil Kunturkanki . Some Indigenous farmers re-occupied their ancestors' lands and expelled
2204-493: The landlords during the takeover of governments by dictatorships in the middle of the 20th century, such as in 1952 in Bolivia ( Víctor Paz Estenssoro ) and 1968 in Peru ( Juan Velasco Alvarado ). The agrarian reforms included the expropriation of large landowners. In Bolivia, there was a redistribution of the land to the Indigenous population as their private property. This disrupted traditional Quechua and Aymara culture based on communal ownership, but ayllus has been retained up to
2262-637: The meat of llamas and alpacas as well as beans, barley, hot peppers, coriander, and peanuts. Up to the present time, Quechuas continue to be victims of political conflicts and ethnic persecution. In the internal conflict in Peru in the 1980s between the government and Sendero Luminoso about three-quarters of the estimated 70,000 death toll were Quechuas, whereas the war parties were without exception whites and mestizos (people with mixed descent from both Natives and Spaniards). The forced sterilization policy under Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori affected almost exclusively Quechua and Aymara women,
2320-579: The mid-1700s, women had a changing role throughout Latin America. They began getting involved politically, economically, and culturally. Women had begun getting involved in the workforce, particularly producing cotton cloth and working as market traders. Because of these growing gender role changes, women were involved in the Túpac Amaru II revolt. Túpac's wife, Micaela Bastidas, had commanded her battalion, and she and her battalion were responsible for
2378-403: The mountain spirits ( apu ) as well as lesser local deities ( wak'a ), who are still venerated especially in southern Peru. The Quechuas came to terms with their repeated historical experience of tragedy in the form of various myths. These include the figure of Nak'aq or Pishtaco ("butcher"), the white murderer who sucks out the fat from the bodies of the Indigenous peoples he kills, and
Quechua people - Misplaced Pages Continue
2436-572: The next day, destroying the local church where several people had taken refuge. Túpac then turned south, against the advice of his wife and lieutenant Micaela Bastidas , who urged him to attack Cuzco before the government could mobilize. Micaela Bastidas was a pivotal force in the Túpac de Amaru rebellion and is often overlooked. Bastidas was known for leading an uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucsa region. Indigenous communities often sided with
2494-512: The original Peruvian version. An indication of this effort is the umbrella organization of the Kichwa people in Ecuador, ECUARUNARI ( Ecuador Runakunapak Rikcharimuy ). Some Christian organizations also refer to a "Quechua people", such as the Christian shortwave radio station HCJB , "The Voice of the Andes" ( La Voz de los Andes ). The term "Quechua Nation" occurs in such contexts as the name of
2552-597: The parliamentary officer Carlos Torres Caro refused their acceptance. Practically all Quechuas in the Andes have been nominally Catholic since colonial times. Nevertheless, traditional religious forms persist in many regions, blended with Christian elements – a fully integrated syncretism . Quechua ethnic groups also share traditional religions with other Andean peoples, particularly belief in Mother Earth ( Pachamama ), who grants fertility and to whom burnt offerings and libations are regularly made. Also important are
2610-543: The present time in remote regions, such as in the Peruvian Quechua community of Q'ero . The struggle for land rights continues up to the present time to be a political focal point of everyday Quechua life. The Kichwa ethnic groups of Ecuador which are part of the ECUARUNARI association were recently able to regain communal land titles or the return of estates—in some cases through militant activity. Especially
2668-410: The rebels, and local militias put up little resistance. It was not long before Túpac's forces had taken control of almost the entire southern Peruvian plateau . Spanish colonial administrator José Antonio de Areche acted in response to Túpac's uprising, moving troops from Lima and as far off as Cartagena toward the region. Tupac Amaru II, in 1780, began to lead an uprising of indigenous people, but
2726-448: The rebels. Some historians have described these killings aimed at non-Indians, in conjunction with attempts to violently eradicate various non-Indian cultural customs, as genocidal in nature. Many of the leaders who fought in the rebellion after Túpac de Amaru's death were discovered to be women (32 out of 73) and were later acknowledged by the eventual liberator of Spanish America, Simón Bolívar in his speech in 1820. Throughout
2784-540: The regional average, and many communities lack access to basic health services. Perceived ethnic discrimination continues to play a role at the parliamentary level. When the newly elected Peruvian members of parliament Hilaria Supa Huamán and María Sumire swore their oath of office in Quechua—for the first time in the history of Peru in an Indigenous language—the Peruvian parliamentary president Martha Hildebrandt and
2842-542: The rest of its tax system in its colonies, in part to fund its participation in the American Revolutionary War . José Gabriel Condorcanqui, an upper-class Indian with claims to the Inca royal lineage, adopted the name Túpac Amaru II (alluding to Túpac Amaru , the last Inca emperor), and in 1780 called for rebellion. He claimed to be acting on behalf of the King of Spain, enforcing royal authority on
2900-520: The same end, he also sought the creation of a new audiencia at Cuzco. Túpac began moving through the countryside, gaining supporters, primarily from the Indian and mestizo classes, but also with some creoles. On 17 November, he arrived at the town of Sangarará , where Spanish authorities from Cuzco and the surrounding area had assembled a force of about 604 Spaniards and 700 Indians. Túpac's ad hoc army, which had grown to several thousand, routed this force
2958-429: The upper-caste criollos abandoning him first to rejoin the loyalist forces. Further defeats and Spanish offers of amnesty for rebel defectors hastened the collapse of Túpac's forces. By the end of February 1781, Spanish authorities began to gain the upper hand. A mostly indigenous loyalist army of 15,000 to 17,000 troops led by Jose del Valle had the smaller rebel army surrounded by 23 March. A breakout attempt on 5 April
SECTION 50
#17327717161233016-479: The uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucan region. Micaela Bastidas and Bartola Sisa took part in demonstrations against high prices, food distribution networks, racist treatment of Natives, high taxes, and tightening restrictions on the colonies. Although women were involved in the revolution and had a very active role throughout their villages, leading to independence throughout the region, they had received little attention for their efforts. The ultimate death toll
3074-470: The various Quechua ethnic groups have numerous cultural characteristics in common. They also share many of these with the Aymara or other Indigenous peoples of the central Andes . Traditionally, Quechua identity is locally oriented and inseparably linked in each case with the established economic system. It is based on agriculture in the lower altitude regions, and on pastoral farming in the higher regions of
3132-445: The worst was over. The last organized remnants of the rebellion would be vanquished by May 1782, though sporadic violence continued for many months. Diego, his mother, and several of his allies would be arrested and executed anyway by Spanish authorities in Cuzco on 19 July 1783 on the pretext he had broken the peace accords. During the rebellion, especially after the death of Túpac Amaru II, non-Indians were systematically killed by
3190-425: Was an uprising by cacique -led Aymara , Quechua , and mestizo rebels aimed at overthrowing Spanish colonial rule in Peru . The causes of the rebellion included opposition to the Bourbon Reforms , an economic downturn in colonial Peru, and a grassroots revival of Inca cultural identity led by Túpac Amaru II , an indigenous cacique and the leader of the rebellion. While Amaru II was captured and executed by
3248-586: Was beheaded. Túpac Amaru's capture and execution did not end the rebellion. In his place, his surviving relatives, namely his cousin Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, continued the war, albeit using guerilla tactics, and transferred the rebellion's focal point to the Collao highlands around Lake Titicaca . The war was also continued by Túpac Katari 's female commander, Bartolina Sisa. Sisa led a resistance of 2,000 troops for several months until
3306-404: Was executed in front of thousands of gathered Indians , mestizos , and criollos (locals of partial Spanish descent). Following the assassination of Arriaga, Túpac made a proclamation citing several explicit demands related to indigenous issues. These included ending the mita rotational labor system and limiting the power of the corregidor and thus amplifying his power as cacique . To
3364-476: Was repulsed. Túpac and his family were betrayed and captured the next day along with battalion leader Tomasa Tito Condemayta , who was the only indigenous noble who would be executed alongside Túpac. After being tortured, on 15 May Túpac was sentenced to death, and on 18 May forced to witness the execution of his wife and one of his children before he was himself quartered . The four horses running in opposite directions failed to tear his limbs apart, and so Túpac
#122877