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89-495: The Rouran Khaganate ( 柔然 ; Róurán ), also known as Ruanruan or Juan-juan ( 蠕蠕 ; Ruǎnruǎn ) (or variously Jou-jan , Ruruan , Ju-juan , Ruru , Ruirui , Rouru , Rouruan or Tantan ), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin. The Rouran supreme rulers used the title of khagan , a popular title borrowed from the Xianbei . The Rouran Khaganate lasted from

178-651: A nökür was someone who had left his clan or tribe to pledge loyalty to and serve a charismatic warlord; if this derivation were correct, Róurán 柔然 was originally not an ethnonym, but a social term referring to the dynastic founder's origins or the core circle of companions who helped him build his state. However, Golden identifies philological problems: the ethnonym should have been * nöŋör to be cognate to nökür , & possible assimilation of -/k/- to -/n/- in Chinese transcription needs further linguistic proofs. Even if 柔然 somehow transmitted nökür , it more likely denoted

267-630: A system of classification for societies in all human cultures, based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state . This system of classification contains four categories: Tribes are therefore considered to be a political unit formed from an organisation of families (including clans and lineages) based on social or ideological solidarity. Membership of a tribe may be understood as being based on factors such as kinship ("clan"), ethnicity ("race"), language, dwelling place, political group, religious beliefs, oral tradition and/or cultural practices . Archaeologists continue to explore

356-608: A Rouran princess reported being dissatisfied with being second to Emperor Wendi 's principal wife. The first khagan Shelun is said to have concluded a "treaty of peace based on kinship" ( huoqin ) with the rulers of Jin . The royal house of Rouran is also said to have intermarried with the royal house of the Haital ( Hephthalites ) in the 6th century. Since the time of Shelun Khan, the khans were bestowed with additional titles at their enthronement. After 464, starting with Yucheng Khan they started to use epoch names, in imitation of

445-423: A chiefdom". The Rouran have been credited as "a band of steppe robbers", because they adopted a strategy of raids and extortion of Northern China. The Khaganate was an aggressive militarized society, a "military-hierarchical polity established to solve the exclusively foreign-policy problems of requisitioning surplus products from neighbouring nations and states." Róurán 柔然 is a Classical Chinese transcription of

534-426: A city-state, such a unit as Jericho might have become in its later stages … tribalism can be viewed as reaction to the formation of complex political structure rather than a necessary preliminary stage in its evolution. The term "tribe" was in common use in the field of anthropology until the late 1950s and 1960s. The continued use of the term has attracted controversy among anthropologists and other academics active in

623-605: A connection between the Pannonian Avars and the earlier Rouran. However, Savelyev & Jeong 2020 notes that there is still little genetic data on the Rouran themselves, and that their genetic relationship with the Pannonian Avars therefore still remains inconclusive. The received view is that the relationships of the language remain a puzzle and that it may be an isolate. Alexander Vovin (2004, 2010) considered

712-462: A few days they will be either taken or destroyed. In 434, the Rouran entered a marriage alliance with Northern Wei . In 443, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 449, the Rouran were defeated in battle by Northern Wei. In 456, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 458, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 460, the Rouran subjugated the Ashina tribe residing around modern Turpan and resettled them in

801-476: A great boast....' " The syntax of verb negation shifted from negation particles preceding final verbs to a negation particle following participles; thus, as final verbs could no longer be negated, their paradigm of negation was filled by particles. For example, Preclassical Mongolian ese irebe 'did not come' v. modern spoken Khalkha Mongolian ireegüi or irsengüi . The Mongolic languages have no convincingly established living relatives. The closest relatives of

890-454: A herd of colts and heifers do against tigers or a pack of wolves? As for the Rouran, they graze in the north during the summer; in autumn, they come south and in winter raid our frontiers. We have only to attack them in summer in their pasture lands. At that time their horses are useless: the stallions are busy with the fillies, and the mares with their foals. If we but come upon them there and cut them off from their grazing and their water, within

979-567: A historical Rouran Khagan. Tantan were gradually incorporated into the Shiwei tribal complex and later emerged as Great- Da Shiwei (大室韋) in Suishu . Klyashtorny, apud Golden (2013), reconstructed 大檀 / 檀檀 as * tatar / dadar , "the people who, [Klyashtorny] concludes, assisted Datan in the 420s in his internal struggles and who later are noted as the Otuz Tatar ("Thirty Tatars") who were among

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1068-527: A horse/with a horse'. As this adjective functioned parallel to ügej 'not having', it has been suggested that a "privative case" ('without') has been introduced into Mongolian. There have been three different case suffixes in the dative-locative-directive domain that are grouped in different ways: - a as locative and - dur , - da as dative or - da and - a as dative and - dur as locative, in both cases with some functional overlapping. As - dur seems to be grammaticalized from dotur-a 'within', thus indicating

1157-505: A leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called tribes of the United States or British India provide good examples of this). The British favored the label "aboriginal tribe" for some communities. India adopted a republican constitution in 1950, after three years of debate in its Constituent Assembly. During the debate, Jaipal Singh, a member of Munda tribe from Central India advocated for special provisions for

1246-624: A marriage alliance with Western Wei , a successor state of Northern Wei, and attacked the Rouran in 552. The Rouran, now at the peak of their might, were defeated by the Turks. After a defeat at Huaihuang (in present-day Zhangjiakou , Hebei ) the last great khan Anagui, realizing he had been defeated, took his own life. Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the Turkic Khaganate after conquering Otuken ; Bumin died soon after and his son Issik Qaghan succeeded him. Issik continued attacking

1335-473: A mostly pillaged but still consistent treasure, Byzantine coins and about a thousand vessels and clay figurines. Among the latter was the figurine of a shaman , standing in a dancing posture and holding a saw-like instrument. This figurine is thought to reflect the young princess' Rouran/nomadic roots. On one occasion, in 540, the Rourans allegedly attacked Western Wei reportedly with a million warriors because

1424-828: A smaller number of participles, which were less likely to be used as finite predicates. The linking converb - n became confined to stable verb combinations, while the number of converbs increased. The distinction between male, female and plural subjects exhibited by some finite verbal suffixes was lost. Neutral word order in clauses with pronominal subject changed from object–predicate–subject to subject–object–predicate; e.g. Kökseü Kökseü sabraq sabraq ügü.le-run speak- CVB ayyi alas yeke big uge word ugu.le-d speak- PAST ta you ... ... kee-jüü.y say- NFUT Kökseü sabraq ügü.le-run ayyi yeke uge ugu.le-d ta ... kee-jüü.y Kökseü sabraq speak-CVB alas big word speak-PAST you ... say-NFUT "Kökseü sabraq spoke saying, 'Alas! You speak

1513-417: A span of time, the second account seems to be more likely. Of these, - da was lost, - dur was first reduced to - du and then to - d and - a only survived in a few frozen environments. Finally, the directive of modern Mongolian, - ruu , has been innovated from uruγu 'downwards'. Social gender agreement was abandoned. Middle Mongol had a slightly larger set of declarative finite verb suffix forms and

1602-794: A sudden internal revolution led by the Göktürks, hence the still vivid memories of empire in the Avar Khagan, a fact paralleled later by the Kara-Khitans who migrated a long distance west after being suddenly dislodged from northern China but still kept their pretensions to empire and defeated the Great Seljuk Empire in the Battle of Qatwan as the Western Liao. The Hephthalite Empire in southern Central Asia would not fall to

1691-414: A vassal state ( fanli ). Following the growth of Rouran and the turning of Wei into a classical Chinese state, they were considered partners of equal rights by Wei ( lindi gangli ). In 424, the Rouran invaded Northern Wei but were repulsed. In 429, Northern Wei launched a major offensive against the Rouran and killed a large number of people. The Chinese are foot soldiers and we are horsemen. What can

1780-588: A verbal root meaning 'to be'. Latin tribus is held to derive from the Proto-Indo-European compound * tri-dʰh₁u/o- ('rendered in three, tripartite division'; compare with Umbrian trifu 'trinity, district', Sanskrit trídha 'threefold'). Considerable debate has accompanied efforts to define and characterize tribes. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a primordial social structure from which all subsequent civilizations and states developed. Anthropologist Elman Service presented

1869-466: Is because Chuvash and Common Turkic do not differ in these features despite differing fundamentally in rhotacism-lambdacism (Janhunen 2006). Oghur tribes lived in the Mongolian borderlands before the 5th century, and provided Oghur loanwords to Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic before Common Turkic loanwords. Proto-Mongolic, the ancestor language of the modern Mongolic languages, is very close to Middle Mongol,

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1958-454: Is known that in 521 Khagan Anagui was given two bondmaids as a gift from the Chinese, while Khagan Shelun is said to have once declared that the soldiers who fought outstandingly would receive captives. However, "there is nothing in the sources about the enslavement of prisoners of war". There is, however, evidence that the Rouran resettled people in the steppe. Initially the Rouran chiefs, having no letters to make records, "counted approximately

2047-659: Is the primary language of most of the residents of Mongolia and the Mongol residents of Inner Mongolia , with an estimated 5.7+ million speakers. The possible precursor to Mongolic is the Xianbei language , heavily influenced by the Proto-Turkic (later, the Lir-Turkic ) language. The stages of historical Mongolic are: Pre-Proto-Mongolic is the name for the stage of Mongolic that precedes Proto-Mongolic. Proto-Mongolic can be clearly identified chronologically with

2136-528: The Altai Mountains . The Rouran also ousted the previous dynasty of Gaochang (the remnants of the Northern Liang ) and installed Kan Bozhou as its king. In 492, Emperor Tuoba Hong sent 70 thousand horsemen against Rouran. The outcome of the expedition does not appear in Chinese sources and is thus unknown. According to Nikolay Kradin , since Chinese sources are silent about the outcome of

2225-800: The Native American tribes of North America, tribes are considered sovereign nations , that have retained their sovereignty or been granted legal recognition by the federal government. Mongolic languages The Mongolic languages are a language family spoken by the Mongolic peoples in Eastern Europe , Central Asia , North Asia and East Asia , mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas and in Kalmykia and Buryatia . The best-known member of this language family, Mongolian ,

2314-671: The Northern Yan as well as the Northern Wei dynasty and its successors Eastern and Western Wei , which were fighting each other, and each seeking the support of Rouran to defeat the other. Both parties, in turn, took the initiative of proposing such marriages to forge important alliances or solidify relations. In the 1970s, the Tomb of Princess Linhe was unearthed in Ci County, Hebei. It contained artistically invaluable murals,

2403-636: The Rouran language was in fact a Mongolic language, close but not identical to Middle Mongolian. The Rourans were the first people who used the titles Khagan and Khan for their emperors, replacing the Chanyu of the Xiongnu . The etymology of the title Chanyu is controversial: there are Mongolic, Turkic, and Yeniseian versions. Tribe In the United States, Native American tribes are legally considered to have "domestic dependent nation" status within

2492-476: The Xianbei . Rouran women were commonly taken as wives or concubines by the Xianbei. After the Xianbei migrated south and settled in Chinese lands during the late 3rd century AD, the Rouran made a name for themselves as fierce warriors. However they remained politically fragmented until 402 AD when Shelun gained support of all the Rouran chieftains and united the Rouran under one banner. Immediately after uniting,

2581-503: The endonym of the confederacy; meanwhile, 蠕蠕 Ruǎnruǎn ~ Rúrú ( Weishu ), which connoted something akin to "wriggling worm" , was used derogatorily in Tuoba-Xianbei sources. Other transcriptions are 蝚蠕 Róurú ~ Róuruǎn ( Jinshu ); 茹茹 Rúrú ( Beiqishu , Zhoushu , Suishu ); 芮芮 Ruìruì ( Nanqishu , Liangshu , Songshu ), 大檀 Dàtán and 檀檀 Tántán ( Songshu ). However, Baumer (2018), while acknowledging that Ruanruan (蠕蠕)

2670-723: The social sciences with scholars of anthropological and ethnohistorical research challenging the utility of the concept. In 1970, anthropologist J. Clyde Mitchell wrote: Despite the membership boundaries for a tribe being conceptually simple, in reality they are often vague and subject to change over time. In his 1975 study, The Notion of the Tribe , Fried provided numerous examples of tribes that encompassed members who spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or who shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes in which people followed different political leaders, or followed

2759-464: The 'Adibasi' -- a translation into Hindi of 'aboriginal'. His arguments proved persuasive. These communities were to have seats in the legislatures and positions in government employment 'reserved' for them. Each of the assembly members prepared a list of communities that deserved special protections. These names were listed in a "Schedule" (appendix) to the Constitution. So these came to be called

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2848-444: The 'Scheduled Tribes', often abbreviated to ST. Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities. In

2937-632: The 6th century. These Avars were pursued into the Byzantine Empire by the Göktürks, who referred to the Avars as a slave or vassal people, and requested that the Byzantines expel them. While this Rouran-Avars link remains a controversial theory, a recent DNA study has confirmed the genetic origins of the Avar elite as originating from the Mongolian plains. Other theories instead link the origins of

3026-470: The Chinese, Anagui Khan introduced the use of officials at court, "surrounded himself with advisers trained in the tradition of Chinese bibliophily", and adopted a staff of bodyguards , or chamberlains . Hyun Jin Kim notes a similar use of bodyguards performing the same function in the contemporary Hunnic Empire to the west. Kim also compared the "rudimentary bureaucratic organisation" of the Rourans to that of

3115-435: The Chinese. The Rouran dignitaries of the ruling elite also adopted nicknames referring to their deeds, similar to the titles the Chinese bestowed posthumously. Kradin notes that this practice is analogous with that of later Mongolian chiefs. There appears to have been a wide circle composing the nomadic aristocracy, including elders, chieftains, military commanders. The grandees could be high or low ranking. According to Kradin,

3204-589: The Göktürks until 560. The Hephthalites themselves had previously been vassals to the Rouran and adopted the title Khagan from them. They were also already known as the Hephthalites to the Byzantines. In view of these facts a strong Rouran component in the Avar Khaganate has been seen as likely, although the Khaganate later included many other peoples such as Slavs and Goths. Li et al. 2018 examined

3293-524: The Hephthalites had a falling out and problems within their confederation were encouraged by Chinese agents. In 508, the Tiele defeated the Rouran in battle. In 516, the Rouran defeated the Tiele. In 551, Bumin of the Ashina Göktürks quelled a Tiele revolt for the Rouran and asked for a Rouran princess for his service. The Rouran refused and in response Bumin declared independence. Bumin entered

3382-561: The Hephthalites. The Rouran Khaganate ended when they were defeated by a Göktürk rebellion at the peak of their power, which subsequently led to the rise of the Turks in world history. Their Khaganate overthrown, some Rouran remnants possibly became Tatars while others possibly migrated west and became the Pannonian Avars (known by such names as Varchonites or Pseudo Avars ), who settled in Pannonia (centred on modern Hungary) during

3471-872: The Huns, as well as their "hierarchical, stratified structure of government". Anagui's chief advisor was the Chinese Shunyu Tan, whose role is comparable to that of Yelü Chucai with the Mongols and Zhonghang Yue with the Xiongnu (or Huns). Recent archeological finds in Mongolia (the Urd Ulaan Uneet Burial and Khukh Nuur Burial) suggest that the Mongolic Rouran tribes had sophisticated, wooden frame saddles and iron stirrups by at least

3560-640: The Mongolian steppes to attack their northern borders. The Rouran's grassland empire was reportedly defeated by rival nomads in 552. In 567, diplomats from the Eastern Roman Empire reported the arrival of a new group from the east on the shores of the Caspian Sea. The newcomers called themselves the Avars, and claimed to be related to a far-off people known as the Rouran. However, it's unlikely that Rouran would have migrated to Europe in any sufficient strength to establish themselves there, due to

3649-524: The Mongolic languages appear to be the para-Mongolic languages , which include the extinct Khitan , Tuyuhun , and possibly also Tuoba languages. Alexander Vovin (2007) identifies the extinct Tabγač or Tuoba language as a Mongolic language. However, Chen (2005) argues that Tuoba (Tabγač) was a Turkic language . Vovin (2018) suggests that the Rouran language of the Rouran Khaganate

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3738-570: The Mongolic languages can be more economically explained starting from basically the same vowel system as Khalkha, only with *[ə] instead of *[e] . Moreover, the sound changes involved in this alternative scenario are more likely from an articulatory point of view and early Middle Mongol loans into Korean . In the ensuing discourse, as noted earlier, the term "Middle Mongol" is employed broadly to encompass texts scripted in either Uighur Mongolian (UM), Chinese (SM), or Arabic (AM). The case system of Middle Mongol has remained mostly intact down to

3827-443: The Mongols. Klyastorny reconstructed the ethnonym behind the Chinese transcription 柔然 Róurán ( LHC : * ńu-ńan ; EMC : * ɲuw-ɲian > LMC: * riw-rian ) as * nönör and compares it to Mongolic нөкүр nökür "friend, comrade, companion" ( Khalkha нөхөр nöhör ). According to Klyashtorny, * nönör denotes "stepnaja vol'nica" "a free, roving band in the steppe, the ' companions ' of the early Rouran leaders". In early Mongol society,

3916-539: The Pannonian Avars to peoples such as the Uar . An imperial confederation, the Rouran Khaganate was based on the "distant exploitation of agrarian societies", although according to Nikolay Kradin the Rouran had a feudal system, or "nomadic feudalism". The Rouran controlled trade routes, and raided and subjugated oases and outposts such as Gaochang . They are said to have shown the signs of "both an early state and

4005-508: The Rouran and displaced the Yuezhi in Bactria , forcing them to migrate further south. Despite the conflict between the Hephthalites and Rouran, the Hephthalites borrowed much from their eastern overlords, in particular the title of " Khan " which was first used by the Rouran as a title for their rulers. The Rouran were considered vassals ( chen ) by Tuoba Wei . By 506 they were considered

4094-584: The Rouran entered a perpetual conflict with Northern Wei , beginning with a Wei offensive that drove the Rouran from the Ordos region . The Rouran expanded westward and defeated the neighboring Tiele people and expanded their territory over the Silk Roads , even vassalizing the Hephthalites which remained so until the beginning of the 5th century. The Hepthalites migrated southeast due to pressure from

4183-509: The Rouran language to be an extinct non- Altaic language that is not related to any modern-day language (i.e., a language isolate ) and is hence unrelated to Mongolic . Vovin (2004) notes that Old Turkic had borrowed some words from an unknown non-Altaic language that may have been Rouran. In 2018 Vovin changed his opinion after new evidence was found through the analysis of the Brāhmī Bugut and Khüis Tolgoi inscriptions and suggests that

4272-472: The Rouran were descended specifically from Donghu's Xianbei lineage, i.e. from Xianbei who remained in the eastern Eurasian Steppe after most Xianbei had migrated south and settled in Northern China . Genetic testings on Rourans' remains suggested Donghu-Xianbei paternal genetic contribution to Rourans. The founder of the Rouran Khaganate, Yujiulu Shelun , was descended from Mugulü , a slave of

4361-601: The Rouran were of Xiongnu origin" and Rourans' descendants, namely Da Shiwei (aka Tatars), contained Turkic elements, besides Mongolic Xianbei . Even so, the Xiongnu's language is still unknown and Chinese historians routinely ascribed Xiongnu origins to various nomadic groups, yet such ascriptions do not necessarily indicate the subjects' exact origins: for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Turkic-speaking Göktürks and Tiele as well as Para-Mongolic-speaking Kumo Xi and Khitans . Kwok Kin Poon additionally proposes that

4450-585: The Rouran's status as the subjects of the Tuoba . Before being used as an ethnonym, Rouran had originally been the byname of chief Cheluhui (車鹿會), possibly denoting his status "as a Wei servitor". Primary Chinese-language sources Songshu and Liangshu connected Rouran to the earlier Xiongnu (of unknown ethnolinguistic affiliation) while Weishu traced the Rouran's origins back to the Donghu, generally agreed to be Proto-Mongols . Xu proposed that "the main body of

4539-408: The Rouran, their khaganate now fallen into decay, but died a year later in 553. In 555, Turks invaded and occupied the Rouran and Yujiulü Dengshuzi led 3000 soldiers in retreat to Western Wei . He was later delivered to Turks by Emperor Gong with his soldiers under pressure from Muqan Qaghan . In the same year, Muqan annihilated the Rouran. All the Rouran handed over to the Turks, reportedly with

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4628-526: The capital of the Rouran became the legendary town of Mumocheng , said to have been "encircled with two walls constructed by Liang Shu". The existence of this city would be proof of early urbanization among the Rouran. However, no trace of it has been found so far; its location is unknown, and debated among historians. In 461, Lü Pi , Duke of Hedong, a Northern Wei general and Grand chancellor of royal Rouran descent, died in Northern Wei. The Rouran and

4717-489: The case of Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic, certain loanwords in the Mongolic languages point to early contact with Oghur (Pre-Proto-Bulgaric) Turkic, also known as r-Turkic. These loanwords precede Common Turkic (z-Turkic) loanwords and include: The above words are thought to have been borrowed from Oghur Turkic during the time of the Xiongnu . Later Turkic peoples in Mongolia all spoke forms of Common Turkic (z-Turkic) as opposed to Oghur (Bulgharic) Turkic, which withdrew to

4806-583: The consonants of Middle Mongol has engendered several controversies. Middle Mongol had two series of plosives, but there is disagreement as to which phonological dimension they lie on, whether aspiration or voicing. The early scripts have distinct letters for velar plosives and uvular plosives, but as these are in complementary distribution according to vowel harmony class, only two back plosive phonemes, * /k/ , * /kʰ/ (~ * [k] , * [qʰ] ) are to be reconstructed. One prominent, long-running disagreement concerns certain correspondences of word medial consonants among

4895-513: The core of the Rouran Empire. They were the neighbors of the Chinese." "Genetically speaking, the elite Avars have a very, very eastern profile," says Choongwon Jeong, a co-author and a geneticist at Seoul National University. That genetic data backs up two historical accounts of the Avar's origins. One sixth century Chinese source describes an enigmatic steppe people called the Rouran, one of many horse-riding nomadic groups that swept out of

4984-554: The desperate resistances, military disasters, and massacres. The remainder of the Rouran fled into China, were absorbed into the border guards, and disappeared forever as an entity. The last khagan fled to the court of the Western Wei, but at the demand of the Göktürks, Western Wei executed him and the nobles who accompanied him. The Avars were pursued west by the Gokturks as most-wanted fugitives and accused of unlawfully usurping

5073-458: The development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. Anthropologist Morton Fried argued in 1967 that bands organized into tribes in order to resist

5162-618: The east, a fact which has been corroborated through DNA studies of Avar individuals buried in the Pannonian Basin which have shown that they were primarily East Asian. Their pretensions to empire despite their relatively small numbers indicate descendance from a previously hegemonic power in the Far East. The first embassy of the Avars to Justinian I in 557 corresponds directly to the fall of the Rouran Khaganate in 555. The Rouran Khaganate had fallen not through gradual decline but through

5251-653: The exception of children less than sixteen, were brutally killed. On 29 November 586 Yujiulü Furen (郁久闾伏仁), an official of Sui and a descendant of the ruling clan, died in Hebei , leaving an epitaph reporting his royal descent from the Yujiulü clan . According to Xu (2005), some Rouran remnants fled to the northwest of the Greater Khingan mountain range, and renamed themselves 大檀 Dàtán ( MC : * da-dan ) or 檀檀 Tántán (MC: * dan-dan ) after Tantan , personal name of

5340-491: The expedition, it is probable that it was unsuccessful. Kradin notes that, possibly strained after the battle with Wei, the Rourans were not able to prevent the Uighur chief Abuzhiluo from heading "a 100 thousand tents" west, in a series of events that led to the overthrowing and killing of Doulun Khan . Two armies were sent in pursuit of the rebels, one led by Doulun, the other by Nagai, his uncle. The Rouran emerged victorious. In

5429-564: The form is a result of borrowing directly from Latin (the Middle English plural tribuz 1250 may be a direct representation of Latin plural tribūs ). Modern English tribe may also be a result of a common pattern wherein English borrows nouns directly from Latin and drops suffixes, including -us . Latin tribus is generally held by linguists to be a compound formed from two elements: tri- 'three' and bhu , bu , fu ,

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5518-452: The four major scripts ( UM , SM , AM , and Ph , which were discussed in the preceding section). Word-medial /k/ of Uyghur Mongolian (UM) has not one, but two correspondences with the three other scripts: either /k/ or zero. Traditional scholarship has reconstructed * /k/ for both correspondences, arguing that * /k/ was lost in some instances, which raises the question of what the conditioning factors of those instances were. More recently,

5607-542: The fourth and fifth centuries AD. Radiocarbon dating of related items date them to between the 3rd century to 6th century AD. The wooden frame saddle and the iron stirrups in found at these burials in Mongolia are one of the earliest examples found in Central and East Asia. The capital of the Rouran likely changed over time. The headquarters of the Rouran Khan ( ting ) was said to be initially northwest of Gansu . Later

5696-532: The imperial title of Khagan and also the prestigious name of the Avars. Contemporary sources indicate the Avars were not native to the Western Steppe but came to the region after a long wandering. Nor were they native to Central Asia to the south of which lay the Hephthalite Empire which has on and off been identified with the Avars by certain scholars. Instead the Avars' origins were further to

5785-579: The khagan could confer titles in reward of services rendered and outstanding deeds. He cites as an example of this an event occurred in 518, when Nagai entitled the sorceress Diwai khagatun , taking her as his wife, and gave a compensation, a post and a title to Fushengmou, her then former husband. The Rouran titles included mofu , mohetu (cf. Mongolian batur, baghatur ), mohe rufei (cf. Mongolian baga köbegün ), hexi , sili and sili-mohe , totoufa , totouteng , sijin (cf. Turkic irkin), xielifa (cf. Turkic eltäbär). It

5874-520: The knowledge of written Chinese" was rather high, and that it didn't affect only the elite and the immigrants, but also some cattle-breeders were able to use Chinese ideograms. In the Book of Song there is the story of an educated Rouran "whose knowledge shamed a wise Chinese functionary". There is no record of monuments erected by the Rouran, though there is evidence of the latter requesting doctors, weavers and other artisans to be sent from China. Imitating

5963-452: The language of the founders of the Northern Wei dynasty, for which the surviving evidence is very sparse, and Khitan, for which evidence exists that is written in the two Khitan scripts ( large and small ) which have as yet not been fully deciphered, a direct affiliation to Mongolic can now be taken to be most likely or even demonstrated. The changes from Proto-Mongolic to Middle Mongol are described below. Research into reconstruction of

6052-581: The language spoken at the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire . Most features of modern Mongolic languages can thus be reconstructed from Middle Mongol. An exception would be the voice suffix like -caga- 'do together', which can be reconstructed from the modern languages but is not attested in Middle Mongol. The languages of the historical Donghu , Wuhuan , and Xianbei peoples might have been related to Proto-Mongolic. For Tabghach ,

6141-750: The language spoken by the Mongols during Genghis Khan 's early expansion in the 1200-1210s. Pre-Proto-Mongolic, by contrast, is a continuum that stretches back indefinitely in time. It is divided into Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic and Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic. Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic refers to the Mongolic spoken a few centuries before Proto-Mongolic by the Mongols and neighboring tribes like the Merkits and Keraits . Certain archaic words and features in Written Mongolian go back past Proto-Mongolic to Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic (Janhunen 2006). Pre-Proto-Mongolic has borrowed various words from Turkic languages . In

6230-466: The late 4th century until the middle 6th century with territories that covered all of modern day Mongolia and Inner Mongolia , as well as parts of Manchuria in Northeast China , Eastern Siberia , Xinjiang , and Kazakhstan . The Hephthalites were vassals of the Rouran Khaganate until the beginning of the 5th century, with the royal house of Rourans intermarrying with the royal houses of

6319-1280: The modern state system. Tribes have lost their legitimacy to conduct traditional functions, such as tithing , delivering justice and defending territory, with these being replaced by states functions and institutions, such as taxation, law courts and the military. Most have suffered decline and loss of cultural identity. Some have adapted to the new political context and transformed their culture and practices in order to survive, whilst others have secured legal rights and protections. Fried proposed that most surviving tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, developed as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership . They do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes, and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have

6408-475: The mourners at the funeral of Bumın Qağan (see the inscriptions of Kül Tegin, E4 and Bilge Qağan, E5)". Some scholars claim that the Rouran then fled west across the steppes and became the Avars, though many other scholars contest this claim. New genetic data seem to answer that question, says Walter Pohl, a historian at the University of Vienna. "We have a very clear indication that they must have come from

6497-479: The nature, structure and practices of tribes. Writing on the Kurdish peoples, anthropologist Martin van Bruinessen argued, "the terms of standard anthropological usage, 'tribe', 'clan' and 'lineage' appear to be a straitjacket that ill fits the social reality of Kurdistan". There are further negative connotations of the term "tribe" that have reduced its use. Writing in 2013, scholar Matthew Ortoleva noted that "like

6586-420: The number of warriors by using sheep's droppings ". Later, they learned to make records using notches on wood. A later source claims that the Rouran later adopted the Chinese written language for diplomatic relations, and under Anagui, started to write internal records. According to the same source, there were also many literate people among the Rouran by that time. Kradin notes that the level of literacy "based on

6675-694: The other possibility has been assumed; namely, that the correspondence between UM /k/ and zero in the other scripts points to a distinct phoneme, /h/ , which would correspond to the word-initial phoneme /h/ that is present in those other scripts. /h/ (also called /x/ ) is sometimes assumed to derive from * /pʰ/ , which would also explain zero in SM , AM , Ph in some instances where UM indicates /p/; e.g. debel > Khalkha deel . The palatal affricates * č , * čʰ were fronted in Northern Modern Mongolian dialects such as Khalkha. * kʰ

6764-440: The phonetic representation of the word and long vowels became short; e.g. *imahan ( *i becomes /ja/ , *h disappears) > *jamaːn (unstable n drops; vowel reduction) > /jama(n)/ 'goat', and *emys- (regressive rounding assimilation) > *ømys- (vowel velarization) > *omus- (vowel reduction) > /oms-/ 'to wear' This reconstruction has recently been opposed, arguing that vowel developments across

6853-408: The present, although important changes occurred with the comitative and the dative and most other case suffixes did undergo slight changes in form, i.e., were shortened. The Middle Mongol comitative - luγ-a could not be used attributively, but it was replaced by the suffix - taj that originally derived adjectives denoting possession from nouns, e.g. mori-tai 'having a horse' became mor'toj 'having

6942-465: The remains of a Rouran male buried at the Khermen Tal site in Mongolia. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b and the maternal haplogroup D4b1a2a1 . Haplogroup C2b1a1b has also been detected among the Xianbei . Several genetic studies have shown that early Pannonian Avar elites carried a large amount of East Asian ancestry, and some have suggested this as evidence for

7031-416: The same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries, heterogeneity and dynamism, and are not parochial. Part of the difficulty with the term is that it seeks to construct and apply a common conceptual framework across diverse cultures and peoples. Different anthropologists studying different peoples therefore draw conflicting conclusions about

7120-490: The territorial United States, with a government-to-government relationship with the federal government. The modern English word tribe stems from Middle English tribu , which ultimately derives from Latin tribus . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it remains unclear if this form is the result of a borrowing from a Romance language source (such as Old French tribu ) or if

7209-680: The title of khagatun for her outstanding service. Between 525 and 527, Rouran was employed by Northern Wei in the suppression of rebellions in their territory, with the Rourans then plundering the local population. The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui 's daughter Princess Ruru , to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei . The Rourans were involved many times in royal intermarriage (also known as Heqin in China), with

7298-422: The violence and exploitation of early kingdoms and states. He wrote: In fact, there is no absolute necessity for a tribal stage as defined by Sahlins and Service, no necessity, that is, for such a stage to appear in the transit from a single settlement with embedded political organization, to a complex-state structured polity. Such a developmental process could have gone on within a unit that we may conceptualize as

7387-400: The vowel harmony shifted from a velar to a pharyngeal paradigm. *i in the first syllable of back-vocalic words was assimilated to the following vowel; in word-initial position it became /ja/ . *e was rounded to *ø when followed by *y . VhV and VjV sequences where the second vowel was any vowel but *i were monophthongized. In noninitial syllables, short vowels were deleted from

7476-462: The war against the Uighurs, Doulan fought well, but his uncle Nagai won all the battles against the Uighurs. Thus, the soldiers thought that Heaven didn't favor Doulan anymore, and that he should be deposed in favor of Nagai. The latter declined. Nonetheless, the subjects killed Doulan and murdered his next of kin, installing Nagai on the throne. In 518, Nagai married the sorceress Diwan, conferring her

7565-533: The west in the 4th century. The Chuvash language , spoken by 1 million people in European Russia, is the only living representative of Oghur Turkic which split from Proto Turkic around the 1st century AD. Words in Mongolic like dayir (brown, Common Turkic yagiz ) and nidurga (fist, Common Turkic yudruk ) with initial *d and *n versus Common Turkic *y are sufficiently archaic to indicate loans from an earlier stage of Oghur (Pre-Proto-Bulgaric). This

7654-415: The word Indian , [t]ribe is a word that has connotations of colonialism." Survival International says "It is important to make the distinction between tribal and indigenous because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law as well as problems in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples." Few tribes today remain isolated from the development of

7743-896: Was spirantized to /x/ in Ulaanbaatar Khalkha and the Mongolian dialects south of it, e.g. Preclassical Mongolian kündü , reconstructed as *kʰynty 'heavy', became Modern Mongolian /xunt/ (but in the vicinity of Bayankhongor and Baruun-Urt , many speakers will say [kʰunt] ). Originally word-final * n turned into /ŋ/; if * n was originally followed by a vowel that later dropped, it remained unchanged, e.g. *kʰen became /xiŋ/ , but *kʰoina became /xɔin/ . After i-breaking, *[ʃ] became phonemic. Consonants in words containing back vowels that were followed by *i in Proto-Mongolian became palatalized in Modern Mongolian. In some words, word-final *n

7832-481: Was a "derogatory pun" on Rouran (柔然), proposes that the ethnonym Rouran (柔然) is indeed derived from the name Ruru (茹茹) or Ruirui (芮芮) of a "tribal father". Mongolian Sinologist Sükhbaatar suggests Nirun Нирун as the modern Mongolian term for the Rouran , as Нирун resembles reconstructed Chinese forms beginning with * ń - or * ŋ -. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani recorded Niru'un and Dürlükin as two divisions of

7921-412: Was dropped with most case forms, but still appears with the ablative, dative and genitive. Only foreign origin words start with the letter L and none start with the letter R . The standard view is that Proto-Mongolic had *i, *e, *y, *ø, *u, *o, *a . According to this view, *o and *u were pharyngealized to /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ , then *y and *ø were velarized to /u/ and /o/ . Thus,

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