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75-710: On 9 February 1849, the Roman Republic took over the government of the Papal States . In the following July, an intervention by French troops restored Pope Pius IX to power, making the Roman question a hotly debated one even in the internal politics of France. In July 1859, after France and Austria made an agreement that ended the short Second Italian War of Independence , an article headed "The Roman Question" in The Westminster Review expressed

150-629: A king around. However, the government refused such suggestions and the king eventually took up residence in the Quirinal Palace. Regarded by Roman citizens as the ultimate sign of authority in the city, the Quirinal had been built and used by previous popes. When asked for the keys, Pius IX reportedly said, "Whom do these thieves think they are kidding asking for the keys to open the door? Let them knock it down if they like. Bonaparte's soldiers, when they wanted to seize Pius VI , came through

225-516: A matter of fact, he has already asked whether we could grant him asylum. I have no objection to it— Cologne or Fulda . It would be passing strange, but after all not so inexplicable, and it would be very useful to us to be recognised by Catholics as what we really are, that is to say, the sole power now existing that is capable of protecting the head of their Church. [...] But the King [later to become Wilhelm I, German Emperor ] will not consent. He

300-559: A political rally held in the Teatro Apollo , a young Roman ex-priest, the Abbé Arduini , made a speech in which he declared that the temporal power of the popes was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality." The Constitutional Assembly convened on 8 February and proclaimed the Roman Republic after midnight on 9 February. According to Jasper Ridley: "When the name of Carlo Luciano Bonaparte , who

375-650: A political rally in February 1849, a young heretic, the Abbé Arduini, described the temporal power of the popes as a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality". On 9 February 1849, a revolutionary Roman Assembly proclaimed the Roman Republic . Subsequently, the Constitution of the Roman Republic abolished papal temporal power, although the independence of the pope as head of

450-483: A prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!" San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day. The Italian army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna , crossed the frontier on 11 September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that an unopposed entry could be negotiated. The Italian army reached the Aurelian Walls on 19 September and placed Rome under a state of siege. Pius IX decided that

525-554: A second time. He had fled Rome in disguise in November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister of Finance, Count Pellegrino Rossi . One occurrence was in 1862, when Giuseppe Garibaldi was in Sicily gathering volunteers for a campaign to take Rome under the slogan Roma o Morte (Rome or Death). On 26 July 1862, before Garibaldi and his volunteers were stopped at Aspromonte , Pius IX confided his fears to Lord Odo Russell ,

600-507: A state. The law was intended to attempt to avoid further antagonizing the Pope following unification and was roundly criticized by anti-clerical politicians across the political spectrum, particularly on the left. At the same time, it subjected the papacy to a law that the Italian parliament could modify or abrogate at any time. Pope Pius IX and his successors refused to recognize the right of

675-400: Is terribly afraid. He thinks all Prussia would be perverted and he himself would be obliged to become a Catholic. I told him, however, that if the Pope begged for asylum he could not refuse it. He would have to grant it as ruler of ten million Catholic subjects who would desire to see the head of their Church protected. Rumours have already been circulated on various occasions to the effect that

750-632: The Triumvirate , of Carlo Armellini (Roman), Giuseppe Mazzini (Roman) and Aurelio Saffi (from Teramo , Papal States), and a government, led by Muzzarelli and composed also by Aurelio Saffi (from Forlì , Papal States). Among the first acts of the Republic was the proclamation of the right of the Pope to continue his role as head of the Roman Church. The Triumvirate passed popular legislation to eliminate burdensome taxes and to give work to

825-470: The Apennine Mountains . Garibaldi made a speech in which he favoured the third option and then said: Dovunque saremo, colà sarà Roma. ("Wherever we may be, there will be Rome!"). A truce was negotiated on 1 July and on 2 July Garibaldi, followed by some 4,000 troops, withdrew from Rome for refuge in the neutral Republic of San Marino . The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and reestablished

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900-841: The Byzantine emperors, who ruled their Italian territories via a governor called an exarch , stationed in Ravenna . Pope Gregory II 's defiance of the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian as a result of the first iconoclastic controversy (726 AD) in the Byzantine Empire , widened the growing divergence between the Byzantine and Carolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church. This, combined with Lombard military pressure to which

975-537: The Campidoglio , and the angry popular reaction to papal warnings of excommunication for political actions of November received from Gaeta and posted on the 3rd. The Costituenti decided to schedule direct and universal elections (electors were all the citizens of the State, male and over 21 years old) on the following 21 January 1849. Since the pope had forbidden Catholics to vote at those elections (he considered

1050-605: The Holy See 's temporal power. In August Louis Napoleon issued a sort of manifesto in which he asked of Pius IX a general amnesty, a secularized administration, the establishment of the Code Napoléon , and in general a Liberal Government. Pius, from Gaeta, promised reforms that he declared motu proprio , that is, of his own volition, not in answer to the French. The pope did not return to Rome itself until April 1850, since

1125-538: The Italian peninsula known as the Papal States , from the capital, Rome . In 1274 the Comtat Venaissin came under Papal control, followed by Avignon in 1348. Theologian Robert Bellarmine , in his 16th-century dogmatic work Disputationes , strongly affirmed the authority of the pope as the vicar of Christ . However, he reasoned that since Christ did not exercise his temporal power, neither may

1200-463: The Janiculum wall, and the villas on the city's outskirts were garrisoned. On 30 April, Oudinot's out-of-date maps led him to march to a gate that had been walled up sometime before. The first cannon shot was mistaken for the noon-day gun, and the astonished French were beaten back by the fiercely anti-clerical Romans of Trastevere , Garibaldi's legionaries and citizen-soldiers, who sent them back to

1275-530: The Kingdom of Italy . According to Raffaele De Cesare: The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet – that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon

1350-603: The Napoleonic Code were abolished, and most civil servants were removed from office. In the coming years, rising liberal and nationalist sentiment created popular opposition to the reconstituted clerical government. This led to numerous revolts, which were suppressed by the intervention of the Austrian army. In November 1848, during the revolutions that swept Europe in that year , the assassination of his minister Pellegrino Rossi led Pope Pius IX to flee Rome. During

1425-554: The Quirinal Palace , and foreign powers were likewise uneasy with the move. The British ambassador noted the apparent contradiction of a secular government sharing the city with a religious government, while the French foreign minister wrote: If [Italy] would consent to view Florence as the seat of government, it would solve the Papal question. It would show great sense, and the political credit it would thereby garner, as well as

1500-631: The Romagna and in the Duchy of Spoleto and Benevento , and the Pentapolis (the "five cities" of Rimini , Pesaro , Fano , Senigallia and Ancona ). Narni and Ceccano were former papal territories. However, the medieval Popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over these extensive and mountainous territories, given the recalcitrance of their vassals. For over a thousand years popes ruled as sovereign over an amalgam of territories on

1575-462: The bull which would have made this new edition of the Index enter into force. Sixtus' successor, Urban VII , asked for an examination and after it was done Bellarmine was exonerated and the book removed from the Index . Concerning the pastoral and spiritual power of the pope, Bellarmine's Disputationes (1586–1593) and De potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus (1610; Concerning

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1650-588: The pope ruled the Papal States in central Italy . The Papal States ceased to exist following the capture of Rome in 1870 by the Royal Italian Army , after which its remaining territories were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy . The Lateran Treaty of 1929 later established the Vatican City , a small city-state where the Holy See currently exercises temporal powers. The Lateran Palace

1725-471: The "Right to Work" or work guarantee programs for unemployed poor, having seen the compromise National Workshops measure of Louis Blanc fail in France shortly before. However, the government's policies (lower taxes, increased spending) were fiscally expansionary and involved a decrease in the value of the currency. Piedmont was at risk of attack by Austrian forces, and the Republic's movement of troops in

1800-509: The Bishop of Rome. Some, primarily Italian, clergy suggested an ecumenical council to dogmatically define papal infallibility as an article of faith, binding upon the consciences of all Catholic faithful. This doctrinal view, however, initially proposed by Franciscan partisans in opposition to the prerogative of popes to contradict the more favorable decrees of their predecessors, faced significant resistance outside of Italy prior to and during

1875-778: The British Minister in Rome, and asked whether he would be granted political asylum in England after the Italian troops had marched in. Odo Russell assured him that he would be granted asylum if the need arose, but said that he was sure that the Pope's fears were unfounded. New rumours of the pope's departure arose after the Capture of Rome and the suspension of the First Vatican Council . These were confided by Otto von Bismarck to Julius Hermann Moritz Busch : As

1950-668: The Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali . Like the other revolutionary movements of 1848, the Republic was short-lived; Rome was eventually conquered by the French Second Republic , which restored the papacy's temporal power in the region once again. In 1859–60, the Papal States were invaded by various republican forces seeking a unified Italian state, and lost

2025-556: The French by force of arms. The French expected little resistance from the usurpers. But republican resolve was stiffened by the charismatic Giuseppe Garibaldi 's long-delayed triumphal entry into Rome at last, on 27 April, and by the arrival on 29 April of the Lombard Bersaglieri , who had recently driven the Austrians from the streets of Milan with new tactics of house-to-house fighting. Hasty defences were erected on

2100-489: The French were considered liberals all the same, and the pope would not return until assured of no French meddling in his affairs. In the interim, Rome was governed by a reactionary " Red Triumvirate " of cardinals. French soldiers propped up the papal administration in Rome until they were withdrawn at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, leading to the subsequent capture of Rome and annexation by

2175-462: The Italian king to reign over what had formerly been the Papal States, or the right of the Italian government to decide his prerogatives and make laws for him. Asserting that the Holy See needed to maintain clearly manifested independence from any political power in its exercise of spiritual jurisdiction, and that the Pope should not appear to be merely a "chaplain of the King of Italy ", Pius IX rejected

2250-466: The Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite. Again, according to Raffaele De Cesare: The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet—that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan , that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it

2325-575: The Law of Papal Guarantees with its offer of an annual financial payment to the Pope. Despite the Italian state's repeated assurances of the Pope's absolute liberty of movement within Italy and abroad, the popes refused to set foot outside the walls of the Vatican and thereby put themselves under the protection of the Italian forces of law and order, an implicit recognition of the changed situation. Consequently,

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2400-542: The Papal States (though the papacy was restored between 1800 and 1809). Napoleon Bonaparte abolished the pope's temporal power in 1809, incorporating Rome and Latium into his First French Empire . Pope Pius VII himself was even taken prisoner by Napoleon. However, the pope's temporal power was restored by the Great powers at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in the 1815 Congress of Vienna . The civil laws of

2475-476: The Papal States. Widespread public demonstrations demanded that the Italian government take Rome. The Italian government took no direct action until the collapse of Napoleon at the battle of Sedan . King Victor Emmanuel II then sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome, under

2550-610: The Pope intends to leave Rome. According to the latest of these the Council, which was adjourned in the summer, will be reopened at another place, some persons mentioning Malta and others Trient . [...] Doubtless the main object of this gathering will be to elicit from the assembled fathers a strong declaration in favour of the necessity of the Temporal Power . Obviously a secondary object of this Parliament of Bishops, convoked away from Rome, would be to demonstrate to Europe that

2625-527: The Pope. On 25 April, 1849, some eight to ten thousand French troops under General Charles Oudinot landed at Civitavecchia on the coast northwest of Rome, while Spain sent 4,000 men under Fernando Fernández de Córdova to Gaeta , where the Pope remained in his refuge. The French sent a staff officer the next day to meet with Giuseppe Mazzini with a stiff assertion that the pope would be restored to power. The revolutionary Roman Assembly, amid thunderous shouts of "Guerra!, Guerra!", authorised Mazzini to resist

2700-689: The Power of the Supreme Pontiff in Temporal Matters ) "gave definite form to the theory of papal supremacy ". The secular revolutionary movements of the 1800s posed a serious threat to the pope's temporal power. Avignon was seized by revolutionaries during the French Revolution in 1791, ending 450 years of papal sovereignty there. Between 1798 and 1814, the revolutionary French government invaded Italy several times and annexed

2775-529: The Roman Republic and Tuscany , and who died of a wound suffered in the defence of Rome. The siege began in earnest on 1 June, and despite the resistance of the Republican army, led by Garibaldi, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: to surrender; to continue fighting in the streets of Rome; to retreat from Rome and continue the resistance from

2850-776: The Short of the Franks defeated the Lombards and granted the lands of the Duchy of Rome as well as territory ceded by the Lombards to the Papacy in what is referred to as the Donation of Pepin , marking the true beginning of the Papal States. The area conferred upon the pope included the territory belonging to Ravenna, even cities such as Forlì with their hinterlands, the Lombard conquests in

2925-620: The Triumvirate; their places were filled on 29 March by Saffi and Giuseppe Mazzini , the Genoese founder of the journal La Giovine Italia , who had been the guiding spirit of the Republic from the start. Mazzini won friends among the poor by confiscating some of the Church's large landholdings and distributing them to peasants. He inaugurated prison and insane asylum reforms, freedom of the press , and secular education , but shied away from

3000-576: The Vatican does not enjoy the necessary liberty, although the Act of Guarantee proves that the Italian Government, in its desire for reconciliation and its readiness to meet the wishes of the Curia, has actually done everything that lies in its power. One of the pope's confidants, Don Bosco, a popular priest-educator well known for his prophecies, sent Pius IX a note scripted in a prophetic vein: "Let

3075-516: The area was a threat to Austria (which was certainly capable of attacking Rome itself). The commander-in-chief of Austrian forces in Milan, Count Joseph Radetzky von Radetz , had remarked during the "Five Glorious Days" of Milan, "Three days of blood will give us thirty years of peace". But the Roman Republic would fall to another, unexpected enemy. In France, newly elected President Louis Napoleon , who would soon declare himself emperor Napoleon III ,

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3150-471: The convocation of the election "a monstrous act of felony made without a mask by the sponsors of the anarchic demagogy", an "abnormal and sacrilegious attempt... deserving the punishments written both in the divine and the human laws"), the resulting constitutional assembly (informally known as "The Assembly of the Damned") had a republican inclination. In each and every part of the Papal States, less than 50% of

3225-592: The description " prisoners in the Vatican " was applied to them, until the Lateran Treaty of 1929 settled the Roman question by establishing Vatican City as an independent country from Fascist Italy . During this time, Italian nobility who owed their titles to the Holy See rather than the Kingdom of Italy became known as the Black Nobility as they were considered to be in mourning. Several times during his pontificate, Pius IX considered leaving Rome

3300-524: The embattled empire could not respond effectively, eventually led to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. The Duchy of Rome was an imperial territory under the Exarchate of Ravenna . With the waning of Byzantine control in the Italian peninsula, more of the management of the area fell to the popes. In 751 the Exarchate of Ravenna fell to Lombard King Aistulf . Five years later, Pepin

3375-511: The formation of a government led by Archbishop Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli , to whom he wrote a note before leaving: We entrust to your known prudence and honesty to inform the minister Galletti, engaging him with all the other ministers not only to defend the palaces, but especially the persons near you that did not know Our decision. Because not only you and your family are dear to Our heart, We repeat they did not know Our thinking, but much more We recommend to those Sirs tranquillity and order of

3450-473: The former Papal States and Italy recognized papal sovereignty over Vatican City . The Holy See limited its request for indemnity for the loss of the Papal States and of ecclesiastical property confiscated by the Italian State to much less than would have been due to it under the Law of Guarantees. Historical novels such as Fabiola and Quo Vadis have been interpreted as comparing the treatment of

3525-467: The guise of protecting the pope. According to Raffaele De Cesare: The Pope's reception of San Martino [10 September 1870] was unfriendly. Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King's letter upon the table he exclaimed, "Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith." He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from the King. After, growing calmer, he exclaimed: "I am no prophet, nor son of

3600-466: The honor, would offer a considerable advantage...Rome, under royal rule—an integral part of the Italian nation, but remaining Holy or, better yet, the Dominant center of the domain of the faith—would lose none of its prestige and would redound to Italy's credit. And conciliation would then come about naturally, because the pope would become accustomed to seeing himself as living in his own home, not having

3675-438: The legitimacy of the Italian government following the capture of Rome. Several options were considered, including giving the city a status similar to that of Moscow at the time (which, despite being the capital of Russia , was not the seat of government), but there was widespread agreement that Rome must be the capital to ensure the survival of the new state. However, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy refused to take residence in

3750-409: The liberty of any people". As a result, Oudinot was able to regroup and await reinforcements; time proved to be on his side, and Mazzini's attempt at diplomacy proved fatal to the Roman Republic. A letter from Louis Napoleon encouraged Oudinot and assured him of French reinforcements. The French government sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to negotiate a more formal ceasefire. Neapolitan troops sympathetic to

3825-455: The opinion that the Papal States should be deprived of the Adriatic provinces and be restricted to the territory around Rome. This became a reality in the following year, when most of the Papal States were annexed by what became the Kingdom of Italy . On February 18, 1861, the deputies of the first Italian Parliament assembled in Turin . On March 17, 1861, the Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy, and on March 27, 1861, Rome

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3900-410: The papacy entered Roman Republic territory, and de Lesseps suggested that Oudinot's forces in their current position might protect the city from the converging approach of an Austrian army with the Neapolitan force: the Roman Triumvirate agreed. Many Italians from outside the Papal States went to Rome to fight for the Republic: among them was Goffredo Mameli , who had tried to form a common state joining

3975-409: The pontiff. […] For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations […] Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured." Temporal power (Papal) The Holy See exercised sovereign and secular power, as distinguished from its spiritual and pastoral activity, while

4050-498: The pope. In 1590, Pope Sixtus V had, of his own initiative, placed the first volume of the Disputationes on a new edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for denying that the pope had direct temporal authority over the whole world. The entry concerning Bellarmin reads: "Roberti Bellarmini Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae fidei adversus huius temporis haereticos. Nisi prius ex superioribus regulis recognitae fuerint." Sixtus V died before he could promulgate

4125-420: The popes by the newly formed Kingdom of Italy to the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire . Roman Republic (1849%E2%80%931850) The Roman Republic ( Italian : Repubblica Romana ) was a short-lived state declared on 9 February 1849, when the government of the Papal States was temporarily replaced by a republican government due to Pope Pius IX 's departure to Gaeta . The republic

4200-443: The potential voters went to the polls. The voters were not asked to express themselves on the parties but to vote for individuals. The lawyer Francesco Sturbinetti , who had led the Council of the Deputies, received the most votes, followed by Carlo Armellini , the physician Pietro Sterbini , Monsignor Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli (in whose hands Pius had left the city), and Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, Prince of Canino . The aristocracy

4275-449: The provinces of Romagna , Marche and Umbria . These regions were incorporated into the Kingdom of Sardinia (which thereafter became the Kingdom of Italy ), and the papacy's temporal power was reduced to Rome and the region of Lazio. At this point, some ultramontane groups proposed that the temporal power be elevated into a dogma . According to Raffaele De Cesare: The first idea of convening an Ecumenical Council in Rome to elevate

4350-457: The sea. But despite Garibaldi's urging, Mazzini was loath to follow up their advantage, as he had not expected an attack by the French and hoped that the Roman Republic could befriend the French Republic. The French prisoners were treated as ospiti della guerra ("guests of war") and sent back with republican tracts citing Article V of the most recent French constitution: "France respects foreign nationalities. Her might will never be employed against

4425-419: The sentry, the Angel of Israel, stand firm at his post, to guard the fortress of God and the Ark of the Covenant!” Pius IX agreed and remained at his post as a self-imposed prisoner at the Vatican; so did his successors, until the signing of the Lateran Treaty occasioned the recognition of papal liberties. The Lateran Treaty resolved the Roman question in 1929; the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over

4500-418: The situation under the preceding government, which allowed only Catholicism and Judaism to be practised by its citizens. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was the first in the world to abolish capital punishment in its constitutional law . On 15 November 1848, Pellegrino Rossi , the Minister of Justice of the Papal government , was assassinated. The following day, the liberals of Rome filled

4575-430: The state boundary at Terracina . The Pope, informed of this, refused to speak to them. In Rome a Costituente Romana was formed on 29 November. Without a local government in Rome, for the first time in recent history, popular assemblies gathered. Margaret Fuller described the procession under a new flag, a tricolore sent from Venice, that set the flag in the hands of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius at

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4650-427: The streets, where various groups demanded a democratic government, social reforms and a declaration of war against the Austrian Empire to liberate long-held territories that were culturally and ethnically Italian. On the night of 24 November, Pope Pius IX left Rome disguised as an ordinary priest , and went out of the state to Gaeta , a fortress in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Before leaving, he had allowed

4725-420: The surrender of the city would be granted only after his troops had put up a token resistance, enough to make it plain that the takeover was not freely accepted. On 20 September, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia , the Bersaglieri entered Rome (see capture of Rome ). Forty-nine Italian soldiers and 19 Papal Zouaves died. Rome and the region of Lazio were annexed to

4800-404: The temporal power into a dogma , originated in the third centenary of the Council of Trent, which took place in that city in December, 1863, and was attended by a number of Austrian and Hungarian prelates . However, following the Austro-Prussian War , Austria was forced to recognize the newly-formed Kingdom of Italy. As a result, most clerics lost hope of a return of the former temporal power of

4875-430: The unemployed. Giuseppe Garibaldi formed the "Italian Legion", with many recruits coming from Piedmont and the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia , and took up a station at the border town of Rieti on the border with the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. There the legion rose to about 1,000 and gained discipline and organization. The Pope asked for military help from Catholic countries. Saliceti and Montecchi left

4950-543: The whole City. The government issued some liberal reforms which Pius IX rejected. When securely established in Gaeta, he organised a new government. A delegation was created by the High Council established by the Pope and the mayor of Rome, and sent to reassure the Pope and ask him to come back as soon as possible. This delegation was composed of the mayor himself, Prince Tommaso Corsini, three priests – Rezzi, Mertel and Arrighi – Marchese Paolucci de Calboli, doctor Fusconi and lawyer Rossi. However, they were stopped at

5025-459: The window, but even they did not have the effrontery to ask for the keys". A locksmith was later hired. Italy 's Law of Guarantees, passed by the senate and chamber of the Italian parliament on 13 May 1871, accorded the Pope certain honors and privileges similar to those enjoyed by the King of Italy , including the right to send and receive ambassadors who would have full diplomatic immunity , just as if he still had temporal power as ruler of

5100-404: Was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out Long live the Republic! " ( Viva la Repubblica! ). That a Roman Republic was a foretaste of wider expectations was expressed in the acclamation of Giuseppe Mazzini as a Roman citizen. When news reached the city of the decisive defeat of Piedmontese forces at the Battle of Novara (22 March), the Assembly proclaimed

5175-410: Was declared Capital of the Kingdom of Italy. However, the Italian Government could not take its seat in Rome because a French garrison (which had overthrown the Roman Republic ), maintained there by Napoleon III of France , commanded by general Christophe Léon Louis Juchault de Lamoricière , was defending Pope Pius IX. Following the signing of the September Convention , the seat of government

5250-405: Was his supreme duty not to abandon the pontiff.... For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations.... Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured." Pope Pius IX and succeeding popes Leo XIII , Pius X , Benedict XV , and Pius XI took great care not to recognize

5325-471: Was led by Carlo Armellini , Giuseppe Mazzini , and Aurelio Saffi . Together they formed a triumvirate , a reflection of a form of government during the first century BC crisis of the Roman Republic . One of the major innovations the Republic hoped to achieve was enshrined in its constitution: freedom of religion , with Pope Pius IX and his successors guaranteed the right to govern the Catholic Church . These religious freedoms were quite different from

5400-618: Was moved from Turin to Florence in 1865. The Pope remained totally opposed to the designs on Rome of Italian nationalism . Beginning in December 1869, the First Vatican Council was held in the city. Some historians have argued that its proclamation of the doctrine of papal infallibility in July 1870 had political as well as theological causes. In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began. In early August, Napoleon III recalled his garrison from Rome and could no longer protect what remained of

5475-465: Was represented by a prince, six marquises, fifteen counts and three other nobles. The new assembly was dominated by the bourgeoisie, the affluent, professionals and employees. It included twenty-seven owners, a banker, fifty-three jurists and lawyers, six graduates, twelve professors, two writers, twenty-one doctors, one pharmacist, six engineers, five employees, two merchants, nineteen military officers, one prior and one monsignore. On 2 February 1849, at

5550-629: Was the first significant acquisition of the Holy See, most probably a gift from Constantine the Great . The example of Constantine was followed by wealthy families of the Roman nobility, and the residences and estates that were acquired in turn were designated the Patrimonium Sancti Petri . After the deposition of the last Roman emperor in the West in 476, the popes were subjects, first of Odoacer, then Arian Ostrogothic kings, then of

5625-516: Was torn. He himself had participated in an insurrection in the Papal States against the Pope in 1831, but at this point, he was under intense pressure from ultramontane French Catholics, who had voted overwhelmingly for him. Additionally, an intervention into Rome would expand French influence in Italy while weakening Habsburg influence, both being foreign policy goals of Louis Napoleon. Thus, though he hesitated to betray Italian liberals, Louis Napoleon ultimately decided to send French troops to restore

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