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73-506: The differences between the various varieties can be as large as, for example, the differences between the Slavic languages . Speakers of the Romani language usually refer to the language as rromani ćhib "the Romani language" or rromanes (adverb) "in a Rom way". This derives from the Romani word rrom , meaning either "a member of the (Romani) group" or "husband". This is also

146-485: A sentence clause , although subject–verb–object and adjective-before-noun is the preferred order in the neutral style of speech . Modern Bulgarian differs from other Slavic languages, because it almost completely lost declension , it developed definite articles from demonstrative pronouns (similar to "the" from "this" in English ), and it formed indicative and renarrative tenses for verbs . Since

219-518: A Romani vocabulary grafted into a non-Romani language (normally referred to as Para-Romani ). A table of some dialectal differences: The first stratum includes the oldest dialects: Mećkari (of Tirana ), Kabuʒi (of Korça ), Xanduri , Drindari , Erli , Arli , Bugurji , Mahaʒeri (of Pristina ), Ursari ( Rićhinari ), Spoitori ( Xoraxane ), Karpatichi , Polska Roma , Kaale (from Finland ), Sinto-manush , and

292-468: A central Indic dialect that had undergone partial convergence with northern Indic languages." In terms of its grammatical structures, Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern Indo-Aryan languages. Romani shows

365-586: A challenge belatedly to make a start [of understanding the Romani]." Linguist Victor Friedman praised the book for its scholarship while being able to be read by both an academic and general audience, also writing that the book "...fills an important gap in the literature on the Romani people." Historian Eve Rosenhaft complimented the book's "lively style, colourful anecdote and measured and conscientious approach to presenting and assessing evidence" and recommended it to "both scholarly and popular readerships, and this

438-472: A country with a sizable Romani minority (3.3% of the total population), there is a unified teaching system of the Romani language for all dialects spoken in the country. This is primarily a result of the work of Gheorghe Sarău , who made Romani textbooks for teaching Romani children in the Romani language. He teaches a purified, mildly prescriptive language, choosing the original Indo-Aryan words and grammatical elements from various dialects. The pronunciation

511-538: A glossary, Romano Lavo-lil . Research into the way the Romani dialects branched out was started in 1872 by the Slavicist Franz Miklosich in a series of essays. However, it was the philologist Ralph Turner 's 1927 article “The Position of Romani in Indo-Aryan” that served as the basis for the integration of Romani into the history of Indian languages. Romani is an Indo-Aryan language that

584-595: A later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century. There is no historical proof to clarify who the ancestors of the Romani were or what motivated them to emigrate from the Indian subcontinent , but there are various theories. The influence of Greek , and to a lesser extent of Armenian and the Iranian languages (like Persian and Kurdish ) points to a prolonged stay in Anatolia , Armenian highlands/Caucasus after

657-528: A number of phonetic changes that distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages – in particular, the devoicing of voiced aspirates ( bh dh gh > ph th kh ), shift of medial t d to l , of short a to e , initial kh to x , rhoticization of retroflex ḍ, ṭ, ḍḍ, ṭṭ, ḍh etc. to r and ř , and shift of inflectional -a to -o . After leaving the Indian subcontinent, Romani was heavily affected by contact with European languages. The most significant of these

730-699: A part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis, a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms. The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up

803-553: A recent past. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Slavic languages descend from Proto-Slavic , their immediate parent language , ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European ,

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876-509: A standard, or by merging more dialects together, have not been successful - instead, the trend is towards a model where each dialect has its own writing system. Among native speakers, the most common pattern is for individual authors to use an orthography based on the writing system of the dominant contact language: thus Romanian in Romania , Hungarian in Hungary and so on. To demonstrate

949-466: A three-way contrast between unvoiced, voiced, and aspirated stops, and the presence in some dialects of a second rhotic ⟨ř⟩ . Eastern and Southeastern European Romani dialects commonly have palatalized consonants, either distinctive or allophonic. Slavic languages The Slavic languages , also known as the Slavonic languages , are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by

1022-410: A two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today. It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until

1095-406: A typical east-to-west spread. His conclusion is that dialect differences formed in situ, and not as a result of different waves of migration. According to this classification, the dialects are split as follows: SIL Ethnologue has the following classification: In a series of articles (beginning in 1982) linguist Marcel Courthiade proposed a different kind of classification. He concentrates on

1168-669: Is a linguist at the University of Manchester specializing in Romani and other languages, including Middle Eastern languages. He is one of the most prominent English-language Romani linguists and the author of several pioneering studies, including a book on Romani: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge University Press, 2002) and on Romani in Britain: The afterlife of a language (Edinburgh University Press, 2010), and A Grammar of Domari (De Gruyter Mouton, 2012). Matras organized

1241-452: Is an ever-changing set of borrowings from Romanian as well, including such terms as vremea (weather, time), primariya (town hall), frishka (cream), sfïnto (saint, holy). Hindi -based neologisms include bijli (bulb, electricity), misal (example), chitro (drawing, design), lekhipen (writing), while there are also English -based neologisms, like printisarel < "to print". Romani

1314-517: Is based on the diffusion in space of innovations. According to this theory, Early Romani (as spoken in the Byzantine Empire) was brought to western and other parts of Europe through population migrations of Rom in the 14th–15th centuries. These groups settled in the various European regions during the 16th and 17th centuries, acquiring fluency in a variety of contact languages. Changes emerged then, which spread in wave-like patterns, creating

1387-590: Is better for geographically adjacent languages and in the written (rather than oral) form. At the same time, recent studies of mutual intelligibility between Slavic languages revealed, that their traditional three-branch division does not withstand quantitative scrutiny. While the grouping of Czech , Slovak and Polish into West Slavic turned out to be appropriate, Western South Slavic Serbo-Croatian and Slovene were found to be closer to Czech and Slovak (West Slavic languages) than to Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian . The traditional tripartite division of

1460-451: Is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory and already not being monolithic. Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and

1533-561: Is mostly like that of the dialects from the first stratum. When there are more variants in the dialects, the variant that most closely resembles the oldest forms is chosen, like byav , instead of abyav , abyau , akana instead of akanak , shunav instead of ashunav or ashunau , etc. An effort is also made to derive new words from the vocabulary already in use, i.e. , xuryavno (airplane), vortorin (slide rule), palpaledikhipnasko (retrospectively), pashnavni (adjective). There

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1606-487: Is now used on the internet, in some local media, and in some countries as a medium of instruction. Historically, Romani was an exclusively unwritten language; for example, Slovak Romani's orthography was codified only in 1971. The overwhelming majority of academic and non-academic literature produced currently in Romani is written using a Latin-based orthography. The proposals to form a unified Romani alphabet and one standard Romani language by either choosing one dialect as

1679-932: Is part of the Balkan sprachbund . It is the only New Indo-Aryan spoken exclusively outside the Indian subcontinent . Romani is sometimes classified in the Central Zone or Northwestern Zone Indo-Aryan languages, and sometimes treated as a group of its own. Romani shares a number of features with the Central Zone languages. The most significant isoglosses are the shift of Old Indo-Aryan r̥ to u or i ( Sanskrit śr̥ṇ- , Romani šun- 'to hear') and kṣ- to kh (Sanskrit akṣi , Romani j-akh 'eye'). However, unlike other Central Zone languages, Romani preserves many dental clusters (Romani trin 'three', phral 'brother', compare Hindi tīn , bhāi ). This implies that Romani split from

1752-472: Is spoken by small groups in 42 European countries. A project at Manchester University in England is transcribing Romani dialects, many of which are on the brink of extinction, for the first time. Today's dialects of Romani are differentiated by the vocabulary accumulated since their departure from Anatolia , as well as through divergent phonemic evolution and grammatical features. Many Roma no longer speak

1825-634: Is the only Indo-Aryan language spoken almost exclusively in Europe. The most concentrated areas of Romani speakers are found in the Balkans and central Europe, particularly in Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and Slovakia. Although there are no reliable figures for the exact number of Romani speakers, the estimated amount of Romani speakers in the European Union is around 3.5 million, this makes it

1898-444: Is within the boundaries of modern Ukraine and Southern Federal District of Russia. The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones. There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus , which existed until at least

1971-575: The Balkans , Central and Eastern Europe , and all the way from Western Siberia to the Russian Far East . Furthermore, the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world. The number of speakers of all Slavic languages together was estimated to be 315 million at the turn of the twenty-first century. It is the largest and most diverse ethno-linguistic group in Europe. The Slavic languages are conventionally (that is, also on

2044-599: The Latin script , and have had more Western European influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically Roman Catholic , whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in Cyrillic and, with Eastern Orthodox or Uniate faith, have had more Greek influence. Two Slavic languages, Belarusian and Serbo-Croatian , are biscriptal, i.e. written in either alphabet either nowadays or in

2117-597: The Rusyn language spoken in Transcarpatian Ukraine and adjacent counties of Slovakia and Ukraine. Similarly, the Croatian Kajkavian dialect is more similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language. Modern Russian differs from other Slavic languages in an unusually high percentage of words of non-Slavic origin, particularly of Dutch (e.g. for naval terms introduced during

2190-629: The Slavic peoples and their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic , spoken during the Early Middle Ages , which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language , linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family. The current geographical distribution of natively spoken Slavic languages includes

2263-404: The suffix "-el" denotes past tense of masculine gender . The equivalent phrase for a feminine subject is "vyshla". The gender conjugation of verbs , as in the preceding example, is another feature of some Slavic languages rarely found in other language groups. The well-developed fusional grammar allows Slavic languages to have a somewhat unusual feature of virtually free word order in

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2336-587: The 12th century. Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the Freising manuscripts show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovene dialects (e.g. rhotacism ,

2409-521: The 14th or 15th century, major language differences were not between the regions occupied by modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, but rather between the north-west (around modern Velikiy Novgorod and Pskov) and the center (around modern Kyiv , Suzdal , Rostov , Moscow as well as Belarus) of the East Slavic territories. The Old Novgorodian dialect of that time differed from the central East Slavic dialects as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries. According to Zaliznyak,

2482-527: The Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. (the so-called Slavicization of Europe). The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages (which could possibly indicate the Western Slavic origin of Slovenian, which for a long time was being influenced on the part of

2555-622: The Central Zone languages before the Middle Indo-Aryan period . However, Romani shows some features of New Indo-Aryan, such as erosion of the original nominal case system towards a nominative/oblique dichotomy, with new grammaticalized case suffixes added on. This means that the Romani exodus from India could not have happened until late in the first millennium. Many words are similar to the Marwari and Lambadi languages spoken in large parts of India. Romani also shows some similarity to

2628-783: The First International Conference on Romani Linguistics in 1993, and has served as Editor of the cross-disciplinary journal Romani Studies since 1999. He has coordinated the Romani Project at the University of Manchester since 1999, and in 2010 he launched the Multilingual Manchester project. His publications include a book on Language Contact (Cambridge University Press, 2009) and a co-edited trilogy on Mixed Languages, Linguistic Areas, and Grammatical Borrowing. In 2012 Yaron Matras

2701-544: The Indian subcontinent, but more recent research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the Central Zone ( Hindustani ) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom therefore likely descend from two different migration waves out of India, separated by several centuries. The following table presents the numerals in the Romani , Domari and Lomavren languages, with

2774-518: The Northwestern Zone languages. In particular, the grammaticalization of enclitic pronouns as person markers on verbs ( kerdo 'done' + me 'me' → kerdjom 'I did') is also found in languages such as Kashmiri and Shina . This evidences a northwest migration during the split from the Central Zone languages consistent with a later migration to Europe. Based on these data, Yaron Matras views Romani as "kind of Indian hybrid:

2847-653: The Roma in Königsberg prison. Kraus's findings were never published, but they may have influenced or laid the groundwork for later linguists, especially August Pott and his pioneering Darstellung der Zigeuner in Europa und Asien (1844–45). By the mid-nineteenth century the linguist and author George Borrow was able to state categorically his findings that it was a language with its origins in India, and he later published

2920-512: The Romani dialect of Győr with the language (perhaps Sinhala ) spoken by three Sri Lankan students he met in the Netherlands. This was followed by the linguist Johann Christian Christoph Rüdiger (1751–1822) whose book Von der Sprache und Herkunft der Zigeuner aus Indien (1782) posited Romani was descended from Sanskrit . This prompted the philosopher Christian Jakob Kraus to collect linguistic evidence by systematically interviewing

2993-608: The Russian language developed as a convergence of that dialect and the central ones, whereas Ukrainian and Belarusian were continuation of development of the central dialects of East Slavs. Also Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects' accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects. Yaron Matras Yaron Matras (born October 24, 1963)

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3066-536: The Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, like those of Slovene. In certain cases so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e. standard) languages. For example, Slovak (West Slavic) and Ukrainian (East Slavic) are bridged by

3139-756: The West group), Bulgarian and Macedonian (eastern members of the South group), and Serbo-Croatian and Slovene (western members of the South group). In addition, Aleksandr Dulichenko recognizes a number of Slavic microlanguages : both isolated ethnolects and peripheral dialects of more well-established Slavic languages. All Slavic languages have fusional morphology and, with a partial exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian , they have fully developed inflection -based conjugation and declension . In their relational synthesis Slavic languages distinguish between lexical and inflectional suffixes . In all cases,

3212-420: The adoption of a loosely English- and Czech-oriented orthography, developed spontaneously by native speakers for use online and through email. The following is the core sound inventory of Romani. Gray phonemes are only found in some dialects. Loans from contact languages often allow other non-native phonemes. The Romani sound system is not highly unusual among European languages. Its most marked features are

3285-594: The ancestor language of all Indo-European languages , via a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive isoglosses in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and Baltic the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in

3358-466: The basis of extralinguistic features, such as geography) divided into three subgroups: East , South , and West , which together constitute more than 20 languages. Of these, 10 have at least one million speakers and official status as the national languages of the countries in which they are predominantly spoken: Russian , Belarusian and Ukrainian (of the East group), Polish , Czech and Slovak (of

3431-481: The corresponding terms in Sanskrit , Hindi , Odia , and Sinhala to demonstrate the similarities. Note that the Romani numerals 7 through 9 have been borrowed from Greek . The first attestation of Romani is from 1542 AD in western Europe. The earlier history of the Romani language is completely undocumented, and is understood primarily through comparative linguistic evidence. Linguistic evaluation carried out in

3504-467: The departure from South Asia. The latest territory where Romani is thought to have been spoken as a mostly unitary linguistic variety is the Byzantine Empire , between the 10th and the 13th centuries. The language of this period, which can be reconstructed on the basis of modern-day dialects, is referred to as Early Romani or Late Proto-Romani . The Mongol invasion of Europe beginning in

3577-663: The dialect differences attested today. According to Matras, there were two major centres of innovations: some changes emerged in western Europe (Germany and vicinity), spreading eastwards; other emerged in the Wallachian area, spreading to the west and south. In addition, many regional and local isoglosses formed, creating a complex wave of language boundaries. Matras points to the prothesis of j- in aro > jaro 'egg' and ov > jov 'he' as typical examples of west-to-east diffusion, and of addition of prothetic a- in bijav > abijav as

3650-567: The dialectal diversity of Romani in three successive strata of expansion, using the criteria of phonological and grammatical changes. Finding the common linguistic features of the dialects, he presents the historical evolution from the first stratum (the dialects closest to the Anatolian Romani of the 13th century) to the second and third strata. He also names as "pogadialects" (after the Pogadi dialect of Great Britain ) those with only

3723-404: The differences, the phrase /romani tʃʰib/, which means "Romani language" in all the dialects, can be written as románi csib , románi čib , romani tschib , románi tschiwi , romani tšiw , romeni tšiv , romanitschub , rromani čhib , romani chib , rhomani chib , romaji šjib and so on. A currently observable trend, however, appears to be

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3796-494: The first half of the thirteenth century triggered another westward migration. The Romani arrived in Europe and afterwards spread to the other continents. The great distances between the scattered Romani groups led to the development of local community distinctions. The differing local influences have greatly affected the modern language, splitting it into a number of different (originally exclusively regional) dialects. Today, Romani

3869-633: The following sub-branches: Some linguists speculate that a North Slavic branch has existed as well. The Old Novgorod dialect may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group. Although the Slavic languages diverged from a common proto-language later than any other groups of the Indo-European language family , enough differences exist between the any two geographically distant Slavic languages to make spoken communication between such speakers cumbersome. As usually found within other language groups , mutual intelligibility between Slavic languages

3942-564: The geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in Moravia and Lower Austria ( Moravians ) and those in present-day Styria , Carinthia , East Tyrol in Austria , and in the provinces of modern Slovenia , where the ancestors of the Slovenes settled during first colonization. In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and Anna Dybo published, as

4015-512: The interwar Soviet Union (using the Cyrillic script ) and in socialist Yugoslavia . Portions and selections of the Bible have been translated to many different forms of the Romani language . The entire Bible has been translated to Kalderash Romani . Some traditional communities have expressed opposition to codifying Romani or having it used in public functions. However, the mainstream trend has been towards standardization. Different variants of

4088-425: The interwar period, scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, South, and West (from the vantage of linguistic features alone, there are only two branches of the Slavic languages, namely North and South). These three conventional branches feature some of

4161-509: The language are now in the process of being codified in those countries with high Romani populations (for example, Slovakia ). There are also some attempts currently aimed at the creation of a unified standard language . A standardized form of Romani is used in Serbia, and in Serbia's autonomous province of Vojvodina, Romani is one of the officially recognized languages of minorities having its own radio stations and news broadcasts. In Romania,

4234-640: The language or speak various new contact languages from the local language with the addition of Romani vocabulary. Dialect differentiation began with the dispersal of the Romani from the Balkans around the 14th century and on, and with their settlement in areas across Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. The two most significant areas of divergence are the southeast (with epicenter of the northern Balkans) and west-central Europe (with epicenter Germany). The central dialects replace s in grammatical paradigms with h . The northwestern dialects append j- , simplify ndř to r , retain n in

4307-509: The largest spoken minority language in the European Union. The language is recognized as a minority language in many countries. At present the only places in the world where Romani is employed as an official language are the Republic of Kosovo (only regionally, not nationally) and the Šuto Orizari Municipality within the administrative borders of Skopje , North Macedonia 's capital. The first efforts to publish in Romani were undertaken in

4380-443: The last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no " Proto-Baltic " language and that West Baltic and East Baltic differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic. The Proto-Slavic language originated in the area of modern Ukraine and Belarus mostly overlapping with the northern part of Indoeuropean Urheimat , which

4453-409: The lexical suffix precedes the inflectional in an agglutination mode. The fusional categorization of Slavic languages is based on grammatic inflectional suffixes alone. Prefixes are also used, particularly for lexical modification of verbs. For example, the equivalent of English "came out" in Russian is "vyshel", where the prefix "vy-" means "out" , the reduced root "-sh" means "come", and

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4526-476: The neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects. The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak who stated that, until

4599-435: The nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed the Romani language to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000. The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just

4672-430: The nominalizer -ipen / -iben , and lose adjectival past-tense in intransitives ( gelo , geli → geljas 'he/she went'). Other isoglosses (esp. demonstratives, 2/3pl perfective concord markers, loan verb markers) motivate the division into Balkan, Vlax, Central, Northeast, and Northwest dialects. Matras (2002, 2005) has argued for a theory of geographical classification of Romani dialects, which

4745-530: The origin of the term "Roma" in English, although some Roma groups refer to themselves using other demonyms (e.g. 'Kaale', 'Sinti'). In the 18th century, it was shown by comparative studies that Romani belongs to the Indo-European language family. In 1763 Vályi István, a Calvinist pastor from Satu Mare in Transylvania , was the first to notice the similarity between Romani and Indo-Aryan by comparing

4818-493: The period 1500–1000 BCE. A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group ( Lithuanian , Latvian , and the now-extinct Old Prussian ), that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic accentology that occurred in

4891-407: The reign of Peter I ), French (for household and culinary terms during the reign of Catherine II ) and German (for medical, scientific and military terminology in the mid-1800's). Another difference between the East, South, and West Slavic branches is in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages (and Western South Slavic languages – Croatian and Slovene ) are written in

4964-407: The second layer (or case marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for the past tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an accusative. This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages. Domari was once thought to be the "sister language" of Romani, the two languages having split after the departure from

5037-457: The so-called Baltic dialects . In the second there are Ćergari (of Podgorica ), Gurbeti , Jambashi , Fichiri , Filipiʒi (of Agia Varvara ) The third comprises the rest of the Romani dialects, including Kalderash , Lovari , Machvano . Some Roma have developed mixed languages (chiefly by retaining Romani lexical items and adopting second language grammatical structures), including: Romani

5110-507: The transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि ( agni ) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग ( āg ) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until

5183-592: The word krilatec ). The Freising manuscripts are the first Latin-script continuous text in a Slavic language. The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine Empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed

5256-447: Was Medieval Greek , which contributed lexically, phonemically, and grammatically to Early Romani (10th–13th centuries). This includes inflectional affixes for nouns, and verbs that are still productive with borrowed vocabulary, the shift to VO word order , and the adoption of a preposed definite article. Early Romani also borrowed from Armenian and Persian . Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of

5329-657: Was awarded the Senior Fellowship of the Zukunftskolleg at the University of Konstanz . Matras wrote I Met Lucky People: The Story of the Romani Gypsies , published in 2014. The book gives an overview of Romani history and culture aimed at a general readership. Writing in The Observer , journalist Peter Stanford wrote that "Matras's immaculately researched, warm and comprehensive study is

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