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107-657: A water user's association was formed to promote the dam in 1916, and surveying began in 1921. In 1924 the states of Texas and New Mexico agreed to allow construction, and in 1926 President Calvin Coolidge approved the plan. In 1927 the Red Bluff Water Control District was formed to manage the project from seven existing water districts. In 1934 the loan for construction was approved by the Public Works Administration. The dam

214-431: A 2016 voter study found that 57% of respondents believe that black people are inherently lazier than white people. The same study found that throughout Obama's presidency, there was a continually increasing negative relationship between racial prejudice and support for racial equality policies such as equal opportunity employment, school desegregation, etc. Therefore, although the true percentage of American's who believe in

321-467: A biological basis for race is unknown and difficult to determine accurately, prejudice predicated on biological differences between races continues to shape American politics. White supremacist groups notably cite racial differences between whites and nonwhites to justify white superiority. In fact, some researchers argue that the increased media attention granted to white supremacy groups could positively correlate with biologically racist beliefs. Although

428-561: A candidate in his state senate district, Coolidge won reelection against his Democratic opponent by an increased margin. In the 1913 session, Coolidge enjoyed renowned success in arduously navigating to passage the Western Trolley Act, which connected Northampton with a dozen similar industrial communities in Western Massachusetts . Coolidge intended to retire after his second term as was the custom, but when

535-459: A combined capacity of 2,300 kilowatts. The reservoir can safely store 307,000 acre-feet (379,000,000 m).The surface area of the reservoir is 7,507 acres (3,038 ha). Maximum discharge is 389,749 cubic feet (11,036.5 m) per second. Water from the dam irrigates 145,000 acres (59,000 ha) of farmland. Citations Sources This article about a building or structure in Texas

642-476: A federal oath. This second oath-taking remained a secret until it was revealed by Harry M. Daugherty in 1932, and confirmed by Hoehling. When Hoehling confirmed Daugherty's story, he indicated that Daugherty, then serving as United States Attorney General , asked him to administer the oath without fanfare at the Willard Hotel . According to Hoehling, he did not question Daugherty's reason for requesting

749-674: A fourth term, Coolidge announced his intention to run for governor. Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918 . He and his running mate, Channing Cox , a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives , ran on the previous administration's record: fiscal conservatism , a vague opposition to Prohibition , support for women's suffrage, and support for American involvement in World War I . The issue of

856-541: A heart attack in San Francisco while on a speaking tour of the western United States. Vice President Coolidge was in Vermont visiting his family home , which had neither electricity nor a telephone, when he received word by messenger of Harding's death. Coolidge dressed, said a prayer, and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled. His father, a notary public and justice of the peace , administered

963-465: A lawyer. Coolidge followed the common practice of apprenticing with a local law firm, Hammond & Field, and reading law with them. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to practicing law in the county seat of Hampshire County, Massachusetts . In 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the Massachusetts bar , becoming a country lawyer . With his savings and

1070-502: A little over a week later at the age of 16. The President never forgave himself for Calvin Jr's death. His eldest son John said it "hurt [Coolidge] terribly", and psychiatric biographer Robert E. Gilbert, author of The Tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, Death, and Clinical Depression , said that Coolidge "ceased to function as President after the death of his sixteen-year-old son". Gilbert explains in his book how Coolidge displayed all ten of

1177-592: A memo and summoned the formation of a group of individuals that were powerful in mind and body to be able to take personal nonviolent actions to end discrimination . CORE was established in 1942 in Chicago. It was a branch of a "Peace-Lover" organization, which was called the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR). CORE used nonviolent actions that involved sit-ins, which were done on lunch counters in Chicago. By 1947, CORE contributed with an interracial bus ride across

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1284-408: A neighborhood creates a more inclusive feeling and promotes trust. However, racial diversity on large, city-wide scales has been shown to produce greater levels of prejudice. One potential source of negative racial attitudes towards blacks specifically is biological racism, or the idea that perceived differences between races can be attributed to biological differences. A 2019 analysis of responses to

1391-511: A nonviolent manner. CORE grew profoundly after the 1950s, beginning with James Farmer who later became the leader of the group and a civil rights activist in 1941. He went back to his "Native South" and visited a local movie theater, where he came upon the "crow's nest", an area that was reserved for blacks. He opposed the Jim Crow laws . He realized that he and his friends supported those laws by what they did in their daily actions. He soon wrote

1498-419: A period of heightened racial tension in the nation, and is highly praised by advocates of smaller government and laissez-faire economics; supporters of an active central government generally view him far less favorably. His critics argue that he failed to use the country's economic boom to help struggling farmers and workers in other flailing industries, and there is still much debate among historians as to

1605-404: A pickle." Coolidge and his wife, Grace, who was a great baseball fan, once attended a Washington Senators game and sat through all nine innings without saying a word, except once when he asked her the time. As president, Coolidge's reputation as a quiet man continued. "The words of a President have an enormous weight," he would later write, "and ought not to be used indiscriminately." Coolidge

1712-668: A policeman does not strike. That night and the next, there was sporadic violence and rioting in the unruly city. Peters, concerned about sympathy strikes by the firemen and others, called up some units of the Massachusetts National Guard stationed in the Boston area pursuant to an old and obscure legal authority, and relieved Curtis of duty. Coolidge, sensing the severity of circumstances were then in need of his intervention, conferred with Crane's operative, William Butler, and then acted. He called up more units of

1819-508: A premium upon concise and short speeches. On November 2, 1920, Harding and Coolidge were victorious in a landslide, winning more than 60 percent of the popular vote, including every state outside the South. They also won in Tennessee , the first time a Republican ticket had won a Southern state since Reconstruction . The U.S. vice-presidency did not carry many official duties, but Coolidge

1926-468: A quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities and I have rejoiced in her graces". The Coolidges had two sons: John (1906–2000) and Calvin Jr. (1908–1924). On June 30, 1924, Calvin Jr. had played tennis with his brother on the White House tennis courts without putting on socks and developed a blister on one of his toes. The blister subsequently degenerated into sepsis . Calvin Jr. died

2033-472: A second full term, but Coolidge chose not to run again in 1928 , remarking that ten years as president would be "longer than any other man has had it—too long!" During his gubernatorial career, Coolidge ran on the record of fiscal conservatism , strong support for women's suffrage , and vague opposition to Prohibition . His prompt and effective response to the Boston police strike of 1919 thrust him into

2140-667: A second oath-taking but assumed it was to resolve any doubt about whether the first swearing-in was valid. Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other Racial equality Racial equality is when people of all races and ethnicities are treated in an egalitarian/equal manner. Racial equality occurs when institutions give individuals legal, moral, and political rights . In present-day Western society , equality among races continues to become normative. Prior to

2247-556: A segregated eating area before the busiest hour and wait to be attended quietly. This was used to open up restaurants, and was later used for other locations. This was used at cafeterias, ticket booths, and other places where one stands in a line to be served. If someone is refused, the CORE members who might be in line before him/her will also refuse to step out of line and interrupt service. CORE did this at movie theaters in Kentucky, and

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2354-529: A small inheritance from his grandfather, Coolidge opened his own law office in Northampton in 1898. He practiced commercial law, believing that he served his clients best by staying out of court. As his reputation as a hard-working and diligent attorney grew, local banks and other businesses began to retain his services. In 1903, Coolidge met Grace Goodhue , a graduate of the University of Vermont and

2461-728: A swimming pool at Palisades Amusement Park in New Jersey. This technique was also important for stopping segregation. Since 1942, two particular issues have evolved in racial equality. One is the handling of blacks to ensure equality, which was favored by the White American community, and the other is the differences between Southerners and non-Southerners. These two issues were observed by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC). They made questions that plotted five main topics that targeted blacks at

2568-476: A teacher at Northampton's Clarke School for the Deaf . They married on October 4, 1905, at 2:30 p.m. in a small ceremony which took place in the parlor of Grace's family's house, having overcome her mother's objections to the marriage. The newlyweds went on a honeymoon trip to Montreal , originally planned for two weeks but cut short by a week at Coolidge's request. After 25 years he wrote of Grace, "for almost

2675-739: A third of all people in the Southern United States were slaves. Among other things, the American Civil War fought to end this, and in September 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation which abolished the practice of slavery in the United States and granted protection and legal rights to recently freed Blacks . Three million slaves were freed as a result of

2782-558: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Calvin Coolidge Calvin Coolidge (born John Calvin Coolidge Jr. / ˈ k uː l ɪ dʒ / KOOL -ij ; July 4, 1872 – January 5, 1933) was the 30th president of the United States , serving from 1923 to 1929. A Republican lawyer from Massachusetts , he previously served as the 29th vice president from 1921 to 1923 and as

2889-450: Is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give. Yet people are entitled to the rewards of their industry. What they earn is theirs, no matter how small or how great. But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service... At his father's urging after graduation, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts , to become

2996-461: Is inherently flawed because oppressed racial minorities are more likely to be critical of the institutions that oppress them. Many countries, however, have found success in promoting racial equality through their constitution and legislature. Countries such as Brazil, Colombia, and South Africa ensured racial equality in their constitutions by writing them in cooperation with marginalized minority communities. Other countries' (including Canada, Mexico,

3103-471: Is without any foundation." Coolidge often seemed uncomfortable among fashionable Washington society; when asked why he continued to attend so many of their dinner parties, he replied, "Got to eat somewhere." Alice Roosevelt Longworth , a leading Republican wit, underscored Coolidge's silence and his dour personality: "When he wished he were elsewhere, he pursed his lips, folded his arms, and said nothing. He looked then precisely as though he had been weaned on

3210-543: The American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union. Curtis declared the union's leaders were guilty of insubordination and would be relieved of duty, but indicated he would cancel their suspension if the union was dissolved by September 4. The mayor of Boston, Andrew Peters , convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days, but with no results, and Curtis suspended

3317-651: The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . "Opinions and instructions do not outmatch the Constitution," he said in his veto message. "Against it, they are void." At the 1920 Republican National Convention , most of the delegates were selected by state party caucuses, not primaries. As such, the field was divided among many local favorites. Coolidge was one such candidate, and while he placed as high as sixth in

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3424-658: The Massachusetts Bay Colony during King Philip's War . Coolidge's mother was the daughter of Hiram Dunlap Moor, a Plymouth Notch farmer, and Abigail Franklin. Coolidge attended the Black River Academy and then St. Johnsbury Academy before enrolling at Amherst College , where he distinguished himself in the debating class. As a senior, he joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity and graduated cum laude . While at Amherst, Coolidge

3531-825: The Vermont General Assembly . When Coolidge was 12 years old, his chronically ill mother died at the age of 39, perhaps from tuberculosis . His younger sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge (1875–1890), died at the age of 15, probably of appendicitis, when Coolidge was 18. Coolidge's father married a Plymouth schoolteacher in 1891, and lived to the age of 80. Coolidge's family had deep roots in New England . His earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge emigrated from Cottenham , Cambridgeshire , England , around 1630 and settled in Watertown, Massachusetts . Coolidge's great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge,

3638-504: The direct election of Senators . While in Boston, Coolidge became an ally, and then a liegeman, of then U.S. Senator Winthrop Murray Crane who controlled the western faction of the Massachusetts Republican Party; Crane's party rival in the east of the commonwealth was U.S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge . Coolidge forged another key strategic alliance with Guy Currier , who had served in both state houses and had

3745-538: The oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923, whereupon the new President of the United States returned to bed. Coolidge returned to Washington the next day, and was sworn in again by Justice Adolph A. Hoehling Jr. of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia , to forestall any questions about the authority of a state official to administer

3852-490: The president of the state senate , Levi H. Greenwood , considered running for lieutenant governor, Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer. Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate, he was defeated primarily due to his opposition to women's suffrage; Coolidge was in favor of the women's vote, won his re-election, and with Crane's help, assumed

3959-432: The 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling by declaring racial segregation unacceptable and unconstitutional." Jim Crow laws, which were placed in the late 19th century, were enforced in the South in order to separate blacks and White Americans. These laws primarily focused on the separation in the workplace and mindset. During these times, it was difficult for blacks to find jobs and sustain a family, which resulted in poverty. It

4066-489: The 48th governor of Massachusetts from 1919 to 1921. Elected vice president in 1920 , he succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of President Warren G. Harding in August 1923. Elected in his own right in 1924 , Coolidge gained a reputation as a small-government conservative with a taciturn personality and dry sense of humor that earned him the nickname "Silent Cal". His widespread popularity enabled him to run for

4173-635: The American Civil War. Despite their having been freed, blacks still faced much discrimination and were forced into dependence on white landowners. Segregation was common in everyday life, such as in segregation of schools, healthcare and housing, especially so in the South. In addition, Black Americans were a common target of racial violence, and they would not receive equal treatment by the justice system. This effectively made them second-class citizens. Where one lived often determined their access to basic healthcare. The poor inner-city areas lacked

4280-776: The Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt , for vice president. The question of the United States joining the League of Nations was a major issue in the campaign, as was the unfinished legacy of Progressivism . Harding ran a " front-porch" campaign from his home in Marion, Ohio , but Coolidge took to the campaign trail in the Upper South , New York, and New England – his audiences carefully limited to those familiar with Coolidge and those placing

4387-601: The Hampshire County area retired and successfully encouraged Coolidge to run for his seat for the 1912 session; Coolidge defeated his Democratic opponent by a large margin. At the start of that term, he became chairman of a committee to arbitrate the " Bread and Roses " strike by the workers of the American Woolen Company in Lawrence, Massachusetts . After two tense months, the company agreed to

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4494-460: The Indian constitution only provided this representation for a period of 10 years but it has been continually renewed every 10 years since its inception. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed on January 31, 1865, with the intention to abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in all states, except as punishment for a crime. As a result, many people, particularly in

4601-582: The National Guard, restored Curtis to office, and took personal control of the police force. Curtis proclaimed that all of the strikers were fired from their jobs, and Coolidge called for a new police force to be recruited. That night Coolidge received a telegram from AFL leader Samuel Gompers . "Whatever disorder has occurred", Gompers wrote, "is due to Curtis's order in which the right of the policemen has been denied…" Coolidge publicly answered Gompers's telegram, denying any justification whatsoever for

4708-655: The North and the South of the United States. This was mainly because the Northern states had a great amount of black Male suffrage movements, and the Southern States figured the black population can add more votes for Southern view points. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was a landmark decision issued by the supreme court that ruled the act of segregation to be constitutional as long as it was separate but equal. To further explain, "The decision also recognized and justified

4815-431: The Senate by an increased margin in the 1914 elections, Coolidge was reelected unanimously to be President of the Senate. Coolidge's supporters, led by fellow Amherst alumnus Frank Stearns , encouraged him again to run for lieutenant governor. Stearns, an executive with the Boston department store R. H. Stearns, became another key ally, and began a publicity campaign on Coolidge's behalf before he announced his candidacy at

4922-526: The South, abused the poorly written amendment. To further explain, an article from the Gettysburg College, states, "Many in Congress believed that slavery was detrimental to white laborers in the South because slaves were seen as a long term investment, and white laborers were unable to make advancements because slavery was less expensive in the long run." In elaboration, the thirteenth amendment

5029-476: The UK, India, etc.) constitutions include provisions that allow affirmative action to be taken in the name of promoting racial equality in the future, and mending the racial inequality of the past. For example, in response to the inequality of the caste system , India's constitution was written specifically to provide proportional legislative representation to members of previously oppressed castes. The original clause in

5136-620: The United States. It made any laws banning this right unconstitutional. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was set in place as consequence to the civil rights movement and protests, primarily led by people such as Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. "In 1964 the federal government issued the Civil Rights Act, which barred racial discrimination based on race, sex, religion, or national identity. This act snatched crucial power from many southern states because in effect it reversed

5243-529: The adoption of the UDHR has led to increased racial equality, racism and racial inequality persist in nearly all countries. Discrimination on the basis of race leads racial minorities to receive less job opportunities than their white peers, decreased access to educational and healthcare resources, and higher rates of incarceration. While writing on the failures of Brown v. Board of Education , Jody Heymann, Aleta Sprague, and Amy Raub noted that "From 1988 to 2014,

5350-533: The all-black Alabama State College , and soon worked at the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) as a secretary. Rosa Parks had become an activist for an event that triggered other events to occur. On December 1, 1955 Parks had taken the bus home from work when all of a sudden she was forced to give up her seat for a white male. Rosa Parks had been frustrated with

5457-477: The blacks in hopes of boycotting the bus, by cutting the use of transportation. This boycott continued for 382 days. Although King had to overcome many attacks against him such as arrest and violent harassment, the result was their first victory: black men and women were allowed to ride the buses in Montgomery equally as the whites. Rosa Parks was born on February 4, 1913, in Montgomery, Alabama. She attended

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5564-565: The core of their message of the unity of all believers". Martin Luther King Jr. was the founder of SCLC , having summoned various numbers of black leaders in 1957. He became the President of this activist group and decided to improve communities by managing peaceful protests and boycotts regarding the social ethics of discrimination and segregation between races. First created on February 12, 1909, in Springfield, Illinois. This group

5671-750: The decreasing White American population and the proportional increase in negative racial attitudes, Maureen Craig, Julian Rucker, and Jennifer Richeson explain, "For example, Whites who reside in areas with larger racial minority populations tend to express greater perceived threat, more racial bias, and less support for racial integration than Whites living in areas with smaller minority populations." In other words, increasing racial diversity can lead to increased racial bias and discrimination. Evidence suggests, however, that positive contact between two racial groups can promote racial equality. Interacting with minority groups can reduce feelings of threat and increase trust between racial groups. In general, racial diversity within

5778-431: The dilemmas of segregation, white liberals weren't fond of the idea that they were working together. CORE's issues changed over time, so they worked on different actions that would come up. Sit-ins , the oldest technique, have been used by CORE the most. CORE divided people into three different groups: one with all black individuals, one with all whites, and one that was interracial. These three different groups would go to

5885-481: The early 1960s, attaining equality was difficult for African , Asian , and Indigenous people. However, in more recent years, legislation is being passed ensuring that all individuals receive equal opportunities in treatment, education, employment, and other areas of life. Racial equality can refer to equal opportunities or formal equality based on race or refer to equal representation or equality of outcomes for races, also called substantive equality . In 1860,

5992-517: The end of the 1915 legislative session. Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall . Coolidge was the leading vote-getter in the Republican primary, and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall's eastern base of support. McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election to their respective one-year terms, with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50,000 votes. In Massachusetts,

6099-872: The end of the bus boycott, both Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. had become national heroes. Furthermore, the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional to segregate seats in Montgomery buses. The Church of God held that "interracial worship was a sign of the true Church", with both whites and blacks ministering regularly in Church of God congregations, which invited people of all races to worship there. Those who were entirely sanctified testified that they were "saved, sanctified, and prejudice removed." Though outsiders would sometimes attack Church of God services and camp meetings for their stand for racial equality, Church of God members were "undeterred even by violence" and "maintained their strong interracial position as

6206-613: The extent to which Coolidge's economic policies contributed to the onset of the Great Depression . John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born on July 4, 1872, in Plymouth Notch , Vermont —the only U.S. president to be born on Independence Day . He was the elder of the two children of John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (1845–1926) and Victoria Josephine Moor (1846–1885). Although named for his father, from early childhood Coolidge

6313-638: The greatest leaders due to his stance concerning various mistreated black men and women in the South. Moreover, he played many roles in society and won an award for the movement he conducted. Martin Luther King Jr. not only took part in the Montgomery bus boycott , became a key speaker at the March on Washington, and was one of the youngest individuals to win the Nobel Peace Prize , but he also peacefully handled his opinion. King kept his anger toward

6420-417: The idea of segregation of race to himself; however, he did show his passion for equality in his speeches and peaceful protest . King displayed his very first civil rights movement by voluntarily taking a stance in the Montgomery bus boycott. The bus boycott had started by Rosa Parks refusing to give up her seat for a white male after a long and tiring day at work. Thus, after Park's arrest, King gathered

6527-467: The incumbent Democrat retired. He was well liked in the town, and defeated his challenger by a vote of 1,597 to 1,409. During his first term (1910 to 1911), he increased teachers' salaries and retired some of the city's debt while still managing to effect a slight tax decrease. He was renominated in 1911, and defeated the same opponent by a slightly larger margin. In 1911, the State Senator for

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6634-453: The least-privileged minority communities. Indirect forms of discrimination continue to exist many ways. One noteworthy form of indirect racial discrimination is pretrial risk assessment tests. Risk assessment tests are algorithmic attempts to measure the likelihood of recidivism in previously incarcerated persons. Despite being created to remove the threat of racial bias from risk assessment tests, these algorithms have been found to overestimate

6741-579: The lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate, as is the case in many other states; nevertheless, as lieutenant governor, Coolidge was a deputy governor functioning as an administrative inspector and was a member of the governor's council. He was also chairman of the finance committee and the pardons committee. As a full-time elected official, Coolidge discontinued his law practice in 1916, though his family continued to live in Northampton. McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917. When McCall decided that he would not stand for

6848-533: The local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives . He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat, and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court . In his freshman term, Coolidge served on minor committees and, although he usually voted with the party, was known as a Progressive Republican , voting in favor of such measures as women's suffrage and

6955-408: The nation and some of Coolidge's speeches were published in book form. He faced the same opponent as in 1918, Richard Long, but this time Coolidge defeated him by 125,101 votes, more than seven times his margin of victory from a year earlier. His actions in the police strike, combined with the massive electoral victory, led to suggestions that Coolidge run for president in 1920. By the time Coolidge

7062-465: The nation had seen a rising star. Although he usually acted with deliberation, the Boston police strike gave him a national reputation as a decisive leader, and as a strict enforcer of law and order. Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919 . By this time Coolidge's supporters (especially Stearns) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and

7169-630: The national spotlight as a man of decisive action. During his presidency, he restored public confidence in the White House after the many scandals of the Harding administration . He signed into law the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 , which granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans, and oversaw a period of rapid and expansive economic growth known as the " Roaring Twenties ", leaving office with considerable popularity. He

7276-446: The necessary health care that was available in other areas. Inner cities' isolation from other parts of society was a large contributor to the poor health of the residents. Also, the overcrowded living conditions added to the poor health of the residents through the spread of infectious diseases. Martin Luther King Jr. is known as a civil rights leader in the United States concerning racial equality. Martin Luther King Jr. became one of

7383-529: The north. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, CORE moved to the border states of Missouri, Maryland, and Oklahoma. In the first few weeks of April, the two groups CORE and NAACP combined forces to make a change in racial equality. Both groups of protesters constructed a plan to shut down construction of the city's Municipal Services Building, by marching in front of Mayor James Tate's North Philadelphia row house. Furthermore, many protesters had engaged in various fights involving police and white unionists. Moreover,

7490-406: The other reconstruction amendments, the fourteenth amendment was not popular amongst the southern states and faced a lot of backlash, since it gave previously enslaved people individual rights. The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) made it illegal for any state to deny people the right to vote regardless of their race, ethnicity, or any previous servitude. This amendment was surprisingly supported by both

7597-407: The percentage of 'hyper-segregated schools,' in which 90% or more of the students are minorities, grew from 5.7% to 18.4%." This shows that despite the efforts of the Supreme Court, segregation continues to exist in some American schools. The gap in resources and opportunities available between white communities and racial minorities is large; on average, white communities receive three times more than

7704-524: The power of individual states to enforce their state segregation laws. As a result, the decision has had implications for such issues as the definition of blackness, the acknowledgment of gradients of whiteness, the significance of citizenship, and the interpretation of the state’s regulatory role in the separation of races in public space." Brown v. Board of Education (1952) was a Supreme Court decision following Plessy V. Ferguson that decided that separation cannot be equal in schools, therefore, segregation

7811-566: The presidency of a closely divided Senate. After his election in January 1914, Coolidge delivered a published and frequently quoted speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts , which summarized his philosophy of government. Coolidge's speech was well received, and he attracted some admirers on its account; towards the end of the term, many of them were proposing his name for nomination to lieutenant governor. After winning reelection to

7918-526: The recidivism rate in blacks and underestimate the recidivism rate in White Americans. These tests, similar to Jim Crow era literacy tests, are not outwardly discriminatory towards blacks, they appear to be race-neutral, however the danger lies in the fact that the designers of said risk assessment tools conflate risk with a distrust of authority, and the oppressive social and political conditions that can lead one to committing crimes. This methodology

8025-494: The social distinction, wealth, personal charm and broad circle of friends which Coolidge lacked, and which would have a lasting impact on his political career. In 1907, he was elected to a second term, and in the 1908 session Coolidge was more outspoken, though not in a leadership position. Instead of vying for another term in the State House , Coolidge returned home to his growing family and ran for mayor of Northampton when

8132-417: The southern communities. They were interested in how CORE approached the issue of segregation. CORE grew in the early 1940s, but continued to be composed of small groups. They persisted in being small because of the students who were part of the organization. The students would graduate and move away. Also, others were fighting for a specific cause and once the issue has been dealt with, they disappeared. CORE

8239-583: The strike – and his response launched him into the national consciousness. Newspapers across the nation picked up on Coolidge's statement and he became the newest hero to opponents of the strike. Amid of the First Red Scare , many Americans were terrified of the spread of communist revolutions, like those that had taken place in Russia , Hungary , and Germany . While Coolidge had lost some friends among organized labor, conservatives across

8346-525: The student sit-in movement . CORE's national director James Farmer repeated the Journey of Reconciliation . Another Supreme Court ruling, Boynton v. Virginia (1960), ordered a stop to segregation in the interstate bus terminals. That came to be the Freedom Rides. The Freedom Riders traveled deep into the south and were attacked by segregationists along with Alabama. CORE began in the North and

8453-788: The symptoms listed by the American Psychiatric Association as evidence of major depressive disorder following Calvin Jr.'s sudden death. John later became a railroad executive, helped to start the Coolidge Foundation, and was instrumental in creating the President Calvin Coolidge State Historic Site . Coolidge was frugal, and when it came to securing a home, he insisted upon renting. He and his wife attended Northampton's Edwards Congregational Church before and after his presidency. The Republican Party

8560-486: The tax rates the same, while trimming $ 4 million from expenditures, thus allowing the state to retire some of its debt. Coolidge also wielded the veto pen as governor. His most publicized veto prevented an increase in legislators' pay by 50%. Although he was personally opposed to Prohibition, he vetoed a bill in May 1920 that would have allowed the sale of beer or wine of 2.75% alcohol or less , in Massachusetts in violation of

8667-481: The time. The five points that affected racial equality and tracked during the years 1965–1980 were year, region, cohort, and education . Many educational systems in the south and non-southern areas were in favor of segregated educational institutions among blacks. They also didn't want blacks near their neighborhood or interracial marriages to happen. Demographic changes in the United States have led to more distrust and fear of non-white racial minorities. Discussing

8774-461: The two groups had caused many debates to open up regarding racial politics, discrimination, and employment. CORE's technique was always nonviolence as the method of fighting racial injustice. CORE was the first organization to use nonviolent actions to stop many issues that affected the black community. The student sit-ins started in February 1960. Within the year, 130 eating locations opened up in

8881-434: The union leaders on September 8. The following day, about three-quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike. Coolidge, tacitly but fully in support of Curtis' position, closely monitored the situation but initially deferred to the local authorities. He anticipated that only a resulting measure of lawlessness could sufficiently prompt the public to understand and appreciate the controlling principle – that

8988-563: The upper part of the South. They were testing state buses that the US Supreme Court ordered to be desegregated, which was the Morgan v. Virginia decision in 1946. This led to some success for the facilities that were testing out the orders they were given, but it didn't grab much attention, especially at the national level, which was their main goal. By 1960, there was a new wave of nonviolent direct action protests initiated through

9095-508: The voting, the powerful party bosses running the convention, primarily the party's U.S. Senators, never considered him seriously. After ten ballots, the bosses and then the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for president. When the time came to select a vice presidential nominee, the bosses also made and announced their decision on whom they wanted – Sen. Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin – and then prematurely departed after his name

9202-532: The war proved divisive, especially among Irish and German Americans . Coolidge was elected by a margin of 16,773 votes over his opponent, Richard H. Long , in the smallest margin of victory of any of his statewide campaigns. In 1919, in reaction to a plan of the policemen of the Boston Police Department to register with a union , Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis announced that such an act would not be tolerated. In August of that year,

9309-532: The way black individuals were treated; thus, she refused and was arrested and fined $ 14. Parks' refusal and arrest had caused a dilemma for white individuals, especially for the ones that owned the bus business. A boycott of the Montgomery bus system was started, with the goal of desegregating public transportation. Moreover, Martin Luther King Jr. had gotten involved to not only motivate the mistreated black population but to share his passion for equality. This boycott lasted 382 days and ended on December 21, 1956. At

9416-422: The workers' demands, in a settlement proposed by the committee. A major issue affecting Massachusetts Republicans that year was the party split between the progressive wing, which favored Theodore Roosevelt , and the conservative wing, which favored William Howard Taft . Although he favored some progressive measures, Coolidge refused to leave the Republican party. When the new Progressive Party declined to run

9523-502: Was addressed by his middle name. The name Calvin was used in multiple generations of the Coolidge family, apparently selected in honor of John Calvin , the Protestant Reformer . Coolidge Senior engaged in many occupations and developed a statewide reputation as a prosperous farmer, storekeeper, and public servant. He held various local offices, including justice of the peace and tax collector and served in both houses of

9630-582: Was against the violence that was directed toward blacks. Their objective was to eliminate racial inequality, and guarantee political, educational, social, and economic equality for citizens. Their office was located in New York. Moorfield Storey was named president, while, Du Bois, was the only black Director of Publications. There was a civil rights group called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) that came together to fight corruption and segregation in

9737-865: Was an American military officer in the Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth. His grandfather Calvin Galusha Coolidge served in the Vermont House of Representatives. His cousin Park Pollard was a businessman in Cavendish, Vermont and the longtime chair of the Vermont Democratic Party. Coolidge was also a descendant of Samuel Appleton , who settled in Ipswich and led

9844-625: Was aware of his stiff reputation; indeed, he cultivated it. "I think the American people want a solemn ass as a President," he once told Ethel Barrymore , "and I think I will go along with them." Some historians suggest that Coolidge's image was created deliberately as a campaign tactic, while others believe his withdrawn and quiet behavior to be natural, deepening after the death of his son in 1924. Dorothy Parker , upon learning that Coolidge had died, reportedly remarked, "How can they tell?" On August 2, 1923, President Harding died unexpectedly from

9951-486: Was chosen City Solicitor by the City Council. He was elected for a one-year term in 1900, and reelected in 1901. This position gave Coolidge more experience as a lawyer and paid a salary of $ 600 (equivalent to $ 21,974 in 2023). In 1902, the city council selected a Democrat for city solicitor, and Coolidge returned to private practice. Soon thereafter, however, the clerk of courts for the county died, and Coolidge

10058-438: Was chosen to replace him. The position paid well, but it barred him from practicing law, so he remained at the job for only one year. In 1904, Coolidge suffered his sole defeat at the ballot box, losing an election to the Northampton school board . When told that some of his neighbors voted against him because he had no children in the schools he would govern, the recently married Coolidge replied, "Might give me time!" In 1906,

10165-505: Was completed in September 1936, and started to supply water in 1937. The dam is an earthfill structure 9,200 feet (2,800 m) long, 102 feet (31 m) high and with a crest width of 25 feet (7.6 m). Crest length is 790 feet (240 m). Crest elevation is 2,828 feet (862 m) above sea level. Spillway width is 1,233 feet (376 m). The spillway is concrete ogee controlled by 12 tainter gates , each 25 by 15 feet (7.6 by 4.6 m). The dam includes two hydroelectric plants with

10272-737: Was dominant in New England at the time, and Coolidge followed the example of Hammond and Field by becoming active in local politics. In 1896, Coolidge campaigned for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley , and was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee the next year. In 1898, he won election to the City Council of Northampton, placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected. The position offered no salary but provided Coolidge with valuable political experience. In 1899, he

10379-469: Was inaugurated on January 2, 1919, the First World War had ended, and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $ 100 bonus (equivalent to $ 1,757 in 2023) to Massachusetts veterans. He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty-four hours to forty-eight, saying, "We must humanize the industry, or the system will break down." He signed into law a budget that kept

10486-469: Was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings, making him the first vice president to do so. He gave a number of unremarkable speeches around the country. As vice president, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of "Silent Cal" was born. It is from this time that most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate, such as Coolidge being "silent in five languages". Although Coolidge

10593-473: Was known for his hands-off governing approach and pro-business stances; biographer Claude Fuess wrote: "He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength." Scholars have ranked Coolidge in the lower half of U.S. presidents. He gains nearly universal praise for his stalwart support of racial equality during

10700-433: Was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker, in private he was a man of few words and was commonly referred to as "Silent Cal". An apocryphal story has it that a person seated next to him at a dinner said to him, "I made a bet today that I could get more than two words out of you." He replied, "You lose." However, on April 22, 1924, Coolidge himself said that the "You lose" quotation never occurred. The story about it

10807-411: Was mainly concentrated in public areas. About two decades ago, the North had segregated spots where blacks were not allowed. Those places, for example, were restaurants, bowling alleys, skating rinks, and barber shops. More successful efforts were the work settings where there were some experiments with interracial workers and in housing co-operatives. CORE's main focus was to increase public recognition in

10914-607: Was only a voluntary organization; there was no paid staff. In the South: In the North: Many outsiders started to notice the efforts of the group. They supported them and started the Freedom Rides. CORE was more involved in the black power movement around the mid-1960s. Then things shifted to integration and nonviolent actions toward the organization of communities, the separation of the people, and black power. Also, as whites and blacks started to work together to fight over

11021-447: Was only set to abolish slavery legally, however, with further knowledge of what happened, it was seen that many people took advantage of the second statement of this amendment and set into place convict lease programs , which allowed for a subtle form of slavery, and was not legally abolished until the late 1900s. The Fourteenth Amendment was passed in 1868 and allowed citizenship for anyone born on US soil regardless of race. Just like

11128-414: Was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman , a Congregational mystic who had a neo-Hegelian philosophy. Coolidge explained Garman's ethics forty years later: [T]here is a standard of righteousness that might does not make right, that the end does not justify the means, and that expediency as a working principle is bound to fail. The only hope of perfecting human relationships

11235-432: Was put forth, relying on the rank and file to confirm their decision. A delegate from Oregon , Wallace McCamant , having read Have Faith in Massachusetts , proposed Coolidge for vice president instead. The suggestion caught on quickly with the masses starving for an act of independence from the absent bosses, and Coolidge was unexpectedly nominated. The Democrats nominated another Ohioan, James M. Cox , for president and

11342-622: Was related by Frank B. Noyes, President of the Associated Press , to their membership at their annual luncheon at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, when toasting and introducing Coolidge, who was the invited speaker. After the introduction and before his prepared remarks, Coolidge said to the membership, "Your President [referring to Noyes] has given you a perfect example of one of those rumors now current in Washington which

11449-463: Was unconstitutional. Many people believe that this supreme court case was responsible for desegregation in schools, however, the court decision had no direct impact, and schools remained largely segregated. Schools were allowed to take as much time needed to desegregate, delaying any reconstruction towards racial equality amongst blacks and White Americans. Loving v. Virginia (1967) was a Supreme Court decision that allowed for interracial marriage in

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