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185-622: The Red Fort , also known as Lal Qila ( Hindustani: [laːl qiːlaː] ) is a historic Mughal fort in Delhi , India, that served as the primary residence of the Mughal emperors . Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the construction of the Red Fort on May 12, 1639, following his decision to relocate the Mughal capital from Agra to Delhi. Originally adorned in red and white, the fort's design

370-525: A chhatri on top. Heavily damaged, the tower is undergoing reconstruction. Facing it is a marble pavilion added by Emperor Aurangzeb . Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia . At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to

555-551: A sarkar could turn into a subah , and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars . The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess

740-464: A British prisoner, was tried in 1858, and exiled to Rangoon on October 7 of that year. After the conclusion of the rebellion, the British sacked the Red Fort before ordering its systemic demolition. As a result of this widespread destruction, 80% of the fort's structures were demolished, including the stone screen that once connected the pavilions along the river-facing façade of the fort. All furniture

925-874: A Maratha garrison occupied the Red Fort and Delhi, offering protection to the Mughal Emperor. Mahadaji Shinde negotiated a treaty with the Sikhs, cautioning them against entering Delhi or levying the Rakhi tribute. Control of the fort subsequently passed to the East India Company after the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803. During the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the forces of the East India Company defeated

1110-705: A central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context. The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs. Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the qadi . The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance in documents, as

1295-402: A century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century but, once gone, their imperial overstretch became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as

1480-417: A coloured glass skylight. The two rooms flanking the current entrance are believed to have served as bathing spaces for the royal children. The eastern apartment, featuring three fountain basins, was primarily used as a dressing room. Each room had a central fountain, and one included a marble reservoir embedded in the wall. According to legend, perfumed rose-water once flowed from the taps. The western apartment

1665-472: A highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a diwan , was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of

1850-426: A kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps. After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became

2035-572: A longstanding core of political administrators". Although at present, the word Maratha refers to a traditionally Marathi peasantry group, in the past the word has been used to describe all Marathi people . Shivaji (1630–1680) was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan and was the founder of the Maratha state. Shivaji led a resistance against the Sultanate of Bijapur in 1645 by winning

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2220-521: A museum of "blood paintings," which narrate the stories of 20th-century Indian martyrs, alongside an archaeological museum and an Indian war-memorial museum. The Red Fort was the site of a terrorist attack on 22 December 2000 , carried out by six Lashkar-e-Taiba operatives. Two soldiers and a civilian were killed in what the news media described as an attempt to derail the then-ongoing India-Pakistan peace talks. To ensure security and prevent terrorist attacks, stringent measures are implemented around

2405-509: A new religion, Din-i-Ilahi , with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Jahangir (born Salim, reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani , an Indian Rajput princess. Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti . He "was addicted to opium, neglected

2590-778: A political mediator and sought an alliance with Awadh to keep the Marathas out of Rohilkhand. He bound himself to pay on behalf of the Rohillas. However, after he refused to pay, Oudh attacked the Rohillas. Shah Alam II , the Mughal Emperor spent six years in the Allahabad fort and after the capture of Delhi in 1771 by the Marathas, left for his capital under their protection. He was escorted to Delhi by Mahadaji Shinde and left Allahabad in May 1771. During their short stay, Marathas constructed two temples in Allahabad city, one of them being

2775-638: A reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur , who took the title Gūrkān 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess. The word Mughal (also spelled Mogul or Moghul in English) is the Indo-Persian form of Mongol . The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks and not Mongols. The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with

2960-564: A rich history and diverse artistic traditions. Even prior to its designation as a monument of national importance in 1913, efforts were undertaken to ensure its preservation for posterity. The Lahori and Delhi Gates were used by the public, whereas the Khizrabad Gate was reserved for the emperor. The Lahori Gate serves as the main entrance to the Red Fort, leading to the Chhatta Chowk , a domed shopping area often referred to as

3145-595: A separate treaty on 26 July 1802, supported the new regime. He made a treaty with the British. Also, Yashwant Rao successfully resolved the disputes with Scindia and the Peshwa. He tried to unite the Maratha Confederacy but to no avail. In 1802, the British intervened in Baroda to support the heir to the throne against rival claimants and they signed a treaty with the new Maharaja recognising his independence from

3330-712: A severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Mughal Deccan plummeted. Aurangzeb is considered the most controversial Mughal emperor, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples , employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims . Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeb enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims. A major rebellion by

3515-458: A syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb ( r.  1658–1707 ), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666. Aurangzeb brought

3700-473: A system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour . While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants. Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley , and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium . By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from

3885-589: A vast realm. Shivaji had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram , who had different mothers and were half-brothers. In 1681, Sambhaji succeeded to the crown after his father's death and resumed his expansionist policies. Sambhaji had earlier defeated the Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore . To nullify the alliance between his rebel son, Akbar, and the Marathas, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb headed south in 1681. With his entire imperial court, administration and an army of about 500,000 troops, he proceeded to expand

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4070-519: A war cost to the Marathas and an annual tribute of 1.2 million rupees, in addition to returning all the territory captured by Hyder Ali . In 1791–92, large areas of the Maratha Confederacy suffered a massive population loss due to the Doji bara famine . In 1791, irregulars like lamaans and pindaris of the Maratha army raided and looted the temple of Sringeri Shankaracharya , killing and wounding many people l, including Brahmins, plundering

4255-411: A working restaurant. The mosque and the hammam (public baths) are closed to visitors, who can only view them through glass windows or marble latticework. Walkways within the complex are deteriorating, and public toilets are available both at the entrance and inside the premises. The Lahori Gate serves as the main entrance, leading to a shopping area with jewelry and craft stores. The complex also houses

4440-550: Is a pavilion located on the southern edge of the Red Fort. It was constructed under the patronage of Bahadur Shah II and is situated at the end of the Hayat Baksh Garden. At the northern edge of the Red Fort stood the Moti Mahal , a twin building that was demolished during or shortly after the 1857 rebellion. The Shahi Burj was the emperor's main study; its name means "Emperor's Tower", and it originally featured

4625-565: Is attributed to Ustad Ahmad Lahori , the architect behind the Taj Mahal . The Red Fort represents the pinnacle of Mughal architecture during Shah Jahan's reign, blending Persian palace influences with indigenous Indian architectural traditions. The fort was plundered and stripped of its artwork and jewels during Nadir Shah 's invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1739. Most of the fort's marble structures were subsequently demolished by

4810-553: Is distinctively designed, featuring two sets of staircases that descend to the well. West of the hammam is the Moti Masjid , the Pearl Mosque. A later addition to the Red Fort, the mosque was built in 1659 as a private place of worship for Emperor Aurangzeb . This small, three-domed structure is crafted from white marble and features a three-arched screen that opens onto the courtyard. The Hira Mahal ("Diamond Palace")

4995-523: The kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials. Self-regulating tribunals operating at

5180-550: The Archaeological Survey of India . The adoption of the Red Fort by a private entity sparked outcry and widespread debate, drawing criticism from the public, historians, and political parties. The move also led to the trending of the hashtag #IndiaOnSale on Twitter. In May 2018, the Indian National Congress demanded the suspension of the agreement until an "impartial review" could be conducted by

5365-479: The British East Indies Company , played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in

5550-836: The British Museum , the British Library , and the Victoria and Albert Museum . For instance, Shah Jahan's jade wine cup and Bahadur Shah II's crown , both looted, are currently held in London. Various requests for restitution have so far been rejected by the British Government . 1911 witnessed the visit of King George V and Queen Mary for the Delhi Durbar . In anticipation of their visit, some buildings were restored. The Red Fort Archaeological Museum

5735-560: The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war status quo and the East India Company's abandonment of Raghunathrao's cause. In 1799, Yashwantrao Holkar was crowned King of the Holkars and he captured Ujjain. He started campaigning towards the north to expand his dominion in that region. Yashwant Rao rebelled against the policies of Peshwa Baji Rao II . In May 1802, he marched towards Pune

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5920-709: The First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Through his use of firearms and cannons, he was able to shatter Ibrahim's armies despite being at a numerical disadvantage, expanding his dominion up to the mid Indo-Gangetic Plain . After the battle, the centre of Mughal power shifted to Agra . In the decisive Battle of Khanwa , fought near Agra a year later, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the combined Rajput armies of Rana Sanga of Mewar , with his native cavalry employing traditional flanking tactics. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow

6105-504: The Godavari River . He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing

6290-467: The Hooghly River and during their occupation of western Bengal , the Marathas perpetrated atrocities against the local population. The Maratha atrocities were recorded by both Bengali and European sources, which reported that the Marathas demanded payments, and tortured or killed anyone who couldn't pay. Raghuji was able to annex Odisha to his kingdom permanently as he successfully exploited

6475-481: The Industrial Revolution . Modern historians and researchers generally agree that the character of the Mughal Empire's economic policy resembles the laissez-faire system in dealing with trade and billions to achieve the economic ends. The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system and creating a uniform currency. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to

6660-548: The Maratha community , the Maratha government also included warriors, administrators, and other nobles from the Maratha and several other Marathi groups from what is known today as Maharashtra . Shivaji's monarchy was initially referred to as the Maratha Kingdom , which expanded into a large realm in the 18th century under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I . The Marathas were a Marathi -speaking peasantry group from

6845-598: The Maratha insurgency came at a great cost for his men and treasury and eventually ensured Maratha ascendency and their control over sizeable portions of former Mughal dominions in the north of the Indian subcontinent. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Shivaji's grandson Shahu under the leadership of Peshwa Bajirao revived Maratha power and confided a great deal of authority to the Bhat family, who became hereditary peshwas ( prime ministers ). After he died in 1749, they became

7030-519: The Marathas took place following this change, precipitated by the unmitigated state-building of its leader Shivaji in the Deccan. Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I , repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended

7215-547: The Red Fort Archaeological Museum . The Rang Mahal , meaning "Palace of Colours," served as the residence for the emperor's wives and mistresses. It derived its name from its vibrant paintings and intricate decorations, including a mosaic of mirrors. At its center lies a marble pool, which is fed by the Nahr-i-Bihisht ("River of Paradise"). The Khas Mahal was the emperor's apartment. It

7400-618: The Rohillas and the Nawab of Oudh to assist him in driving out the Marathas from Delhi. Huge armies of Muslim forces and Marathas collided with each other on 14 January 1761 in the Third Battle of Panipat . The Maratha Army lost the battle, which halted their imperial expansion. The Jats and Rajputs did not support the Marathas. Historians have criticised the Maratha treatment of fellow Hindu groups. Kaushik Roy says, "The treatment by

7585-750: The Scindia Dynasty of the Maratha Confederacy, as Mahadaji Shinde was deputed the Vakil-i-Mutlaq (Regent of the empire) of Mughal affairs in 1784. Following the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1806, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington drafted a treaty granting independence to the Sikh clans east of the Sutlej River in exchange for their allegiance to the British General Gerard Lake acting on his dispatch. At

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7770-555: The Second Anglo-Maratha War . Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of the British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India

7955-486: The Sikh guru Arjan , whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Sikh community. Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain , a Rajput princess. His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture . During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal . The cost of maintaining

8140-541: The Taj Mahal , which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage." The closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan , which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari . Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ( Wilāyat-i-Hindustān ), "country of Hind" ( Bilād-i-Hind ), "Sultanate of Al-Hind" ( Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah ) as observed in

8325-673: The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) resulted in the loss of Maratha independence. It left the British in control of most of the Indian subcontinent. The Peshwa was exiled to Bithoor (Marat, near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh ) as a pensioner of the British. The Maratha heartland of Desh, including Pune, came under direct British rule, except the states of Kolhapur and Satara , which retained local Maratha rulers (descendants of Shivaji and Sambhaji II ruled over Kolhapur). The Maratha-ruled states of Gwalior, Indore, and Nagpur all lost territory and came under subordinate alliances with

8510-604: The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Ahmad Shah Durrani ) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from the Rohillas , and in 1784 the Marathas officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until

8695-763: The Timurid Empire ) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass . Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi , Sultan of Delhi , in

8880-595: The Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon to the British East India Company leading to the Company rule in India . In 1788, Mahadaji's armies defeated Ismail Beg , a Mughal noble who resisted the Marathas. The Rohilla chief Ghulam Kadir , Ismail Beg's ally, took over Delhi, capital of the Mughal dynasty and deposed and blinded the king Shah Alam II, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. Mahadaji intervened and killed him, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October restoring Shah Alam II to

9065-560: The Tungabhadra river. The strong fort of Gwalior was then in the hands of Chhatar Singh , the Jat ruler of Gohad . In 1783, Mahadaji besieged the fort of Gwalior and conquered it. He delegated the administration of Gwalior to Khanderao Hari Bhalerao. After celebrating the conquest of Gwalior, Mahadaji Shinde turned his attention to Delhi again. The Maratha-Sikh treaty in 1785 made the small Cis-Sutlej states an autonomous protectorate of

9250-562: The Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, initiated restoration efforts for the Red Fort. These included the reconstruction of its walls and the revival of its gardens, complete with an updated watering system. The majority of the jewels and artwork housed in the Red Fort were looted during Nadir Shah's invasion in 1747, and yet again in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . They were eventually sold to private collectors or

9435-602: The highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India . The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur , a Timurid chieftain from Transoxiana , who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires to defeat the Sultan of Delhi , Ibrahim Lodi , in the First Battle of Panipat , and to sweep down

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9620-449: The mir saman . Of these ministers, the diwan held the most importance, and typically acted as the wazir (prime minister) of the empire. The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar . The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi , sadr as-sudr , and finance minister that reported directly to

9805-513: The zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb. Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at

9990-411: The "Blessed Fort" ( Qila-i-Mubārak ), the Red Fort served as the residence of the imperial family. Agra Fort is also known as Lāl Qila . Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort on May 12, 1638, following his decision to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Originally adorned in red and white, the favorite colors of Emperor Shah Jahan, the design of the Red Fort is attributed to

10175-419: The 1720s. Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion , as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India. The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to

10360-446: The 17th century. At either ends of the hall, over the two outer arches, is an inscription by Persian poet Amir Khusrow : If heaven can be on the face of the earth, It is this, it is this, it is this. The hammam (Arabic: حمّام) were the imperial baths, consisting of three domed rooms with white marble patterned floors. It consists of three apartments separated by corridors and crowned with domes. The apartments are illuminated by

10545-508: The Americas, maize and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasised the agrarian reform that began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance. The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased

10730-467: The Bhau or Bhao in sources) responded to the news of the Afghans' return to North India by sending a large army north. Bhau's force was bolstered by some Maratha forces under Holkar , Scindia , Gaekwad and Govind Pant Bundele with Suraj Mal . The combined army of over 50,000 regular troops re-captured the former Mughal capital, Delhi, from an Afghan garrison in August 1760. Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and there

10915-437: The British East India Company in which the residents of Shahjahanabad participated. Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not a site of any engagements during the 1857 uprising against the British. After the rebellion was subdued, Bahadur Shah II left the fort on September 17 and was subsequently apprehended by British forces. Bahadur Shah Zafar II returned to Red Fort as

11100-447: The British conquer Mysore in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. After the British conquest, however, the Marathas launched frequent raids in Mysore to plunder the region, which they justified as compensation for past losses to Tipu Sultan. In 1775, the British East India Company , from its base in Bombay, intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, on behalf of Raghunathrao (also called Raghobadada), who wanted to become Peshwa of

11285-426: The British following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The fort's defensive walls were largely undamaged, and the fortress was subsequently used as a garrison . On 15 August 1947, the first Prime Minister of India , Jawaharlal Nehru , raised the Indian flag above the Lahori Gate . On India's Independence Day , observed annually on August 15, the Prime Minister ceremonially raises the Indian tricolour flag at

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11470-402: The Central Advisory Board of Archaeology or another recognized body of experts. On 26 January 2021, during the 2021 Indian farmers' Republic Day protest , a coterie of protesting farmers breached the fort, hoisted religious flags from its ramparts, and scaled the domes of the fort. One of the farmers was witnessed climbing a flagpole in front of the fort and hoisting the Nishan Sahib pennant on

11655-402: The English and the Marathas did not fare well at the Battle of Ramghat. The Maratha and British armies fought in Ram Ghat, but the sudden demise of the Peshwa and the civil war in Pune to choose the next Peshwa forced the Marathas to retreat. Madhavrao Peshwa 's victory over the Nizam of Hyderabad and Hyder Ali of Mysore in southern India established Maratha dominance in the Deccan. On

11840-426: The Indian National Army movement. Barrack B4, known as Drishyakala , is a collaboration between the Archaeological Survey of India and the Delhi Art Gallery , showcasing Indian art. The earlier museums, including the Indian Freedom Fighters' Museum, the Mumtaz Mahal Museum, and the Naubat Khana Museum, have been closed, with their exhibits relocated to these newly-established museums. Archaeological excavations at

12025-491: The Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms, textiles, and architecture , especially during the reign of Shah Jahan . Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort , Fatehpur Sikri , Red Fort , Humayun's Tomb , Lahore Fort , Shalamar Gardens , and

12210-436: The Indian subcontinent. The Red Fort spans an area of 254.67 acres (103.06 hectares) and is enclosed by 2.41 kilometers (1.50 miles) of defensive walls. These walls, reinforced with turrets and bastions, vary in height from 18 meters (59 feet) on the river-facing side to 33 meters (108 feet) on the city-facing side. The fort is octagonal, with the north–south axis longer than the east–west axis. The marble, floral decorations and

12395-419: The Maratha Confederacy in return for his acknowledgement of British paramountcy. Before the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), the Peshwa Baji Rao II signed a similar treaty. The defeat in the Battle of Delhi, 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War resulted in the loss of influence over Delhi for the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War represents the military high-water mark of the Marathas who posed

12580-408: The Maratha alliance at Agra before the start of the great battle and withdrew their troops as Maratha general Sadashivrao Bhau did not heed the advice to leave soldiers' families (women and children) and pilgrims at Agra and not take them to the battlefield with the soldiers, rejected their co-operation. Their supply chains (earlier assured by Raja Suraj Mal ) did not exist. Peshwa Madhavrao I

12765-420: The Maratha state was that of a confederacy of four Rajas under the leadership of the Peshwa at Poona (now Pune) in western India from 1721 till 1818. These were the Raja of Gwalior of the House of Scindia , the Raja of Baroda of the House of Gaekwad , the Raja of Indore of the House of Holkar , and the Raja of Nagpur of the House of Bhonsle , (in order of territory and jurisdiction they hold), while

12950-418: The Maratha troops led by Daulat Rao Scindia in the Battle of Delhi ; This event marked the end of Maratha control over Delhi and their authority over the Red Fort. After the battle, the British East India Company took over the administration of Mughal territories and installed a Resident at the Red Fort. The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort, Bahadur Shah II, became a symbol of the 1857 rebellion against

13135-427: The Marathas of their co-religionist fellows – Jats and Rajputs was definitely unfair and ultimately had to pay its price in Panipat where Muslim forces had united in the name of religion." The Marathas had antagonised the Jats and Rajputs by taxing them heavily, punishing them after defeating the Mughals and interfering in their internal affairs. The Marathas were abandoned by Raja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur , who quit

13320-444: The Marathas raided Mughal territory, and many forts were recaptured by Maratha commanders such as Santaji Ghorpade , Dhanaji Jadhav , Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi , Shankaraji Narayan Sacheev and Melgiri Pandit. In 1697, Rajaram offered a truce but this was rejected by Aurangzeb. Rajaram died in 1700 at Sinhagad . His widow, Tarabai , assumed control in the name of her son, Ramaraja (Shivaji II). After Aurangzeb died in 1707, Shahu ,

13505-661: The Marathas were now major players. After the 1758 Battle of Attock , the Marathas captured Peshawar defeating the Afghan troops in the Battle of Peshawar on 8 May 1758. Just prior to the battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas looted "Diwan-i-Khas" or Hall of Private Audiences in the Red Fort of Delhi, which was the place where the Mughal emperors used to receive courtiers and state guests, in one of their expeditions to Delhi. The Marathas who were hard pressed for money stripped

13690-604: The Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. The term remains disputed by Indologists . In Marshall Hodgson's view, the dynasty should be called Timurid / Timuri or Indo-Timurid . The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Persianized Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of

13875-441: The Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority. Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges. The Mughal Empire followed

14060-427: The Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India , where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy. In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to

14245-447: The Mughal empire, gaining territories such as the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda . During the eight years that followed, Sambhaji led the Marathas successfully against the Mughals. In early 1689, Sambhaji called his commanders for a strategic meeting at Sangameshwar to consider an onslaught on the Mughal forces. In a meticulously planned operation, Ganoji and Aurangzeb's commander, Mukarrab Khan, attacked Sangameshwar when Sambhaji

14430-541: The Mughals from the invasion of the Marathas, but was defeated decisively in the Battle of Bhopal . The Marathas extracted a large tribute from the Mughals and signed a treaty which ceded Malwa to the Marathas. The Battle of Vasai was fought between the Marathas and the Portuguese rulers of Vasai , a village lying on the northern shore of Vasai creek, 50 km north of Mumbai . The Marathas were led by Chimaji Appa , brother of Baji Rao. The Maratha victory in this war

14615-549: The Mughals, the Jats withdrew their forces from the Red Fort, seizing the Mughal throne—often regarded as the pride of the dynasty—and the fort's doors as trophies. The throne now adorns the palace at Deeg , serving as a historical centerpiece. The doors are located in the Lohagarh Fort of Bharatpur . In 1783, Sikh Misls led by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia , Jassa Singh Ramgarhia , and Baghel Singh Dhaliwal conquered Delhi and

14800-765: The Peshwa's dominions included the territories that later became the Bombay Province and Central Provinces . After he was defeated by the Holkar dynasty in 1802, the Peshwa Baji Rao II sought protection from the British East India Company , whose intervention destroyed the confederacy by 1818 after the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars . The stable borders of the confederacy after 1737 extended from modern-day Maharashtra in

14985-785: The Portuguese Viceroy was killed in action by the Maratha Army in Goa. After the successful campaign of Karnataka and the Trichinopolly , Raghuji returned from Karnataka. He undertook six expeditions into Bengal from 1741 to 1748. The resurgent Maratha Confederacy launched brutal raids against the prosperous Bengali state in the 18th century , which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. During their invasions and occupation of Bihar and western Bengal up to

15170-450: The Raja of Jaipur but withdrew after the inconclusive Battle of Lalsot in 1787. The Battle of Gajendragad was fought between the Marathas under the command of Tukojirao Holkar (the adopted son of Malharrao Holkar) and Tipu Sultan from March 1786 to March 1787 in which Tipu Sultan was defeated by the Marathas. By the victory in this battle, the border of the Maratha territory was extended to

15355-719: The Red Fort and delivers a speech from its ramparts , which is broadcast nationwide. The fort also appears on the back of the ₹ 500 note of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series of the Indian rupee . The Red Fort's architectural features are in varying states of preservation. While some structures remain relatively intact, retaining their original decorative elements, others have suffered significant damage, with inlaid marble floral designs removed by looters. The water features, once extensive, are now dry. The tea house, though not preserved in its historical form, functions as

15540-515: The Red Fort and shares a similar layout and appearance with the Lahori Gate. Flanking the gate are two life-sized stone elephants positioned to face each other. Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is the Chhatta Chowk (or Meena Bazaar), where silk, jewellery and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period. This market was earlier known as Bazaar-i-Musaqqaf or Chatta-bazaar (both meaning "roofed market"). The Lahori Gate,

15725-471: The Red Fort have unearthed several Ochre Coloured Pottery culture artefacts dating from 2600 BCE to 1200 BCE. The Red Fort, the largest monument in Delhi, is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year. It is a monument of national significance; each year on India's independence day, observed on August 15, the Prime Minister hoists the national flag at

15910-477: The Red Fort on the eve of the Indian Independence Day. Delhi Police and paramilitary forces maintain a vigilant presence in the neighborhoods surrounding the fort, while National Security Guard sharpshooters are strategically stationed on high-rises near the site. The airspace around the fort is a designated no-fly zone during the celebration, and safe houses exist in the vicinity to which

16095-408: The Red Fort, seizing its treasures, including the legendary Peacock Throne . After three months, Nadir Shah returned to Persia, leaving the city a shadow of its former self and the Mughal Empire severely weakened under Muhammad Shah's reign. The internal weaknesses of the Mughal Empire reduced the Mughals to titular rulers of Delhi. A treaty signed in 1752 established the Marathas as the protectors of

16280-555: The Red Fort. With a consolidate force consisting of 40,000 troops, they looted the area spanning from Awadh to Jodhpur . After negotiations, the Sikhs forces agreed to withdraw Delhi and reinstate the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II . As a condition of their retreat, the Jats stipulated the construction of seven Sikh gurdwaras in Delhi, including the Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Chandni Chowk . In 1788,

16465-698: The Sringeri temple continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Swami in the 1790s. The Maratha Confederacy soon allied with the British East India Company (based in the Bengal Presidency ) against Mysore in the Anglo-Mysore Wars . After the British had suffered a defeat against Mysore in the first two Anglo-Mysore Wars, the Maratha cavalry assisted the British in the last two Anglo-Mysore Wars from 1790 onwards, eventually helping

16650-670: The Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as

16835-512: The Terai whence the remaining Sardar Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech sought assistance in an agreement formed with the Nawab of Oudh , Shuja-ud-Daula, by which the Rohillas agreed to pay four million rupees in return for military help against the Marathas. Hafiz Rehmat, abhorring unnecessary violence, unlike the outlook of his fellow Rohillas such as Ali Muhammad and Najib Khan, prided himself on his role as

17020-598: The administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughal dynasty experienced a decline, leading to the degeneration of the palace during the 18th century. In 1712, Jahandar Shah was crowned the Mughal Emperor . Within a year of commencing his rule, Shah was murdered and replaced by Farrukhsiyar . In 1739, the Persian emperor Nadir Shah decisively defeated the Mughal army, despite its considerable strength of approximately 200,000 soldiers. Following his victory, he plundered

17205-472: The aesthetic appeal of the Lahori Gate was modified by the construction of a barbican , which Shah Jahan poetically described as "a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman." Since 1947, on every Indian Independence Day, the national flag is ceremonially unfurled, and the Prime Minister delivers a speech from the ramparts of the Red Fort. The Delhi Gate serves as the southern public entrance to

17390-489: The affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably

17575-523: The architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori , renowned for his work on the Taj Mahal. The fort straddles the Yamuna River , which fed the moats surrounding most of the walls. Construction began in the sacred Islamic month of Muharram , on May 13, 1638. Supervised by Shah Jahan, it was completed on April 6, 1648. Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain and subsume

17760-505: The aristocracy. After the death of Peshwa Madhavrao I , various chiefs and jagirdars became de facto rulers and regents for the infant Peshwa Madhavrao II . Under the leadership of Mahadaji Shinde, the ruler of the state of Gwalior in central India, the Marathas defeated the Jats, the Rohilla Afghans and took Delhi which remained under Maratha control for the next three decades. His forces conquered modern day Haryana. Shinde

17945-511: The auspices of a Supreme Court direction to revitalise the fort, was announced. In recent years, several new museums and galleries have been added to the Red Fort complex. Four of these museums, inaugurated in 2019, are housed in the colonial-era barracks within the complex. Barrack B1 is dedicated to the 1857 War of Independence, Barrack B2 commemorates the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and Barrack B3 focuses on Subhas Chandra Bose and

18130-546: The battles of Sira and Madgiri. He also rescued the last queen of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom , who had been kept in confinement by Hyder Ali in the fort of Madgiri. In early 1771, ten years after the collapse of Maratha authority over North India following the Third Battle of Panipat, Mahadaji Shinde recaptured Delhi and installed Shah Alam II as a puppet ruler on the Mughal throne receiving in return

18315-409: The ceiling of Diwan-i-Khas of its silver and looted the shrines dedicated to Muslim maulanas. During the Maratha invasion of Rohilkhand in the 1750s The Marathas defeated the Rohillas, forced them to seek shelter in hills and ransacked their country in such a manner that the Rohillas dreaded the Marathas and hated them ever afterwards. In 1760, the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau (referred to as

18500-417: The central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas , and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region. The Mughal Empire had

18685-533: The central government rather than the subahdar . Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars , which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas . Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal Empire. Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example,

18870-611: The centre of the outer court, which measured 540 by 360 feet (160 m × 110 m). The side arcades and the central tank of the Red Fort were demolished following the 1857 rebellion. The inner main court to which the Nakkar Khana led was 540 feet (160 m) wide and 420 feet (130 m) deep, surrounded by guarded galleries. On the far side is the Diwan-i-Aam , the Public Audience Hall. This venue

19055-625: The chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal after the death of its governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727. Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Odisha, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal made peace with Raghuji in 1751 ceding Cuttack (Odisha) up to the river Subarnarekha, and agreeing to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually as the Chauth for Bengal and Bihar. Balaji Bajirao encouraged agriculture, protected

19240-436: The community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era. The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization , like that of 18th-century Western Europe before

19425-617: The conclusion of the war, the frontier of British India was extended to the Yamuna. Mahadaji Shinde had conquered Rania , Fatehabad and Sirsa from the governor of Hissar. Haryana then came under the Marathas. He divided Haryana into four territories: Delhi (Mughal emperor Shah Alam II , his family and areas surrounding Delhi), Panipat (Karnal, Sonepat, Kurukshetra and Ambala), Hisar (Hisar, Sirsa, Fatehabad, parts of Rohtak), Ahirwal (Gurugram, Rewari, Narnaul, Mahendragarh) and Mewat. Daulat Rao Scindia ceded Haryana on 30 December 1803 under

19610-438: The confederacy. The British also wanted to end any potential anti-British, French-Maratha alliance at its crib. Maratha forces under Tukojirao Holkar and Mahadaji Shinde defeated a British expeditionary force at the Battle of Wadgaon , but the heavy surrender terms, which included the return of annexed territory and a share of revenues, were disavowed by the British authorities at Bengal and fighting continued. What became known as

19795-533: The coronation of Shivaji as the Maratha Chhatrapati and recognised by Emperor Bahadur Shah I as a tributary state in 1707 following a prolonged rebellion . Following this, the Marathas continued to recognise the Mughal emperor as their nominal suzerain , similar to other contemporary Indian entities, though in practice, imperial politics at Delhi were largely influenced by the Marathas between 1737 and 1803. Although Shivaji came from

19980-474: The cost of establishing a new capital was marginal. Situations where two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan . Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681. The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as

20165-541: The court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal Empire to the Deccan by ending the Ahmadnagar Sultanate and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute. Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh , became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed

20350-405: The covered bazaar. The most significant surviving structures of the Red Fort include its walls and ramparts, the main gates, the audience halls, and the imperial apartments located along the eastern riverbank. The Lahori Gate, the primary entrance to the Red Fort, derives its name from its orientation towards the city of Lahore, which was once part of the Mughal Empire . During Aurangzeb's reign,

20535-480: The death of Saadat Khan by the Marathas and was forced to flee to the camp of Shuja-ud-Daula and his country was ravaged by Marathas. Mahadaji Shinde captured the family of Zabita Khan, desecrated the grave of Najib ad-Dawlah and looted his fort. With the fleeing of the Rohillas, the rest of the country was burnt, with the exception of the city of Amroha, which was defended by some thousands of Amrohi Sayyid tribes. The Rohillas who could offer no resistance fled to

20720-432: The economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct. The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in

20905-479: The economy, respectively. According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. However, in

21090-519: The effective rulers. The leading Maratha families – Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, and Gaekwad – extended their conquests in northern and central India and became more independent and difficult to control. The Marathas' rapid expansion was halted with the great defeat of Panipat in 1761, at the hands of the Afghan Empire , following which the effective power of Peshwas over other chiefs came to an end. The structure of

21275-432: The emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities). The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi . Such officials included

21460-528: The empire to its greatest territorial extent, and oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri , a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur , leading to the militarization of the Sikh community. From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into

21645-454: The empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in

21830-477: The epithet of Emperor Aurangzeb or endonymous identification from emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as "Land of Hind" ( Hindostān ) in Hindustani . Contemporary Chinese chronicles referred to the empire as Hindustan ( Héndūsītǎn ). In the west, the term " Mughal " was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The Mughal designation for their dynasty was Gurkani ( Gūrkāniyān ),

22015-578: The famous Alopi Devi Mandir . After reaching Delhi in January 1772 and realising the Maratha intent of territorial encroachment, however, Shah Alam ordered his general Najaf Khan to drive them out. In retaliation, Tukoji Rao Holkar and Visaji Krushna Biniwale attacked Delhi and defeated Mughal forces in 1772. The Marathas were granted an imperial sanad for Kora and Allahabad. They turned their attention to Oudh to gain these two territories. Shuja was, however, unwilling to give them up and made appeals to

22200-495: The flagpole. Provisions with the fort sustained damage owing to clashes between the protestors and the police. The fort was vacated following police announcements. The World Heritage Convention characterises the Red Fort as embodying "the zenith of Mughal creativity". The fort synthesises Islamic palace structure with local traditions, resulting in a confluence of " Persian , Timurid , and Hindu architecture ". The fort served as an inspiration for later buildings and gardens across

22385-420: The fort Torna, followed by many more forts, placing the area under his control and establishing Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people ). He created an independent Maratha state with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati (sovereign) of the new Maratha Kingdom in 1674. The Maratha dominion under him comprised about 4.1% of

22570-513: The fort's double domes exemplify later Mughal architecture. It showcases a high level of ornamentation, and the Kohinoor diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings. The artwork of the Red Fort integrates Persian, European, and Indian artistic traditions, culminating in a distinctive Shahjahani style characterized by its richness in form, expression, and color. The Red Fort is one of India's most significant architectural complexes, encapsulating

22755-460: The huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms. But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as

22940-565: The independence of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. The Indian campaign of Nader Shah , who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance

23125-425: The king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor. He led campaigns from 1682 in the Deccan, annexing its remaining Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda, though engaged in a prolonged conflict in the region which had a ruinous effect on the empire. The campaigns took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence led to

23310-475: The last serious opposition to the formation of the British Raj . The real contest for India was never a single decisive battle for the subcontinent, rather, it turned on a complex social and political struggle for the control of the South Asian military economy. The victory in 1803 hinged as much on finance, diplomacy, politics and intelligence as it did on battlefield manoeuvring and war itself. Ultimately,

23495-482: The main entrance to the Red Fort, opens into an outer court that intersects with a large north–south street. This street originally separated the fort's military functions, located to the west, from the palaces situated to the east. At its southern end lies the Delhi Gate. In the east wall of the court stands the now-isolated Naubat Khana ( Persian : "Waiting Hall"), also known as Nakkar Khana (drum house). Music

23680-628: The main gate of the historic fort and delivers a nationally broadcast address from its ramparts. The Red Fort, as part of the Red Fort Complex, was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. The name Red Fort is a translation of the Hindustani Lāl Qila ( Hindi : लाल क़िला , Urdu : لال قلعہ ), deriving from its red sandstone walls. The term Lal is derived from Hindi, meaning "red," while Qila originates from Arabic, signifying "fortress". Originally referred to as

23865-616: The major Maratha powers jointly fighting Nizam's forces. The Marathas came into conflict with Tipu Sultan and his Kingdom of Mysore , leading to the Maratha–Mysore War in 1785. The war ended in 1787 with Tipu Sultan being defeated by the Marathas. The Maratha-Mysore war ended in April 1787 following the finalizing of the treaty of Gajendragad , as per which the Tipu Sultan of Mysore was obligated to pay 4.8 million rupees as

24050-414: The military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi , who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by

24235-676: The monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrating the temple by displacing the image of goddess Sāradā . The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. A bunch of about 30 letters written in Kannada , which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore . Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at

24420-536: The net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt . He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane , tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under

24605-655: The new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by the rebellious Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545). Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident

24790-533: The news of the raid: People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying). Tipu Sultan immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the Swami with 200 rahati s ( fanam s) in cash and other gifts and articles. Tipu Sultan's interest in

24975-549: The next year. Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad in the Rajput Umarkot Fort , to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum , a Persian princess. Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of

25160-530: The nobility and members of the royal family. A gate located on the north side of the Diwan-i-Aam provided access to the innermost court of the palace, known as the Jalau Khana , as well as to the Diwan-i-Khas . It is constructed of white marble and inlaid with precious stones. The once-silver ceiling has been restored in wood. François Bernier described witnessing the jewelled Peacock Throne here in

25345-430: The older Salimgarh Fort . The fortress-palace served as the centerpiece of Shahjahanabad, the city now known as Old Delhi . Shah Jahan's successor, Emperor Aurangzeb , enhanced the Red Fort by adding the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) to the emperor's private quarters. He also constructed barbicans in front of the two main gates to create a more circuitous approach to the palace. Following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb,

25530-478: The other hand, Mahadaji's victory over Jats of Mathura, Rajputs of Rajasthan and Pashtun-Rohillas of Rohilkhand ( Bareilly division and Moradabad division of present-day Uttar Pradesh ) re-established the Marathas in northern India. With the Capture of Delhi in 1771 and the capture of Najibabad in 1772 and treaties with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II as a restricted monarch to the throne under Maratha suzerainty,

25715-404: The plains of North India . The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar . This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb , during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire

25900-475: The prime minister and other dignitaries can be whisked off to in the event of an attack. In April 2018, the Dalmia Bharat Group adopted the Red Fort for maintenance, development, and operations under the government's "Adopt A Heritage" scheme, through a contract worth ₹25 crores for a period of five years. A memorandum of understanding was signed with the ministries of Tourism and Culture , and

26085-480: The production of piece goods , calicos , and muslins . The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century, and it represented the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka . The production of cotton

26270-451: The resurrection of Maratha power in the North was complete. Madhav Rao died in 1772, at the age of 27. His death is considered to be a fatal blow to the Maratha Confederacy and from that time Maratha power started to move on a downward trajectory, less an empire than a confederacy. In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Madhavrao Peshwa gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of

26455-466: The royal family as captives. The Marathas invaded Rohilkhand to avenge the Rohillas' atrocities in the Panipat war. The Marathas under the leadership of Mahadaji Shinde entered the land of Sardar Najib-ud-Daula which was held by his son Zabita Khan after his death. Zabita Khan initially resisted the attack with Sayyid Khan and Saadat Khan behaving with gallantry, but was eventually defeated with

26640-417: The seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi . More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army). Qadis were usually appointed by

26825-431: The seat of the Peshwa. This gave rise to the Battle of Poona in which the Peshwa was defeated. After the Battle of Poona, the flight of the Peshwa left the government of the Maratha state in the hands of Yashwantrao Holkar.( Kincaid & Pārasanīsa 1925 , p. 194) He appointed Amrutrao as the Peshwa and went to Indore on 13 March 1803. All except Gaekwad, chief of Baroda , who had already accepted British protection by

27010-641: The site experienced few changes, and the Red Fort continued to be used as a military cantonment . A significant portion of the Red Fort remained under the control of the Indian Army until December 22, 2003, when it was transferred to the Archaeological Survey of India for restoration and conservation. In 2009, the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP), prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under

27195-483: The six Mogul provinces of Deccan, and full possession of the territories controlled by Shivaji in 1680. After Balaji Vishwanath's death in April 1720, his son, Baji Rao I , was appointed Peshwa by Shahu. Bajirao is credited with expanding the Maratha Kingdom tenfold from 3% to 30% of the modern Indian landscape during 1720–1740. The Battle of Palkhed was a land battle that took place on 28 February 1728 at

27380-576: The son of Sambhaji (and grandson of Shivaji), was released by Bahadur Shah I , the new Mughal emperor. However, his mother was kept a hostage of the Mughals to ensure that Shahu adhered to the release conditions. Upon release, Shahu immediately claimed the Maratha throne and challenged his aunt Tarabai and her son. The spluttering Mughal-Maratha war became a three-cornered affair. This resulted in two rival seats of government being set up in 1707 at Satara and Kolhapur by Shahu and Tarabai respectively. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as his Peshwa. The Peshwa

27565-405: The south to Gwalior in the north after the Battle of Bhopal (1737), to Orissa in the east or about a third of the subcontinent. The Maratha Confederacy is also referred to as the Maratha Empire. Historian Barbara Ramusack notes, "neither term is fully accurate since one implies a substantial degree of centralisation and the other signifies some surrender of power to a central government and

27750-489: The south. From Damalcherry, the Marathas proceeded to Arcot, which surrendered to them without much resistance. Then, Raghuji invaded Trichinopoly in December 1740. Unable to resist, Chanda Sahib surrendered the fort to Raghuji on 14 March 1741. Chanda Saheb and his son were arrested and sent to Nagpur. Rajputana also came under Maratha attacks during this time. In June 1756 Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de Alva),

27935-472: The sovereign of India. Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during conflicts such as the Carnatic wars and Bengal War . The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. Delhi was sacked by the Afghans, and when

28120-458: The subcontinent, but it was spread over large tracts. At the time of his death, it was reinforced with about 300 forts, and defended by about 40,000 cavalries, and 50,000 soldiers, as well as naval establishments along the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity; by the time of his grandson's rule, and later under the Peshwas in the early 18th century, it became

28305-479: The territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys. The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of Agra , Delhi , Lahore , and Fatehpur Sikri . Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals. Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because

28490-483: The throne and acting as his protector. Jaipur and Jodhpur , the two most powerful Rajput states, were still out of direct Maratha domination, so Mahadaji sent his general Benoît de Boigne to crush the forces of Jaipur and Jodhpur at the Battle of Patan . Another achievement of the Marathas was their victories over the Nizam of Hyderabad's armies. The last of these took place at the Battle of Kharda in 1795 with all

28675-421: The throne in Delhi. The 1758 Maratha victory over the Afghans at Sirhind , and followed by their defeat at Panipat catapulted them into further conflict with Ahmad Shah Durrani . In 1760, the Marathas stripped and melted the silver ceiling of the Diwan-i-Khas to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies of Ahmed Shah Durrani . In 1761, after the Marathas lost the third battle of Panipat , Delhi

28860-607: The throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara , whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers , became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress

29045-625: The time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing , by the 17th century. South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies coveted by the Europeans before the Industrial Revolution . Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of

29230-443: The title of deputy Vakil-ul-Mutlak or vice-regent of the Empire and that of Vakil-ul-Mutlak being at his request conferred on the Peshwa. The Mughals also gave him the title of Amir-ul-Amara (head of the amirs). After taking control of Delhi, the Marathas sent a large army in 1772 to punish Afghan Rohillas for their involvement in Panipat. Their army devastated Rohilkhand by looting and plundering as well as taking members of

29415-414: The village of Palkhed, near the city of Nashik, Maharashtra, India between Baji Rao I and Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad. The Marathas defeated the Nizam . The battle is considered an example of the brilliant execution of military strategy. In 1737, Marathas under Bajirao I raided the suburbs of Delhi in a blitzkrieg in the Battle of Delhi (1737). The Nizam set out from the Deccan to rescue

29600-452: The villagers and brought about a marked improvement in the state of the territory. Raghunath Rao , brother of Nanasaheb, pushed into the wake of the Afghan withdrawal after Ahmed Shah Abdali 's plunder of Delhi in 1756. Delhi was captured by the Maratha army under Raghunath Rao in August 1757, defeating the Afghan garrison in the Battle of Delhi . This laid the foundation for the Maratha conquest of North-west India . In Lahore , as in Delhi,

29785-417: The walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in

29970-491: The well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of the Mughal Empire were around 99,000,000 rupees. The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee ( rupiya , or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until

30155-486: The western Deccan Plateau (present-day Maharashtra ) who rose to prominence by establishing Hindavi Swarajya (meaning "self-rule of Hindus"). The Marathas became prominent in the politics of the Indian subcontinent during the seventeenth century under the leadership of Shivaji , who revolted against the Adil Shahi dynasty and the Mughals to carve out a kingdom with Raigad as his capital. The religious attitude of Emperor Aurangzeb estranged non-Muslims , and

30340-409: The world's industrial output. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization , similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution. In early modern Europe , there

30525-414: Was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments. Maratha Confederacy The Maratha Confederacy , also referred to as the Maratha Empire , was an early modern polity in the Indian subcontinent . It comprised the realms of the Peshwa and four major independent Maratha states often subordinate to the former. It was established in 1674 with

30710-494: Was a major achievement of Baji Rao's time in office. Baji Rao's son, Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb), was appointed as the next Peshwa by Shahu despite the opposition of other chiefs. In 1740, the Maratha forces, under Raghoji Bhonsle, came down upon Arcot and defeated the Nawab of Arcot , Dost Ali, in the pass of Damalcherry. In the war that followed, Dost Ali, one of his sons Hasan Ali, and several other prominent people died. This initial success at once enhanced Maratha prestige in

30895-520: Was accompanied by just a few men. Sambhaji was ambushed and captured by the Mughal troops on 1 February 1689. He and his advisor, Kavi Kalash , were taken to Bahadurgad by the imperial army, where they were executed by the Mughals on 21 March 1689. Aurangzeb had charged Sambhaji with attacks by Maratha forces on Burhanpur . Upon Sambhaji's death, his half-brother Rajaram ascended the throne. The Mughal siege of Raigad continued, and he had to flee to Vishalgad and then to Gingee for safety. From there,

31080-403: Was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era. The Bengal Subah province

31265-411: Was also used for state functions. The courtyard ( mardana ) behind it leads to the imperial apartments. The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are zenana s (women's quarters), consisting of the Mumtaz Mahal, built for Arjumand Banu Begum ( Mumtaz Mahal ), who was wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, and the larger Rang Mahal was designated a resort for royal women. The Mumtaz Mahal houses

31450-425: Was an acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city. He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, Vishwasrao , on the Mughal throne. By 1760, with the defeat of the Nizam in the Deccan , Maratha power had reached its zenith with a territory of over 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi). Ahmad Shah Durrani called on

31635-429: Was cooled by the Nahr-i-Bihisht . Connected to it is the Muthamman Burj , an octagonal tower where the emperor appeared before the audience awaiting his presence at the riverbank. Such practices were common among most kings of the time, reflecting the prevailing norms and traditions of royal courts. The Diwan-i-Khas , or Hall of Private Audience, was a space dedicated to addressing the official matters and requests of

31820-496: Was designated for hot or vapour baths, with heating arrangements installed in its western wall. The baoli (step-well) is one of the few structures within the Red Fort that survived the widespread demolitions carried out by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Its chambers were repurposed as a prison and, during the Red Fort Trials of 1945–46, housed INA officers General Shah Nawaz Khan , Colonel Prem Kumar Sahgal , and Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon . The Red Fort baoli

32005-462: Was either removed or destroyed; the harem apartments, servants' quarters, and gardens were demolished, and a line of stone barracks erected atop them. Only the marble buildings on the east side at the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction, although they were damaged while demolition was underway. While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unscathed, over two-thirds of the inner structures were demolished. Lord Curzon , who served as

32190-437: Was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium. The province

32375-414: Was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of

32560-471: Was instrumental in resurrecting Maratha power after the débâcle of the Third Battle of Panipat, and in this, he was assisted by Benoît de Boigne . After the growth in power of feudal lords like the Malwa sardars, the landlords of Bundelkhand and the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan who refused to pay tribute to him, he sent his army to conquer states such as Bhopal , Datiya, Chanderi, Narwar, Salbai and Gohad. However, he launched an unsuccessful expedition against

32745-612: Was instrumental in securing Mughal recognition of Shahu as the rightful heir of Shivaji and the Chhatrapati of the Marathas. Balaji also gained the release of Shahu's mother, Yesubai , from Mughal captivity in 1719. During Shahu's reign, Raghoji Bhonsle expanded the kingdom eastwards. Khanderao Dabhade and later his son, Triambakrao, expanded it Westwards into Gujarat. Peshwa Bajirao and his three chiefs, Pawar ( Dhar ), Holkar ( Indore ), and Scindia ( Gwalior ) expanded it northwards. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath's first major achievement

32930-442: Was moved from the drum house to the Mumtaz Mahal . The INA trials , also known as the Red Fort Trials, refer to the courts-martial of a number of officers of the Indian National Army . The first trial was conducted at the Red Fort between November and December 1945. On 15 August 1947, the first prime minister of India , Jawaharlal Nehru , raised the Indian national flag above the Lahore Gate . After Indian independence ,

33115-399: Was performed daily at scheduled times within the Red Fort, and it was required of everyone, except members of the royalty, to dismount during these performances. Later Mughal emperors Jahandar Shah (1712–1713) and Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719) are believed to have been murdered here. The Indian War Memorial Museum is located on the second floor. The vaulted arcade of the Chhatta Chowk ends in

33300-456: Was raided by Ahmed Shah Durrani. Ten years later, the Marathas, acting at the behest of the exiled Emperor Shah Alam II , recaptured Delhi from the Rohilla Afghans. Mahadaji Shinde , the commander of the Maratha Army, restored Shah Alam II to the throne. In 1764, the Jat ruler of Bharatpur , Maharaja Jawahar Singh , attacked Delhi and eventually captured the Red Fort of Delhi on February 5, 1765. Two days later, after exacting tribute from

33485-432: Was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo , silks, and saltpetre (for use in munitions ). European fashion , for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing , particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included

33670-475: Was the conclusion of the Treaty of Lonavala in 1714 with Kanhoji Angre , the most powerful naval chief on the Western Coast who later accepted Shahu as Chhatrapati. In 1719, Marathas under Balaji marched to Delhi with Sayyid Hussain Ali , the Mughal governor of Deccan, and deposed the Mughal emperor, Farrukhsiyar . The new teenage emperor, Rafi ud-Darajat and a puppet of the Sayyid brothers, granted Shahu rights to collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from

33855-399: Was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Confederacy. He worked as a unifying force in the Confederacy and moved to the south to subdue Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad to assert Maratha power. He sent generals such as Bhonsle, Scindia and Holkar to the north, where they re-established Maratha authority by the early 1770s. Madhav Rao I crossed the Krishna River in 1767 and defeated Hyder Ali in

34040-407: Was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which he nominally led, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar , was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 to Rangoon , Burma. Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after

34225-451: Was used to oversee official matters brought forth by commoners, including legal issues such as taxation, inheritance disputes, and matters related to awqaf (endowments). The hall's columns and engrailed arches exhibit fine craftsmanship, and the hall was originally decorated with white chunam stucco. At the rear of the venue, in a raised recess, the emperor would grant audiences from the marble balcony ( jharokha ). The Diwan-i-Aam

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