156-517: The Faerie Queene is an English epic poem by Edmund Spenser . Books I–III were first published in 1590, then republished in 1596 together with books IV–VI. The Faerie Queene is notable for its form: at over 36,000 lines and over 4,000 stanzas, it is one of the longest poems in the English language; it is also the work in which Spenser invented the verse form known as the Spenserian stanza . On
312-573: A Kingdom of Faerie which is loosely based on the one described by Spenser. As depicted by Bear, Spenser was aware of this Kingdom's existence and his work was actually a description of fact rather than invented fantasy; Queen Elizabeth I had a secret pact of mutual help with the Queen of Faerie; and such historical characters as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare visited Faerie and had adventures there. According to Richard Simon Keller, George Lucas 's Star Wars film also contains elements of
468-535: A consequence of their kinship with the Champernowne family, all of the Raleigh and Gilbert brothers became prominent during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I . Raleigh's family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near escapes during the reign of Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England . In the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As
624-457: A decline in his fortunes. In 1602, he sold the lands to Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork , who subsequently prospered under kings James I and Charles I . On March 25, 1584, Queen Elizabeth granted Raleigh a royal charter authorising him to explore, colonise and rule any "remote, heathen and barbarous lands, countries and territories, not actually possessed of any Christian Prince or inhabited by Christian People", in return for one-fifth of all
780-566: A degree. Raleigh proceeded to finish his education in the Inns of Court . In 1575, he was admitted to the Middle Temple , having previously been a member of Lyon's Inn , one of the Inns of Chancery . At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law. Much of his life is uncertain between 1569 and 1575, but in his History of the World , he claimed to have been an eyewitness at
936-610: A favourite of Queen Elizabeth I because of his efforts at increasing the Protestant Church in Ireland. In 1585, Raleigh was knighted and was appointed warden of the stannaries , that is of the tin mines of Cornwall and Devon, Lord Lieutenant of Cornwall and vice-admiral of the two counties. He was a member of parliament for Devonshire in 1585 and 1586. He was also granted the right to colonise America. Raleigh commissioned shipbuilder R. Chapman of Deptford to build
1092-583: A fleet that resulted in the capture of a Spanish ship in retreat carrying vital information regarding the Spanish plans. In 1597 Raleigh was chosen as member of parliament for Dorset and in 1601 for Cornwall . He was unique in the Elizabethan period in sitting for three counties. From 1600 to 1603, as governor of the Channel Island of Jersey , Raleigh modernised its defences. This included
1248-432: A group of authors had actually written the plays later attributed to William Shakespeare , the main writer being Walter Raleigh. Later, George S. Caldwell asserted that Raleigh was actually the sole author. These claims have been supported by other scholars throughout subsequent years, including Albert J. Beveridge and Henry Pemberton , but are rejected by the majority of Shakespearean scholars today. In 2002, Raleigh
1404-531: A heated discussion about religion with Reverend Ralph Ironsides. The argument later gave rise to charges of atheism against Raleigh, though the charges were dismissed. He was elected to Parliament, speaking on religious and naval matters. In 1594, he came into possession of a Spanish account of a great golden city at the headwaters of the Caroní River . A year later, he explored what is now Guyana and eastern Venezuela in search of Lake Parime and Manoa,
1560-481: A hurricane prevented John White from investigating the island for survivors. Other speculation includes their having starved, or been swept away or lost at sea during the stormy weather of 1588. No further attempts at contact were recorded for some years. Whatever the fate of the settlers, the settlement is now remembered as the " Roanoke Colony " later known as the "Lost Colony". Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to
1716-530: A literal level, the poem follows several knights as a means to examine different virtues. The poem is also an allegorical work. As such, it can be read on several levels, including as praise (or, later, criticism) of Queen Elizabeth I . In Spenser's "Letter of the Authors", he states that the entire epic poem is "cloudily enwrapped in Allegorical devices", and that the aim of publishing The Faerie Queene
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#17327753052211872-857: A loose adaptation, as well as being influenced by other works, with parallels including the story of the Red Cross Knight championing Una against the evil Archimago in the original compared with Lucas's Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, and Darth Vader. Keller sees extensive parallels between the film and book one of Spenser's work, stating "[A]lmost everything of importance that we see in the Star Wars movie has its origin in The Faerie Queene , from small details of weaponry and dress to large issues of chivalry and spirituality". The Netflix series The Crown references The Faerie Queene and Gloriana in season 1 episode 10, entitled "Gloriana". In
2028-406: A meeting with Lord Cobham . One of the judges at his trial later said: "The justice of England has never been so degraded and injured as by the condemnation of the honourable Sir Walter Raleigh." Raleigh's poetry is written in the relatively straightforward, unornamented mode known as the plain style. C. S. Lewis considered Raleigh one of the era's "silver poets", a group of writers who resisted
2184-444: A more accurate indication of gentle blood than physical appearance. On the opposite side of the spectrum, The Faerie Queene indicates qualities such as cowardice and discourtesy that signify low birth. During his initial encounter with Arthur, Turpine "hides behind his retainers, chooses ambush from behind instead of direct combat, and cowers to his wife, who covers him with her voluminous skirt". These actions demonstrate that Turpine
2340-473: A more diverse group of settlers was sent, including some entire families, under the governance of John White . After a short while in America, White returned to England to obtain more supplies for the colony, planning to return in a year. Unfortunately for the colonists at Roanoke, one year became three. The first delay came when Queen Elizabeth I ordered all vessels to remain at port for potential use against
2496-445: A preface to the epic in most published editions, this letter outlines plans for twenty-four books: twelve based each on a different knight who exemplified one of twelve "private virtues", and a possible twelve more centred on King Arthur displaying twelve "public virtues". Spenser names Aristotle as his source for these virtues, though the influences of Thomas Aquinas and the traditions of medieval allegory can be observed as well. It
2652-581: A result, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism during his childhood, and proved himself quick to express it after Protestant Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558. In matters of religion, Elizabeth was more moderate than her half-sister Mary. In 1569, Raleigh went to France to serve with the Huguenots in the French religious civil wars. In 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford , but he left in 1574 without
2808-468: A result, the ship was renamed Ark Royal . In 1586 one of Raleigh's expeditions caught Spanish explorer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa . Raleigh held Gamboa prisoner in his house and had long conversations with him. Gamboa passed messages to the Spanish ambassador who forwarded them to King Philip II . Raleigh wanted to defect to Spain and sell his ship the Ark. Philip refused to buy the ship, but encouraged
2964-472: A ship for him. She was originally called Ark but became Ark Raleigh , following the convention at the time by which the ship bore the name of her owner. The Crown (in the person of Queen Elizabeth I) purchased the ship from Raleigh in January 1587 for £5,000 (£1.1 million in 2015). This took the form of a reduction in the sum that Sir Walter owed the queen; he received Exchequer tallies but no money. As
3120-486: A skillful epigram; but it seriously misrepresents the truth if taken at anything like its face value". The number of archaisms used in the poem is not overwhelming—one source reports thirty-four in Canto I of Book I, that is, thirty-four words out of a total forty-two hundred words, less than one percent. According to McElderry, language alone does not account for the poem's archaic tone. "The subject-matter of The Faerie Queene
3276-464: A small copyhold , you would have witnesses or good proof to lead the jury to a verdict; and I am here for my life!" Raleigh argued that the evidence against him was " hearsay ", but the tribunal refused to allow Cobham to testify and be cross-examined . Raleigh's trial has been regularly cited as influential in establishing a common law right to confront accusers in court. Raleigh was convicted, but King James spared his life. While imprisoned in
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#17327753052213432-656: A stained glass window in Churston Ferrers Church, near Greenway.) Katherine Champernowne's paternal aunt was Kat Ashley , governess of Queen Elizabeth I, who introduced Raleigh and his brothers to the court. Raleigh's maternal uncle was Sir Arthur Champernowne ( c. 1524 –1578), a Member of Parliament , Sheriff of Devon and Admiral of the West . Walter Raleigh junior's immediate family included his full brother Carew Raleigh , and half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert and Adrian Gilbert. As
3588-413: A stickler for legal agreements, must become her slave as well. Britomart eventually rescues her betrothed and kills Radigund, thereby restoring a just relationship of the sexes. We are introduced to the court of Mercilla, where Duessa is put on trial and found guilty. Departing from Artegall, Spenser presents Prince Arthur's quest to slay the beast Gerioneo in order to restore the lady Belge to her rights. In
3744-503: A superstitious Catholic reliance on deceptive images". The poem celebrates, memorializes, and critiques the House of Tudor (of which Elizabeth was a part), much as Virgil 's Aeneid celebrates Augustus 's Rome. The Aeneid states that Augustus descended from the noble sons of Troy ; similarly, The Faerie Queene suggests that the Tudor lineage can be connected to King Arthur. The poem
3900-614: A variety of genres including sixteenth century Arthurian literature. The Faerie Queene was influenced strongly by Italian works, as were many other works in England at that time. The Faerie Queene draws heavily on Ariosto and Tasso. The first three books of The Faerie Queene operate as a unit, representing the entire cycle from the fall of Troy to the reign of Elizabeth. Using in medias res , Spenser introduces his historical narrative at three different intervals, using chronicle, civil conversation, and prophecy as its occasions. Despite
4056-457: A velvet bag until her death. After Raleigh's wife's death 29 years later, his head was removed to his tomb and interred at St. Margaret's Church. Although Raleigh's popularity had waned considerably since his Elizabethan heyday, his execution was seen by many, both at the time and since, as unnecessary and unjust, as for many years his involvement in the Main Plot seemed to have been limited to
4212-454: Is "almost no correlation between noble deeds and low birth" and reveals that to be a "noble person," one must be a "gentleman of choice stock". Throughout The Faerie Queene , virtue is seen as "a feature for the nobly born" and within Book VI, readers encounter worthy deeds that indicate aristocratic lineage. An example of this is the hermit to whom Arthur brings Timias and Serena. Initially,
4368-507: Is "morally emasculated by fear" and furthermore, "the usual social roles are reversed as the lady protects the knight from danger. Scholars believe that this characterization serves as "a negative example of knighthood" and strives to teach Elizabethan aristocrats how to "identify a commoner with political ambitions inappropriate to his rank". The Faerie Queene was written in Spenserian stanza , which Spenser created specifically for The Faerie Queene . Spenser varied existing epic stanza forms,
4524-570: Is ABABBCBCC. Over two thousand stanzas were written for the 1590 Faerie Queene . In Elizabethan England, no subject was more familiar to writers than theology. Elizabethans learned to embrace religious studies in petty school, where they "read from selections from the Book of Common Prayer and memorized Catechisms from the Scriptures". This influence is evident in Spenser's text, as demonstrated in
4680-619: Is a rhyming verse stanza form that consists of an interlocking three-line rhyme scheme. An example is found in the first lines of the Divine Comedy by Dante , who originated the form: Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita (A) mi ritrovai per una selva oscura (B) ché la diritta via era smarrita. (A) Ahi quanto a dir qual era è cosa dura (B) esta selva selvaggia e aspra e forte (C) che nel pensier rinnova la paura! (B) In ottava rima , each stanza consists of three alternate rhymes and one double rhyme, following
4836-768: Is a couplet), as well as long prose passages, so that at ~1.8 million words it is roughly twice the length of Shahnameh , four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa , and roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. Famous examples of epic poetry include the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh , the ancient Indian Mahabharata and Rāmāyaṇa in Sanskrit and Silappatikaram and Manimekalai in Tamil,
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4992-478: Is able to rescue Amoret from the wizard Busirane. Unfortunately, when they emerge from the castle Scudamore is gone. (The 1590 version with Books I–III depicts the lovers' happy reunion, but this was changed in the 1596 version which contained all six books.) Book IV is called "The Legend of Cambell and Telamond or Of Friendship." But despite its title, Cambell's companion in Book IV is actually named Triamond, and
5148-641: Is as follows: Old English, German and Norse poems were written in alliterative verse , usually without rhyme . The alliterative form can be seen in the Old English " Finnsburg Fragment " (alliterated sounds are in bold): Ac on w acnigeað nū, w īgend mīne e alra ǣ rest e orðbūendra, But awake now, my warriors, of all first the men While the above classical and Germanic forms would be considered stichic , Italian, Spanish and Portuguese long poems favored stanzaic forms, usually written in terza rima or especially ottava rima . Terza rima
5304-647: Is dedicated to Elizabeth I who is represented in the poem as the Faerie Queene Gloriana, as well as the character Belphoebe. Spenser prefaces the poem with sonnets additionally dedicated to Sir Christopher Hatton , Lord Burleigh , the Earl of Oxford , the Earl of Northumberland , the Earl of Cumberland , the Earl of Essex , the Earl of Ormond and Ossory , High Admiral Charles Howard , Lord Hunsdon , Lord Grey of Wilton , Lord Buckhurst , Sir Francis Walsingham , Sir John Norris , Sir Walter Raleigh ,
5460-615: Is deeply allegorical and allusive ; many prominent Elizabethans could have found themselves partially represented by one or more of Spenser's figures. Elizabeth herself is the most prominent example. She appears in the guise of Gloriana, the Faerie Queen , but also in Books III and IV as the virgin Belphoebe , daughter of Chrysogonee and twin to Amoret, the embodiment of womanly married love. Perhaps also, more critically, Elizabeth
5616-413: Is evident in the political allegory of Books I and V, where the reality of interpreted events becomes more apparent when the events are closer to the time of the poem's composition. Throughout The Faerie Queene , Spenser's use of archetypal patterns includes numerous mythological equivalents that enhance the narrative's depth and complexity. For example, the characters Florimell and Marinell are related to
5772-522: Is generally assumed to have been a junior branch of the Raleigh family, 11th-century lords of the manor of Raleigh, Pilton in North Devon, although the two branches are known to have borne entirely dissimilar coats of arms, adopted at the start of the age of heraldry ( c. 1200 –1215). His mother was Katherine Champernowne, the third wife of Walter Raleigh senior. She was the fourth daughter of Sir Philip Champernowne (1479–1545), lord of
5928-504: Is impossible to predict how the work would have looked had Spenser lived to complete it, since the reliability of the predictions made in his letter to Raleigh is not absolute, as numerous divergences from that scheme emerged as early as 1590 in the first Faerie Queene publication. In addition to the six virtues Holiness , Temperance , Chastity , Friendship , Justice , and Courtesy , the Letter to Raleigh suggests that Arthur represents
6084-416: Is itself the most powerful factor in creating the impression of archaism." The Faerie Queene relies on classical vocabulary and proper names, especially in the later books. Spenser coined names based on Greek , such as "Poris" and "Phao lilly white." One scholar argued that both classical epic literature and Spencer's work "involve[] the principles of imitation and decorum," which explains and justifies
6240-499: Is no surprise that Tristram turns out to be the son of a king, explaining his profound intellect. However, Spenser's most peculiar example of noble birth is demonstrated through the characterization of the Salvage Man. Using the Salvage Man as an example, Spenser demonstrated that "ungainly appearances do not disqualify one from noble birth". By giving the Salvage Man a "frightening exterior," Spenser stresses that "virtuous deeds are
6396-400: Is not a complete biography of Roland, but picks up from the plot of Orlando Innamorato , which in turn presupposes a knowledge of the romance and oral traditions . Epic catalogues and genealogies are given, called enumeratio . These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context, such as the catalog of ships . Often,
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6552-408: Is perhaps Catullus 64 . Epyllion is to be understood as distinct from mock epic , another light form. Romantic epic is a term used to designate works such as Morgante , Orlando Innamorato , Orlando Furioso and Gerusalemme Liberata , which freely lift characters, themes, plots and narrative devices from the world of prose chivalric romance . Long poetic narratives that do not fit
6708-489: Is seen in Book I as Lucifera, the "maiden queen" whose brightly lit Court of Pride masks a dungeon full of prisoners. The poem also displays Spenser's thorough familiarity with literary history. The world of The Faerie Queene is based on English Arthurian legend , but much of the language, spirit, and style of the piece draw more on Italian epic, particularly Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso and Torquato Tasso 's Jerusalem Delivered . Book V of The Faerie Queene ,
6864-479: Is tempted by the fleeing Archimago into nearly attacking the Redcrosse Knight. Guyon discovers a woman killing herself out of grief for having her lover tempted and bewitched by the witch Acrasia and killed. Guyon swears a vow to avenge them and protect their child. Guyon on his quest starts and stops fighting several evil, rash, or tricked knights and meets Arthur. Finally, they come to Acrasia's Island and
7020-550: Is the most popular. In Serbian poetry, the decasyllable is the only form employed. Balto-Finnic (e.g. Estonian, Finnish, Karelian) folk poetry uses a form of trochaic tetrameter that has been called the Kalevala meter. The Finnish and Estonian national epics, Kalevala and Kalevipoeg , are both written in this meter. The meter is thought to have originated during the Proto-Finnic period. In Indic epics such as
7176-601: The Iliad ) or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism . In the proem or preface, the poet may begin by invoking a Muse or similar divinity. The poet prays to the Muses to provide them with divine inspiration to tell the story of a great hero. Example opening lines with invocations: An alternative or complementary form of proem, found in Virgil and his imitators, opens with
7332-641: The epyllion (plural: epyllia), a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological theme . The term, which means "little epic ", came into use in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to the erudite, shorter hexameter poems of the Hellenistic period and the similar works composed at Rome from the age of the neoterics ; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English Renaissance , particularly those influenced by Ovid . The most famous example of classical epyllion
7488-516: The Battle of Moncontour (3 October 1569) in France. In 1575 or 1576, Raleigh returned to England. In 1577 and again in 1579 Raleigh made voyages with his half-brother Sir Humphrey Gilbert in attempts to find a Northwest Passage . They failed to find a passage, but succeeded in raiding Spanish ships. See Plantations of Ireland From 1579 to late 1580, Raleigh took part in the suppression of
7644-482: The Countess of Pembroke (on the subject of her brother Sir Philip Sidney ), and Lady Carew . In October 1589, after nine years in Ireland, Spenser voyaged to England and saw the Queen. It is possible that he read to her from his manuscript at this time. On 25 February 1591, the Queen gave him a pension of fifty pounds per year. He was paid in four instalments on 25 March, 24 June, 29 September, and 25 December. After
7800-501: The Desmond Rebellions . He was present at the siege of Smerwick , where he led the party that beheaded some 600 Spanish and Italian soldiers. In September 1584, Queen Elizabeth I had the land surveyed to be divided amongst her "Undertakers"(People she appointed to undertake supervision of colonization of the region) to colonize. In 1585, Raleigh received 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) (approximately 0.2% of Ireland) in
7956-485: The Italian Renaissance influence of dense classical reference and elaborate poetic devices. His writing contains strong personal treatments of themes such as love, loss, beauty, and time. Most of his poems are short lyrics that were inspired by actual events. In poems such as "What is Our Life" and " The Lie ", Raleigh expresses a contemptus mundi (contempt of the world) attitude more characteristic of
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#17327753052218112-613: The Middle Ages than of the dawning era of humanistic optimism. But his lesser-known long poem "The Ocean's Love to Cynthia" combines this vein with the more elaborate conceits associated with his contemporaries Edmund Spenser and John Donne , expressing a melancholy sense of history. The poem was written during his imprisonment in the Tower of London. Raleigh wrote a poetic response to Christopher Marlowe 's " The Passionate Shepherd to His Love " of 1592, entitled " The Nymph's Reply to
8268-536: The Munster Plantation , including the coastal walled town of Youghal and, further up the Blackwater River , the village of Lismore . Raleigh made the town of Youghal in Ireland his occasional home during his 17 years as an Irish landlord, frequently being domiciled at Killua Castle , Clonmellon , County Westmeath . He was mayor there from 1588 to 1589. Raleigh encouraged veterans of
8424-494: The Neo-Sumerian Empire . The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh , the king of Uruk . Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure. The longest written epic from antiquity is the ancient Indian Mahabharata ( c. 3rd century BC –3rd century AD), which consists of 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 verse lines (each shloka
8580-527: The Orinoco river basin in South America in search of the golden city of El Dorado . These expeditions were funded primarily by Raleigh and his friends but never provided the steady stream of revenue necessary to maintain a colony in America. In 1580 Raleigh went to fight in Ireland against the 2nd Desmond Rebellion . In December 1581, he returned to England. He took part in court life and became
8736-462: The Orinoco river, in violation of peace treaties with Spain and against Raleigh's orders. A condition of Raleigh's pardon was avoidance of any hostility against Spanish colonies or shipping. In the initial attack on the settlement, Raleigh's son, Walter, was fatally shot. Kemys informed Raleigh of his son's death and begged for forgiveness, but did not receive it, and at once committed suicide. On Raleigh's return to England, an outraged Count Gondomar ,
8892-456: The Ramayana and Mahabharata , the shloka form is used. The primary form of epic, especially as discussed in this article, is the heroic epic , including such works as the Iliad and Mahabharata . Ancient sources also recognized didactic epic as a category, represented by such works as Hesiod 's Works and Days and Lucretius's De rerum natura . A related type of poetry is
9048-561: The Spanish Armada . After England's 1588 victory over the Spanish Armada, the ships were given permission to sail. The second delay came after White's small fleet set sail for Roanoke and his crew insisted on sailing first towards Cuba in hopes of capturing treasure-laden Spanish merchant ships. Enormous riches described by their pilot, an experienced Portuguese navigator hired by Raleigh, outweighed White's objections to
9204-455: The Tower of London . Raleigh's trial began on 17 November in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle . Raleigh conducted his own defence. The chief evidence against him was the signed and sworn confession of his friend Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham . Raleigh repeatedly requested that Cobham be called to testify. "[Let] my acuser come face to face, and be deposed. Were the case but for
9360-673: The capture of Cádiz , where he was wounded. He also served as the rear admiral (a principal command) of the Islands Voyage to the Azores in 1597. On his return from the Azores, Raleigh helped England defend itself against the major threat of the 3rd Spanish Armada during the autumn of 1597. The Armada was dispersed in the Channel and later was devastated by a storm off Ireland. Lord Howard of Effingham and Raleigh were able to organise
9516-653: The performative verb "I sing". Examples: This Virgilian epic convention is referenced in Walt Whitman 's poem title / opening line "I sing the body electric". Compare the first six lines of the Kalevala : These conventions are largely restricted to European classical culture and its imitators. The Epic of Gilgamesh , for example, or the Bhagavata Purana do not contain such elements, nor do early medieval Western epics that are not strongly shaped by
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#17327753052219672-411: The rhyme royal used by Chaucer with the rhyme pattern ABABBCC, and the ottava rima with the rhyme pattern ABABABCC. Spenser's stanza is the longest of the three, with nine iambic lines. The first eight lines are five-footed, that is, pentameters. The ninth line is six-footed, that is, a hexameter, or Alexandrine. Altogether these form two "interlocking quatrains and a final couplet". The rhyme pattern
9828-469: The siege of Smerwick . Later, he became a landlord of property in Ireland and mayor of Youghal in east Munster , where his house still stands in Myrtle Grove . He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585. He was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia , paving the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton , one of
9984-443: The "shortcomings" of her rule. There is a character named Britomart who represents married chastity. This character is told that her destiny is to be an "immortal womb" – to have children. Here, Spenser is referring to Elizabeth's unmarried state and is touching on anxieties of the 1590s about what would happen after her death since the kingdom had no heir. The Faerie Queene's original audience would have been able to identify many of
10140-417: The 16th century the Spenserian stanza and blank verse were also introduced. The French alexandrine is currently the heroic line in French literature, though in earlier literature – such as the chanson de geste – the decasyllable grouped in laisses took precedence. In Polish literature, couplets of Polish alexandrines (syllabic lines of 7+6 syllables) prevail. In Russian, iambic tetrameter verse
10296-722: The 1800s would lead to the Great Famine when they were the only crop not exported in bulk to Britain from 1840 to 1852, a time when potatoes across the continent were destroyed by a gigantic outbreak of blight known as the European Potato Failure. Amongst Raleigh's acquaintances in Munster was another Englishman who had been granted land in the Irish colonies, poet Edmund Spenser . Raleigh's management of his Irish estates ran into difficulties which contributed to
10452-461: The ABABABCC rhyme scheme . Example: Canto l'arme pietose, e 'l Capitano Che 'l gran sepolcro liberò di Cristo. Molto egli oprò col senno e con la mano; Molto soffrì nel glorioso acquisto: E invan l'Inferno a lui s'oppose; e invano s'armò d'Asia e di Libia il popol misto: Chè 'l Ciel gli diè favore, e sotto ai santi Segni ridusse i suoi compagni erranti. The sacred armies, and
10608-574: The Blatant Beast, capturing and binding the monster, which nonetheless, we are told, eventually escapes to prowl about the world once more to seek the ruin of more reputations. Published with The Faerie Queene in the Folio of 1609 and generally agreed to have been part of Spenser's plan for Book VII are the Cantos of Mutability , in which Jove's sway over the universe is challenged by Mutability,
10764-408: The Book of Justice, is Spenser's most direct discussion of political theory. In it, Spenser attempts to tackle the problem of policy toward Ireland and recreates the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots . In The Faerie Queene , Edmund Spenser employs archetypal patterns to reinforce the actuality of his narrative. Spenser integrates these patterns to focus the meaning of the past on the present, emphasizing
10920-558: The Bower of Bliss, where Guyon resists temptations to violence, idleness, and lust. Guyon captures Acrasia in a net, destroys the Bower, and rescues those imprisoned there. Book III is centred on the virtue of Chastity as embodied in Britomart , a lady knight. Resting after the events of Book II, Guyon and Arthur meet Britomart, who wins a joust with Guyon. They separate as Arthur and Guyon leave to rescue Florimell, while Britomart rescues
11076-575: The British history, which "extends to the verge of self-satire". The Faerie Queene owes, in part, its central figure, Arthur, to a medieval writer, Geoffrey of Monmouth . In his Prophetiae Merlini ("Prophecies of Merlin"), Geoffrey's Merlin proclaims that the Saxons will rule over the Britons until the "Boar of Cornwall" (Arthur) again restores them to their rightful place as rulers. The prophecy
11232-520: The Homeric epics, the earliest works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral poetic form. These works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all of Western epic (including Virgil's Aeneid and Dante's Divine Comedy ) self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems. In his work Poetics , Aristotle defines an epic as one of
11388-671: The Mongols , the Kyrgyz Manas , and the Malian Sundiata . Epic poems of the modern era include Derek Walcott 's Omeros , Mircea Cărtărescu 's The Levant and Adam Mickiewicz 's Pan Tadeusz . Paterson by William Carlos Williams , published in five volumes from 1946 to 1958, was inspired in part by another modern epic, The Cantos by Ezra Pound . The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions. Oral tradition
11544-1152: The Persian Shahnameh , the Ancient Greek Odyssey and Iliad , Virgil 's Aeneid , the Old English Beowulf , Dante 's Divine Comedy , the Finnish Kalevala , the German Nibelungenlied , the French Song of Roland , the Spanish Cantar de mio Cid , the Portuguese Os Lusíadas , the Armenian Daredevils of Sassoun , the Old Russian The Tale of Igor's Campaign , John Milton 's Paradise Lost , The Secret History of
11700-441: The Queen's ladies-in-waiting , without the Queen's permission, for which he and his wife were sent to the Tower of London . After his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne , Dorset . In 1594, Raleigh heard of a "City of Gold" in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of " El Dorado ". After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh
11856-514: The Redcrosse Knight recover in the House of Holiness, with the House's ruler Caelia and her three daughters joining them. There, the Redcrosse Knight sees a vision of his future. He then returns Una to her parents' castle and rescues them from a dragon, and the two are betrothed after resisting Archimago one last time. Book II is centred on the virtue of Temperance as embodied in Sir Guyon , who
12012-544: The Redcrosse Knight. Britomart reveals to the Redcrosse Knight that she is pursuing Sir Artegall because she is destined to marry him. The Redcrosse Knight defends Artegall and they meet Merlin, who explains more carefully Britomart's destiny to found the English monarchy. Britomart leaves and fights Sir Marinell. Arthur looks for Florimell, joined later by Sir Satyrane and Britomart, and they witness and resist sexual temptation. Britomart separates from them and meets Sir Scudamore, looking for his captured lady Amoret. Britomart alone
12168-585: The Shepherd ". Both were written in the style of traditional pastoral poetry and follow the structure of six four-line stanzas employing a rhyme scheme of AABB , with Raleigh's an almost line-for-line refutation of Marlowe's sentiments. Years later, the 20th-century poet William Carlos Williams would join the poetic "argument" with his " Raleigh Was Right ". All finished, and some unfinished, poems written by Raleigh or plausibly attributed to him: In 1845, Shakespeare scholar Delia Bacon first proposed that
12324-635: The Spanish ambassador, demanded that Raleigh's death sentence be reinstated by King James, who had little choice but to do so. Raleigh was brought to London from Plymouth by Sir Lewis Stukley , where he passed up numerous opportunities to make an effective escape. Raleigh was beheaded in the Old Palace Yard at the Palace of Westminster on 29 October 1618. "Let us dispatch", he said to his executioner. "At this hour my ague comes upon me. I would not have my enemies think I quaked from fear." After he
12480-558: The Spanish, he was arrested and executed in 1618. Little is known about Sir Walter Raleigh's birth but he is believed to have been born on 22 January 1552 (or possibly 1554 ). He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton (in the parish of East Budleigh ), in East Devon . He was the youngest of the five sons of Walter Raleigh (1510–1581) (or Rawleigh) of Fardel Manor (in the parish of Cornwood ), in South Devon. Raleigh's family
12636-529: The Titan goddess of change, who takes her case to a court presided over by Nature, who, after spirited arguments on both sides, rules against the Titaness and in favor of Jove. A letter written by Spenser to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1590 contains a preface for The Faerie Queene , in which Spenser describes the allegorical presentation of virtues through Arthurian knights in the mythical "Faerieland". Presented as
12792-480: The Tower until 1616. His son, Carew, was conceived and born (in 1604 or 1605) while Raleigh was imprisoned in the Tower. In 1617, Raleigh was pardoned by the King and granted permission to conduct a second expedition to Venezuela in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, a detachment of Raleigh's men under the command of his long-time friend Lawrence Kemys attacked the Spanish outpost of Santo Tomé de Guayana on
12948-450: The Tower, Raleigh wrote his incomplete The History of the World . Using a wide array of sources in six languages, Raleigh was fully abreast of the latest continental scholarship. He wrote not about England, but of the ancient world with a heavy emphasis on geography. Despite his intention of providing current advice to the King of England, King James I complained that it was "too sawcie in censuring Princes". Raleigh remained imprisoned in
13104-423: The archaisms reside "chiefly in vocabulary, to a high degree in spelling, to some extent in the inflexions, and only slightly in the syntax". Examples of medieval archaisms (in morphology and diction) include: Allowing that Johnson's remark may only apply to Spencer's Calender , Bruce Robert McElderry Jr. states, after a detailed investigation of The Faerie Queene ' s diction , that Jonson's statement "is
13260-409: The archetype of divine wisdom and truth, guiding Redcross on his spiritual journey. This alignment with Beatrice also emphasizes Una's role as a symbol of divine grace leading to salvation. Redcross, representing the archetypal Christian Everyman, embarks on a quest that mirrors the soul's journey toward holiness. His ultimate victory over the dragon symbolizes the archetypal triumph of good over evil and
13416-525: The attainment of spiritual purity. Throughout The Faerie Queene , Spenser creates "a network of allusions to events, issues, and particular persons in England and Ireland" including Mary, Queen of Scots, the Spanish Armada, the English Reformation, and even the Queen herself. It is also known that James VI of Scotland read the poem, and was very insulted by Duessa – a very negative depiction of his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots. The Faerie Queene
13572-715: The book is to fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline". Spenser considered his work "a historical fiction" which men should read for "delight" rather than "the profit of the ensample". The Faerie Queene was written for Elizabeth to read and was dedicated to her. However, there are dedicatory sonnets in the first edition to many powerful Elizabethan figures. Spenser addresses "lodwick" in Amoretti 33, when talking about The Faerie Queene still being incomplete. This could be either his friend Lodowick Bryskett or his long deceased Italian model Ludovico Ariosto, whom he praises in "Letter to Raleigh". The poem
13728-546: The caste system of Indian society and the life of the lower levels of society, such as cobblers and shepherds, see C.N. Ramachandran, "Ambivalence and Angst: A Note on Indian folk epics," in Lauri Honko (2002. p. 295). Some Indian oral epics feature strong women who actively pursue personal freedom in their choice of a romantic partner (Stuart, Claus, Flueckiger and Wadley, eds, 1989, p. 5). Japanese traditional performed narratives were sung by blind singers. One of
13884-653: The classical traditions, such as the Chanson de Roland or the Poem of the Cid . Narrative opens " in the middle of things ", with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story. For example, the Iliad does not tell the entire story of the Trojan War, starting with the judgment of Paris , but instead opens abruptly on the rage of Achilles and its immediate causes. So too, Orlando Furioso
14040-464: The complete work, published 1897, considered a great example of the Arts and Crafts movement. In " The Mathematics of Magic ", the second of Fletcher Pratt and L. Sprague de Camp 's Harold Shea stories , the modern American adventurers Harold Shea and Reed Chalmers visit the world of The Faerie Queene, where they discover that the greater difficulties faced by Spenser's knights in the later portions of
14196-646: The construction of a new fort protecting the approaches to Saint Helier , Fort Isabella Bellissima, or Elizabeth Castle . Royal favour with Queen Elizabeth had been restored by this time, but his good fortune did not last; the Queen died on 24 March 1603. Raleigh was arrested on 19 July 1603 at what is now the Old Exeter Inn in Ashburton , charged with treason for his involvement in the Main Plot against Elizabeth's successor, James I , and imprisoned in
14352-492: The deceitful crocodile who may represent Mary, Queen of Scots, in a negative light. The House of Busirane episode in Book III in The Faerie Queene is partially based on an early modern English folktale called "Mr. Fox's Mottos". In the tale, a young woman named Lady Mary has been enticed by Mr. Fox, who resembles Bluebeard in his manner of killing his wives. She defeats Mr. Fox and tells about his deeds. Notably, Spenser quotes
14508-480: The delay. When the supply ship arrived in Roanoke, three years later than planned, the colonists had disappeared. The only clue to their fate was the word "CROATOAN" and the letters "CRO" carved into tree trunks. White had arranged with the settlers that if they should move, the name of their destination be carved into a tree or corner post. This suggested the possibility that they had moved to Croatoan Island , but
14664-545: The earlier The Shepheardes Calender , is in part deliberately archaic. Seventeenth-century philologist Sir William Davenant considered Spenser's use of "obsolete language" as the "most vulgar accusation that is laid to his charge". Samuel Johnson found Spencer's writings "a useful source for obsolete and archaic words", but also asserted that "in affecting the ancients Spenser writ no language". Herbert Wilfred Sugden argues in The Grammar of Spenser's Faerie Queene that
14820-558: The earlier attempts of the Roanoke Colony settle in Ireland, including Thomas Hariot and John White from the 1585 trip. (He was the governor of the 1587 trip, but returned with the delivery ship to acquire additional supplies.) Raleigh is credited with introducing potatoes to England and Ireland. though potatoes are more likely to have arrived through the Irish trade with Spain; they were known as An Spáinneach Geal (the bright Spaniard) before his time, A potato crop failure in
14976-587: The east coast) received the name "Virginia" for the Virgin Queen Elizabeth I , which is the origin of the name of the modern day state . In 1585, he sent a militarized group to North America to set up a fort to raid Spanish ships and become the first English colony in North America. The voyage was led by Sir Richard Grenville and the colony on Roanoke Island was governed by Ralph Lane . The colony ran out of food after clashes with
15132-453: The epic as received in tradition and add to the epic in their performances. Later writers like Virgil , Apollonius of Rhodes , Dante , Camões , and Milton adopted and adapted Homer's style and subject matter , but used devices available only to those who write. The oldest epic recognized is the Epic of Gilgamesh ( c. 2500–1300 BCE ), which was recorded in ancient Sumer during
15288-557: The final canto, Artegall aids Sir Burbon and slays the monstrous Grantorto. Book VI is centred on the virtue of Courtesy as embodied in Sir Calidore who is on a mission from the Faerie Queene to slay the Blatant Beast. After helping reconcile two lovers and taking on the courteous young Tristram as his page, he falls prey to the pleasant distractions of pastoral life and eventually wins the affections of Pastorella away from
15444-487: The final scene, Queen Elizabeth II, portrayed by Claire Foy , is being photographed. Prompting Her Majesty's poses, Cecil Beaton says: "All hail sage Lady, whom a grateful Isle hath blessed." Not moving, not breathing. Our very own goddess. Glorious Gloriana . Forgetting Elizabeth Windsor now. Now only Elizabeth Regina. Yes. Near the end of the 1995 adaptation of Sense and Sensibility , Colonel Brandon reads The Faerie Queene aloud to Marianne Dashwood . Quotes from
15600-430: The first three books of The Faerie Queene were published in 1590, Spenser found himself disappointed in the monarchy; among other things, "his annual pension from the Queen was smaller than he would have liked" and his humanist perception of Elizabeth's court "was shattered by what he saw there". Despite these frustrations, however, Spenser "kept his aristocratic prejudices and predispositions". Book VI stresses that there
15756-413: The form of children's literature have been made – the work was a popular choice in the 19th and early 20th century with over 20 different versions written, with the earliest being E. W. Bradburn's Legends from Spencer's Fairy Queen, for Children (1829), written in the form of a dialogue between mother and children. 19th-century adaptations often concentrated on the moral aspect of the tale. Adaptions of
15912-499: The forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry and drama (in the form of tragedy and comedy). Harmon & Holman (1999) define an epic: Harmon and Holman delineate ten main characteristics of an epic: The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat them in their journey, and returns home significantly transformed by their journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by
16068-491: The fundamental theological controversies of the Reformation". During The Faerie Queene's inception, Spenser worked as a civil servant, in "relative seclusion from the political and literary events of his day". As Spenser laboured in solitude, The Faerie Queene manifested within his mind, blending his experiences into the content of his craft. Within his poem, Spenser explores human consciousness and conflict, relating to
16224-539: The girl released, which the god grants. Book V is centred on the virtue of Justice as embodied in Sir Artegall, who defeats a demagogic giant and mediates several conflicts, including a joust held in honor of Florimell's nuptials. The knight then attempts to free several men from their indenture to the Amazon Radigund. She defeats Artegall in battle by guile, and, according to the terms of their duel, he,
16380-503: The godly knight, That the great sepulchre of Christ did free, I sing; much wrought his valor and foresight, And in that glorious war much suffered he; In vain 'gainst him did Hell oppose her might, In vain the Turks and Morians armèd be: His soldiers wild, to brawls and mutines prest, Reducèd he to peace, so Heaven him blest. From the 14th century English epic poems were written in heroic couplets , and rhyme royal , though in
16536-479: The gold and silver that might be mined there. This charter specified that Raleigh had seven years in which to establish a settlement, or else lose his right to do so. Raleigh and Elizabeth intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World and a base from which to send privateers on raids against the treasure fleets of Spain . The charter was originally given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert who pitched
16692-651: The historical elements of his text, Spenser is careful to label himself a historical poet as opposed to a historiographer. Spenser notes this differentiation in his letter to Raleigh, noting "a Historiographer discourseth of affairs orderly as they were done ... but a Poet thrusteth into the midst ... and maketh a pleasing Analysis of all". Spenser's characters embody Elizabethan values, highlighting political and aesthetic associations of Tudor Arthurian tradition in order to bring his work to life. While Spenser respected British history and "contemporary culture confirmed his attitude", his literary freedom demonstrates that he
16848-529: The idea to Queen Elizabeth I and died at sea while attempting to accomplish it. On April 27, 1584, the Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe expedition set sail from England on an exploratory mission to determine what resources were available in North America. They returned with two of the local inhabitants, Manteo and Wanchese, in August 1584, and reported of their findings. The region (the majority of
17004-412: The importance of line consistency and poetic meter. Ancient Greek epics were composed in dactylic hexameter . Very early Latin epicists, such Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius , used Saturnian meter. By the time of Ennius , however, Latin poets had adopted dactylic hexameter . Dactylic hexameter has been adapted by a few anglophone poets such as Longfellow in " Evangeline ", whose first line
17160-522: The legendary city. Once back in England, he published The Discovery of Guiana (1596), an account of his voyage which made exaggerated claims as to what had been discovered. The book can be seen as a contribution to the El Dorado legend. Venezuela has gold deposits, but no evidence indicates that Raleigh found any mines. He is sometimes said to have discovered Angel Falls , but these claims are considered far-fetched. In 1596, Raleigh took part in
17316-514: The local inhabitants and eventually left with Sir Francis Drake in June 1586 after resupply attempts failed. Sir Richard Grenvile arrived shortly after the Lane colony left with Drake. He left supplies and 15 men on Roanoke Island and returned to England. They were never seen again. On July 22, 1587, Raleigh attempted a second expedition, again establishing a settlement on Roanoke Island. This time,
17472-427: The man in the enchanted mirror. Arthegal pledges his love to her but must first leave and complete his quest. Scudamore, upon discovering Britomart's sex, realizes his mistake and asks after his lady, but by this time Britomart has lost Amoret, and she and Scudamore embark together on a search for her. The reader discovers that Amoret was abducted by a savage man and is imprisoned in his cave. One day Amoret darts out past
17628-437: The man is considered a "goodly knight of a gentle race" who "withdrew from public service to religious life when he grew too old to fight". Here, we note the hermit's noble blood seems to have influenced his gentle, selfless behaviour. Likewise, audiences acknowledge that young Tristram "speaks so well and acts so heroically" that Calidore "frequently contributes him with noble birth" even before learning his background; in fact, it
17784-452: The manor of Modbury , Devon, by his wife Catherine Carew, a daughter of Sir Edmund Carew (d. 1513) of Mohuns Ottery (in the parish of Luppitt ), Devon,. Katherine was the widow of Otes Gilbert (1513–1546/7) of Greenway (in the parish of Brixham ) and of Compton Castle (in the parish of Marldon ), both in Devon. (The coat of arms of Otes Gilbert and Katherine Champernowne survives in
17940-417: The moral allegory of Book I. Here, allegory is organized in the traditional arrangement of Renaissance theological treatises and confessionals. While reading Book I, audiences first encounter original sin, justification and the nature of sin before analysing the church and the sacraments. Despite this pattern, Book I is not a theological treatise; within the text, "moral and historical allegories intermingle" and
18096-506: The most famous, The Tale of the Heike , deals with historical wars and had a ritual function to placate the souls of the dead (Tokita 2015, p. 7). A variety of epic forms are found in Africa. Some have a linear, unified style while others have a more cyclical, episodic style (Barber 2007, p. 50). People in the rice cultivation zones of south China sang long narrative songs about
18252-521: The myths of Proserpine and Adonis, respectively. Florimell, much like Eurydice, represents the pursuit of the unattainable, highlighting themes of purity and chastity. Marinell's link to Adonis underscores the fragility and vulnerability inherent in beauty and desire. Similarly, the characters Una and Redcross can be seen as archetypal representations of divine grace and the Christian Church in England. Una, equated with Dante's Beatrice, embodies
18408-568: The origin of rice growing, rebel heroes, and transgressive love affairs (McLaren 2022). The borderland ethnic populations of China sang heroic epics, such as the Epic of King Gesar of the Mongols , and the creation-myth epics of the Yao people of south China. Walter Raleigh Sir Walter Raleigh ( / ˈ r ɔː l i , ˈ r æ l i , ˈ r ɑː l i / ; c. 1553 – 29 October 1618)
18564-522: The passing of information from Raleigh. In 1588, Raleigh had some involvement with defence against the Spanish Armada at Devon. The ship that he had built, offered to sell to Spain, and later sold to the crown, the Ark Royal , was Lord High Admiral Howard 's flagship. In 1592, Raleigh was given many rewards by the Queen, including Durham House in the Strand and the estate of Sherborne, Dorset. He
18720-494: The performer has the license to recontextualize the story to a particular audience, often to a younger generation. The English word epic comes from Latin epicus , which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective ἐπικός ( epikos ), from ἔπος ( epos ), "word, story, poem." In ancient Greek , 'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic hexameter ( epea ), which included not only Homer but also
18876-558: The plot does not center on their friendship; the two men appear only briefly in the story. The book is largely a continuation of events begun in Book III. First, Scudamore is convinced by the hag Ate (discord) that Britomart has run off with Amoret and becomes jealous. A three-day tournament is then held by Satyrane, where Britomart beats Arthegal (both in disguise). Scudamore and Arthegal unite against Britomart, but when her helmet comes off in battle Arthegal falls in love with her. He surrenders, removes his helmet, and Britomart recognizes him as
19032-462: The poem are explained by the evil enchanters of the piece having organized a guild to more effectively oppose them. Shea and Chalmers reveal this conspiracy to the knights and assist in its overthrow. In the process, Belphebe and Florimel of Faerie become respectively the wives of Shea and Chalmers and accompany them on further adventures in other worlds of myth and fantasy. A considerable part of Elizabeth Bear 's "Promethean Age" series takes place in
19188-625: The poem are used as epigraphs in Troubled Blood by Robert Galbraith, a pen name of J. K. Rowling . Epic poetry An epic poem , or simply an epic , is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces , gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard to oral tradition , epics consist of formal speech and are usually learnt word for word, and are contrasted with narratives which consist of everyday speech where
19344-513: The poem's "myriad figures". In fact, Sir Walter Raleigh's wife identified many of the poem's female characters as "allegorical representations of herself". Other symbols prevalent in The Faerie Queene are the numerous animal characters present in the poem. They take the role of "visual figures in the allegory and in illustrative similes and metaphors". Specific examples include the swine present in Lucifera's castle who embodied gluttony, and Duessa,
19500-562: The poem's characters by analyzing the symbols and attributes that spot Spenser's text. For example, readers would immediately know that "a woman who wears scarlet clothes and resides along the Tiber River represents the Roman Catholic Church". However, marginal notes jotted in early copies of The Faerie Queene suggest that Spenser's contemporaries were unable to come to a consensus about the precise historical referents of
19656-406: The poem. This royal patronage elevated the poem to a level of success that made it Spenser's defining work. Book I is centred on the virtue of Holiness as embodied in the Redcrosse Knight. Largely self-contained, Book I can be understood to be its own miniature epic. At first, the Redcrosse Knight and his lady Una travel together when he defeats the monster Errour. Then they travel separately after
19812-706: The poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members. Examples: In the Homeric and post-Homeric tradition, epic style is typically achieved through the use of the following stylistic features: Many verse forms have been used in epic poems through the ages, but each language's literature typically gravitates to one form, or at least to a very limited set. Ancient Sumerian epic poems did not use any kind of poetic meter and lines did not have consistent lengths; instead, Sumerian poems derived their rhythm solely through constant repetition and parallelism , with subtle variations between lines. Indo-European epic poetry, by contrast, usually places strong emphasis on
19968-666: The pouch was a Latin inscription: Comes meus fuit in illo miserrimo tempore ("It was my companion at that most miserable time"). Raleigh's head was embalmed and presented to his wife. His body was to be buried in the local church in Beddington , Surrey , the home of Lady Raleigh, but was finally laid to rest in St. Margaret's, Westminster , where his tomb is located. "The Lords", she wrote, "have given me his dead body, though they have denied me his life. God hold me in my wits." It has been said that Lady Raleigh kept her husband's head in
20124-503: The queen. The following year, the unauthorised marriage was discovered and the Queen ordered Raleigh to be imprisoned and Bess dismissed from court. Both were imprisoned in the Tower of London in June 1592. He was released from prison in August 1592 to manage a recently returned expedition and attack on the Spanish coast. The fleet was recalled by the Queen, but not before it captured an incredibly rich prize —a merchant ship (carrack) named Madre de Deus (Mother of God) off Flores . Raleigh
20280-474: The reader encounters elements of romance. However, Spenser's method is not "a rigorous and unyielding allegory," but "a compromise among conflicting elements". In Book I of The Faerie Queene the discussion of the path to salvation begins with original sin and justification, skipping past initial matters of God, the Creeds, and Adam's fall from grace. This literary decision is pivotal because these doctrines "center
20436-618: The savage and is rescued from him by the squire Timias and Belphoebe. Arthur then appears, offering his service as a knight to the lost woman. She accepts, and after a couple of trials on the way, Arthur and Amoret finally happen across Scudamore and Britomart. The two lovers are reunited. Wrapping up a different plotline from Book III, the recently recovered Marinell discovers Florimell suffering in Proteus' dungeon. He returns home and becomes sick with love and pity. Eventually he confesses his feelings to his mother, and she pleads with Neptune to have
20592-564: The significance of Elizabeth's reign by converting myth into event rather than the other way around. This approach blurs the lines between archetypal and historical elements within the poem. For instance, the British Chronicle, which Arthur reads in the House of Alma, serves as a poetical equivalent for factual history despite its partially imaginary nature. This kind of poetical history is distinct from myth, as it consists of unique events recorded in chronological order. This distinction
20748-489: The society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native cultures. In the Indian mahākāvya epic genre, more emphasis was laid on description than on narration. Indeed, the traditional characteristics of a mahākāvya are listed as: Classical epic poetry recounts a journey, either physical (as typified by Odysseus in the Odyssey ) or mental (as typified by Achilles in
20904-454: The son of Walter Raleigh and Catherine Champernowne. He was the younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville . Little is known of his early life, though in his late teens he spent some time in France taking part in the religious civil wars . In his 20s he took part in the suppression of rebellion in the colonisation of Ireland ; he also participated in
21060-407: The story as Britomart makes her way through the House, with warning mottos above each doorway "Be bold, be bold, but not too bold". While writing his poem, Spenser strove to avoid "gealous opinions and misconstructions" because he thought it would place his story in a "better light" for his readers. Spenser stated in his letter to Raleigh, published with the first three books, that "the general end of
21216-642: The throne following the death of her half-sister Mary, Elizabeth changed the official religion of the nation to Protestantism. The plot of book one is similar to Foxe's Book of Martyrs , which was about the persecution of the Protestants and how Catholic rule was unjust. Spenser includes the controversy of Elizabethan church reform within the epic. Gloriana has godly English knights destroy Catholic continental power in Books I and V. Spenser also endows many of his villains with "the worst of what Protestants considered
21372-568: The traditional European definition of the heroic epic are sometimes known as folk epics. Indian folk epics have been investigated by Lauri Honko (1998), Brenda Beck (1982) and John Smith, amongst others. Folk epics are an important part of community identities. The folk genre known as al-sira relates the saga of the Hilālī tribe and their migrations across the Middle East and north Africa, see Bridget Connelly (1986). In India, folk epics reflect
21528-408: The ultimately agreeable but somewhat cowardly Coridon. This book also features the knight Calepine and his quest for his lady Serena who is cared for by a strangely well-mannered Savage who, like the humble Pastorella, turns out to be a long-lost scion of nobility; Arthur later takes on Serena and leaves her to the care of his page Timias and a Hermit who has been a knight. Calidore rescues his love from
21684-435: The use of classical vocabulary and forms. Spenser is "a conscious literary artist," and his language is "the only fitting vehicle for his tone of thought and feelings." Spenser's language may be contrasted with that of the "free and unregulated" grammar of Shakespeare. Overall, Spenser's style is standardized, lyrically sophisticated, and occasionally archaic, all of which give the poem its character. Numerous adaptations in
21840-505: The virtue of Magnificence , which ("according to Aristotle and the rest") is "the perfection of all the rest, and containeth in it them all"; and that the Faerie Queene herself represents Glory (hence her name, Gloriana). The unfinished seventh book (the Cantos of Mutability) appears to have represented the virtue of "constancy." The Faerie Queene was written during the Reformation, a time of religious and political controversy. After taking
21996-478: The wisdom poetry of Hesiod , the utterances of the Delphic oracle , and the strange theological verses attributed to Orpheus . Later tradition, however, has restricted the term 'epic' to heroic epic , as described in this article. Originating before the invention of writing, primary epics, such as those of Homer , were composed by bards who used complex rhetorical and metrical schemes by which they could memorize
22152-485: The wizard Archimago , using a false dream, tricks the Redcrosse Knight into thinking that Una is unchaste. The Redcrosse Knight meets Duessa, who feigns distress in order to entrap him. Duessa leads the Redcrosse Knight to captivity by the giant Orgoglio . Meanwhile, Una seeks tirelessly to be reunited with the Redcrosse Knight. She overcomes many perils, meets Arthur, and finally rescues the Redcrosse Knight from his capture, from Duessa, and from Despair. Una and Arthur help
22308-586: The work were more popular in the United Kingdom than in the United States . The Edwardian era was particularly rich in adaptation for children, and the works richly illustrated, with contributing artists including A. G. Walker , Gertrude Demain Hammond , T. H. Robinson , Frank C. Papé , Brinsley Le Fanu , and H. J. Ford . Additionally, Walter Crane illustrated a six-volume collection of
22464-415: Was "working in the realm of mythopoeic imagination rather than that of historical fact". In fact, Spenser's Arthurian material serves as a subject of debate, intermediate between "legendary history and historical myth" offering him a range of "evocative tradition and freedom that historian's responsibilities preclude". Concurrently, Spenser adopts the role of a sceptic, reflected in the way in which he handles
22620-528: Was adopted by the Welsh and eventually used by the Tudors. Through their ancestor, Owen Tudor , the Tudors had Welsh blood, through which they claimed to be descendants of Arthur and rightful rulers of Britain. The tradition begun by Geoffrey of Monmouth set the perfect atmosphere for Spenser's choice of Arthur as the central figure and natural bridegroom of Gloriana. Spenser's language in The Faerie Queene , as in
22776-438: Was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I , who was not favourably disposed towards him. In 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost, in violation of both the terms of his pardon and the 1604 peace treaty with Spain . Raleigh returned to England and, to appease
22932-457: Was allowed to see the axe that would be used to behead him, he mused: "This is a sharp Medicine, but it is a Physician for all diseases and miseries." According to biographers, Raleigh's last words, spoken to the hesitating executioner, were: "What dost thou fear? Strike, man, strike!" Having been one of the people to popularise tobacco smoking in England, he left a small tobacco pouch , found in his cell shortly after his execution. Engraved upon
23088-619: Was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era , he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America , suppressed rebellion in Ireland , helped defend England against the Spanish Armada and held political positions under Elizabeth I . Raleigh was born to a landed gentry family of Protestant faith in Devon ,
23244-631: Was appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard . However, he had not been given any of the great offices of state . In 1591, Raleigh secretly married Elizabeth "Bess" Throckmorton (or Throgmorton). She was one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting , 11 years his junior, and was pregnant at the time. She gave birth to a son, believed to be named Damerei, who was given to a wet nurse at Durham House, and died of plague in October 1592. Bess resumed her duties to
23400-433: Was elected a burgess of Mitchell , Cornwall, in the parliament of 1593. He retired to his estate at Sherborne, where he built a new house, completed in 1594, known then as Sherborne Lodge. Since extended, it is now known as Sherborne New Castle . He made friends with the local gentry , such as Sir Ralph Horsey of Clifton Maybank and Charles Thynne of Longleat . During this period at a dinner party at Horsey's, Raleigh had
23556-450: Was featured in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons . A galliard was composed in honour of Raleigh by either Francis Cutting or Richard Allison . The state capital of North Carolina , its second-largest city, was named Raleigh in 1792, after Sir Walter, sponsor of the Roanoke Colony . In the city, a bronze statue, which has been moved around different locations within the city,
23712-399: Was sent to organise and divide the spoils of the ship. He was sent back to the Tower, but by early 1593 had been released and become a member of Parliament. It was several years before Raleigh returned to favour, and he travelled extensively in this time. Raleigh and his wife remained devoted to each other. They had two more sons, Walter (known as Wat) in 1593 and Carew in 1605. Raleigh
23868-455: Was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance. Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that
24024-526: Was then banned in Scotland. This led to a significant decrease in Elizabeth's support for the poem. Within the text, both the Faerie Queene and Belphoebe serve as two of the many personifications of Queen Elizabeth, some of which are "far from complimentary". Though it praises her in some ways, The Faerie Queene questions Elizabeth's ability to rule so effectively because of her gender, and also inscribes
24180-412: Was to "fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline". Spenser presented the first three books of The Faerie Queene to Elizabeth I in 1589, probably sponsored by Walter Raleigh . The poem was a clear effort to gain court favour, and as a reward Elizabeth granted Spenser a pension for life amounting to £50 a year, though there is no further evidence that Elizabeth ever read any of
24336-458: Was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early 20th-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated
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