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131-480: Not to be confused with Reggae . Regge may refer to Tullio Regge (1931-2014), Italian physicist, developer of Regge calculus and Regge theory Regge calculus , formalism for producing simplicial approximations of spacetimes Regge theory , study of the analytic properties of scattering 3778 Regge , main-belt asteroid Regge (river) , river in Overijssel,

262-587: A "beacon of African and Third-World militancy," and would come to inspire fights against colonialism around the world. The festival attracted thousands from African states and the African Diaspora, including the Black Panthers. It represented the application of the tenets of the Algerian revolution to the rest of Africa and symbolized the reshaping of the definition of pan-African identity under

393-513: A Little Love", "One Love", or "Three Little Birds", all written by Bob Marley, can be sung and enjoyed for their optimism and cheerful lyrics. Some dancehall and ragga artists have been criticised for homophobia , including threats of violence. Buju Banton 's song "Boom Bye-Bye" states that gays "haffi dead" (have to die). Other notable dancehall artists who have been accused of homophobia include Elephant Man , Bounty Killer and Beenie Man . The controversy surrounding anti-gay lyrics has led to

524-566: A big following on the Hawaiian islands and the West coast of the US. On the east coast upstate NY has seen a rise in original roots reggae bands such as Giant Panda Guerilla Dub Squad and John Brown's Body who were inspired by Jamaican reggae bands that performed in the area in the 1980s and 1990s. Matisyahu gained prominence by blending traditional Jewish themes with reggae. Compounding his use of

655-670: A certain sort of people. It was always a down-town thing, but more than just hearing the music. The equipment was so powerful and the vibe so strong that we feel it." The reggae organ-shuffle is unique to reggae. In the original version of reggae, the drummer played a reggae groove that was used in the four bar introduction, allowing the piano to serve as a percussion instrument. Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism in its lyrics, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love and socializing. Many early reggae bands covered Motown or Atlantic soul and funk songs. Some reggae lyrics attempt to raise

786-656: A common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade , the movement extends beyond continental Africans with a substantial support base among the African diaspora in the Americas and Europe . Pan-Africanism can be said to have its origins in the struggles of the African people against enslavement and colonization and this struggle may be traced back to the first resistance on slave ships—rebellions and suicides—through

917-516: A concert tribute to the late Dennis Brown, who Bob Marley cited as his favorite singer. On the business side, RIAJam held events focused on reggae's employment opportunities and potential international revenue. . Reggae Month 2019 in Jamaica was welcomed with multiple events ranging from corporate reggae functions to major celebrations in honour of Bob Marley's Birthday on 6 February to a tribute concert in honour of Dennis Brown on 24 February along with

1048-454: A couple of vocalists. Reggae is played in 4 time because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other time signatures such as 4 . One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms; staccato chords played by a guitar or piano (or both) on the offbeats of the measure, often referred to as the skank . This rhythmic pattern accents the second and fourth beats in each bar and combines with

1179-713: A fantastic experience opening for more established acts or in early sets at larger reggae festivals. The live experience is a major part of the American Reggae world and the presence of so many emerging bands to combine with established international acts has allowed the movement to grow in recent years. The American reggae scene is heavily centred in Southern California , with large scenes also in New York City , Washington, D.C. , Chicago , Miami , and Honolulu . For decades, Hawaiian reggae has had

1310-452: A fiercer psychological energy and political assertion ... that would unsettle social and political (power) structures...in the Americas". Advocates of pan-Africanism—i.e. "pan-Africans" or "pan-Africanists"—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political and economic involvement on the continent. Critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African ancestry. They also point to

1441-743: A gender-conscious strand of Pan-Africanism that was focused on the realities faced by African-American women, separate from those of African-American men. Both Moore and Abubakari were prominent members of the Universal Association of Ethiopian Women in Louisiana, which engaged in anti-colonial activities, welfare rights, and Pan-Africanist activism. In 1972, Moore was a featured speaker at the All-Africa Women's Conference in Dar es Salaam where she encouraged solidarity among women across

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1572-462: A genre slower than ska featuring more romantic lyrics and less prominent horns. Theories abound as to why Jamaican musicians slowed the ska tempo to create rocksteady; one is that the singer Hopeton Lewis was unable to sing his hit song "Take It Easy" at a ska tempo. The name "rocksteady" was codified after the release of a single by Alton Ellis . Many rocksteady rhythms later were used as the basis of reggae recordings, whose slower tempos allowed for

1703-424: A girl is walking and the guys look at her and say "Man, she's streggae" it means she don't dress well, she look raggedy. The girls would say that about the men too. This one morning me and my two friends were playing and I said, "OK man, let's do the reggay." It was just something that came out of my mouth. So we just start singing "Do the reggay, do the reggay" and created a beat. People tell me later that we had given

1834-438: A government raid conducted in response to her son Fela Kuti's activism, led to her being thrown from a second storey window. She died from her injuries in 1978. Since the onset of the digital revolution, the internet and other similar media have facilitated the growth of many core pan-African principles by strengthening and increasing connections between people across the diaspora. Although internet penetration rates remain below

1965-637: A jazzy pop style. Other 7" singles to appear in Jamaica around this time were covers of popular American R&B hits, made by Kingston sound system operators to be played at public dances. Meanwhile, Jamaican expatriates started issuing 45s on small independent labels in the United Kingdom, many mastered directly from Jamaican 45s. Ska arose in Jamaican studios in the late 1950s, developing from this mix of American R&B, mento and calypso music . Notable for its jazz-influenced horn riffs, ska

2096-684: A number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica and the Caribbean community in Europe, whose music and vocal styles are almost identical to contemporary Jamaican music. The best examples might be Alborosie (Italy) and Gentleman (Germany). Both Gentleman and Alborosie have had a significant chart impact in Jamaica, unlike many European artists. They have both recorded and released music in Jamaica for Jamaican labels and producers and are popular artists, likely to appear on many riddims . Alborosie has lived in Jamaica since

2227-697: A partnership with Lee Gopthal 's Trojan Records in 1968, which released reggae in the UK until bought by Saga records in 1974. Reggae's influence bubbled to the top of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 charts in late 1972. First Three Dog Night hit No. 1 in September with a cover of the Maytones ' version of " Black and White ". Then Johnny Nash was at No. 1 for four weeks in November with " I Can See Clearly Now ". Paul Simon 's single " Mother And Child Reunion " –

2358-696: A pattern in which the surdo bass drums (four of them at minimum) divided themselves into four or five interlocking parts. In the state of Maranhão , in northeastern Brazil , reggae is a very popular genre. São Luís , the state capital, is known as the Brazilian Jamaica. The city has more than 200 radiolas , the name given to sound teams formed by DJs and sound systems with dozens of powerful amplifiers stacked. Reggae in Maranhão has its own characteristics, such as melody and dance style, as well as having its own radio and television programs. In 2018,

2489-439: A political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the "quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent". This period represented a "golden age of high pan-African ambitions"; the continent had experienced revolution and decolonization from Western powers and the narrative of rebirth and solidarity had gained momentum within the pan-African movement. Nkrumah's pan-African principles intended for

2620-687: A presence in Veracruz , Mexico . The most notable Jarocho reggae group being Los Aguas Aguas from Xalapa . Some of the most popular reggae groups across Latin America come from the Southern Cone, such as the Chilean band Gondwana , and the Argentinian band Los Cafres. The Puerto Rican band Cultura Profética is also widely recognized in the region. Hispanic reggae includes three elements:

2751-566: A religious pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism . In London , the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery . The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and visited parliament . They wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp , William Pitt and other members of

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2882-789: A single " race " or otherwise sharing cultural unity. Pan-Africanism posits a sense of a shared historical fate for Africans in the Americas , the West Indies , and on the continent, itself centered on the Atlantic trade in slaves, African slavery , and European imperialism . Pan-African thought influenced the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (since succeeded by the African Union ) in 1963. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and

3013-566: A softer and more commercial sound.Other reggae artists who enjoyed international appeal in the early 1980s include Third World , Black Uhuru and Sugar Minott . The Grammy Awards introduced the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album category in 1985. Women also play a role in the reggae music industry personnel such as Olivia Grange, president of Specs-Shang Musik; Trish Farrell, president of Island/Jamaica; Lisa Cortes, president of Loose Cannon; Jamaican-American Sharon Gordon, who has worked in

3144-619: A sold-out concert by 2019 Reggae Grammy nominated artiste Protoje for his A Matter of Time Live held at Hope Gardens in Kingston on 23 February. In November 2018 "reggae music of Jamaica" was added to the UNESCO 's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity the decision recognised reggae's "contribution to international discourse on issues of injustice, resistance, love and humanity underscores

3275-616: A specific religious topic, or simply giving praise to God ( Jah ). Other common socio-political topics in reggae songs include black nationalism , anti-racism , anti- colonialism , anti-capitalism and criticism of political systems and "Babylon" . In recent years, Jamaican (and non-Jamaican) reggae musicians have used more positive themes in reggae music. The music is widely considered a treasured cultural export for Jamaica, so musicians who still desire progress for their island nation have begun focusing on themes of hopefulness, faith, and love. For elementary children, reggae songs such as "Give

3406-482: A track which he recorded in Kingston, Jamaica with Jimmy Cliff 's backing group – was ranked by Billboard as the No. 57 song of 1972. In 1973, the film The Harder They Come starring Jimmy Cliff was released and introduced Jamaican music to cinema audiences outside Jamaica. Though the film achieved cult status, its limited appeal meant that it had a smaller impact than Eric Clapton 's 1974 cover of Bob Marley's " I Shot

3537-613: A union between the Independent African states upon a recognition of their commonality (i.e. suppression under imperialism). Pan-Africanism under Nkrumah evolved past the assumptions of a racially exclusive movement associated with black Africa, and adopted a political discourse of regional unity In April 1958, Nkrumah hosted the first All-African Peoples' Conference (AAPC) in Accra , Ghana. This Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders. With

3668-747: A vague program for a "New Africa," modeled on the New Negro Movement articulated by Alain Locke . Outside his writings, Azikiwe actively participated in pan-African politics, promulgating intellectually, in person around the Black Atlantic from West Africa and the Caribbean to the United States and western Europe . The Fifth Pan-African Congress was a significant gathering, which brought together anti-colonial activists from

3799-663: A week-long festival which used to take place in Osoppo , Italy , until 2009, is now held in Benicassim , Spain , and gathers up to 150,000 visitors every year. In Iceland reggae band Hjálmar is well established having released six CDs in Iceland. They were the first reggae band in Iceland, but few Icelandic artists had written songs in the reggae style before their arrival on the Icelandic music scene. The Icelandic reggae scene

3930-671: A wide framework for legislation across Africa. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti (FRK) was born in 1900 and studied in England in 1922. She returned to her home town of Abeokuta , in the Ogun state region of Nigeria , where she began her extensive work in Nigerian and international activism. Her achievements were unprecedented: being the first woman with a top-ranking position in a leading political party (the National Council of Nigeria and

4061-616: A word that can mean either "rags, ragged clothing" or "a quarrel, a row". Reggae as a musical term first appeared in print with the 1968 rocksteady hit " Do the Reggay " by the Maytals which named the genre. Reggae historian Steve Barrow credits Clancy Eccles with altering the Jamaican patois word streggae (loose woman) into reggae . However, Toots Hibbert said: There's a word we used to use in Jamaica called "streggae". If

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4192-463: Is 1968's " Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da " by the Beatles . The Wailers , a band started by Bob Marley , Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer in 1963, is perhaps the most recognized band that made the transition through all three stages of early Jamaican popular music: ska, rocksteady and reggae. Over a dozen Wailers songs are based on or use a line from Jamaican mento songs. Other significant ska artists who made

4323-603: Is a tri-color flag consisting of three equal horizontal bands of (from top-down) red , black and green . The UNIA formally adopted it on August 13, 1920, during its month-long convention at Madison Square Garden in New York . Variations of the pan-African colours have been applied to create flags in various countries and territories in Africa and the Americas to represent Black Nationalist ideologies. Among these are

4454-471: Is characterized by a quarter note walking bass line, guitar and piano offbeats , and a drum pattern with cross-stick snare and bass drum on the backbeat and open hi-hat on the offbeats. When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, ska became the music of choice for young Jamaicans seeking music that was their own. Ska also became popular among mods in Britain. In the mid-1960s, ska gave rise to rocksteady ,

4585-463: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Reggae Stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of rhythm and blues, jazz, mento (a celebratory, rural folk form that served its largely rural audience as dance music and an alternative to the hymns and adapted chanteys of local church singing), calypso , and also draws influence from traditional African folk rhythms. One of

4716-569: Is expanding and growing at a fast rate. RVK Soundsystem is the first Icelandic sound system , counting five DJs. They hold reggae nights in Reykjavík every month at clubs Hemmi og Valdi and more recently in Faktorý as the crowd has grown so much. Pan-Africanism Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples and diasporas of African ancestry . Based on

4847-403: Is seen as an endeavour to return to what is deemed by its proponents as singular, traditional African concepts about culture, society, and values. Examples of this include Léopold Sédar Senghor 's Négritude movement, and Mobutu Sese Seko 's view of Authenticité . An important theme running through much pan-Africanist literature concerns the historical links between different countries on

4978-430: Is this slower tempo, the guitar/piano offbeats, the emphasis on the third beat, and the use of syncopated , melodic bass lines that differentiate reggae from other music, although other musical styles have incorporated some of these innovations. Reggae drummers often involved these three tips for other reggae performers: (1) go for open, ringing tones when playing ska and rocksteady, (2) use any available material to stuff

5109-471: The Coachella festival , after Chronixx in 2016. The UK was a primary destination for Caribbean people looking to emigrate as early as the 1950s. Because of this, Caribbean music in the United Kingdom , including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Most notable of these is lovers rock , but this fusion of Jamaican music into English culture

5240-641: The Fifth Pan-African Congress . Amy Jacques Garvey used her platform to spread Pan-Africanism globally and used her position as editor for the Negro World to write a column called "Our Women and what they think", dedicated to black women. Claudia Jones was another pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people in Britain, Jones set up the West Indian Gazette , which sought to cover topics such as

5371-972: The Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Midrand , Johannesburg . Pan-Africanism stresses the need for "collective self-reliance". Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture , Jean-Jacques Dessalines , Henri Christophe , François Duvalier , Aimé Césaire , Haile Selassie , Jomo Kenyatta , Edward Wilmot Blyden , Nnamdi Azikiwe , Patrice Lumumba , Julius Nyerere , Robert Sobukwe , Ahmed Sékou Touré , Kwame Nkrumah , King Sobhuza II , Robert Mugabe , Thomas Sankara , Kwame Ture , Dr. John Pombe Magufuli , Muammar Gaddafi , Walter Rodney , Yoweri Kaguta Museveni , grassroots organizers such as Joseph Robert Love , Marcus Garvey , and Malcolm X , academics such as W. E. B. Du Bois , Anténor Firmin and others in

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5502-623: The Reggae Museum of Maranhão was inaugurated, the second reggae museum in the world (after Jamaica ), with the objective of preserving the state's reggae cultural history. In the United States, bands like Rebelution , Slightly Stoopid , Dirty Heads , and Iration are the leading bands in a growing genre. Other bands like The Movement, The Elovaters, Artikal Sound System, Soja, Fortunate Youth, Hirie, Common Kings and Tribal Seeds have enthusiastic followings and typically provide

5633-661: The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity . Reggae en Español spread from mainland South American Caribbean from Venezuela and Guyana to the rest of South America. It does not have any specific characteristics other than being sung in Spanish, usually by artists of Latin American origin. Samba reggae originated in Brazil as a blend of samba with Jamaican reggae. Reggae also has

5764-510: The civil rights movement and the Black Soul movement, and especially the Jamaican independence movement since the 1960s and its messages in reggae and Rastafari. Thus, the sudden popularity of reggae music and musicians in Bahia, Brazil, was not the result of the effects of the transnational music industry, but of the need to establish cultural and political links with black communities across

5895-454: The diaspora . Pan-Africanists believe that solidarity will enable the continent to fulfil its potential to independently provide for all its people. Crucially, an all-African alliance would empower African people globally. The realization of the pan-African objective would lead to "power consolidation in Africa", which "would compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing

6026-464: The hazzan style, Matisyahu's lyrics are mostly English with more than occasional use of Hebrew and Yiddish . There is a large Caribbean presence in Toronto and Montreal , Canada , with English and French influences on the reggae genre. Canadian band Magic! 's 2013 single " Rude " was an international hit. In 2017, Toots and the Maytals became the second reggae-based group to ever perform at

6157-418: The ska and rocksteady of 1960s Jamaica, strongly influenced by traditional Caribbean mento and calypso music , as well as American jazz and rhythm and blues . Ska was originally a generic title for Jamaican music recorded between 1961 and 1967 and emerged from Jamaican R&B, which was based largely on American R&B and doo-wop. Rastafari entered some countries primarily through reggae music; thus,

6288-745: The white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales , the future George IV . Modern pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century. The African Association , later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester Williams , who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. The Pan-African Congress series of meetings followed 1900's First Pan-African Conference that

6419-513: The "double skank" guitar strokes on the offbeat. Reggae developed from ska and rocksteady in the late 1960s. Larry And Alvin's "Nanny Goat" and the Beltones' "No More Heartaches" were among the songs in the genre. The beat was distinctive from rocksteady in that it dropped any of the pretensions to the smooth, soulful sound that characterized slick American R&B, and instead was closer in kinship to US southern funk, being heavily dependent on

6550-569: The "emancipation of the Continent; thus, a fight against colonial pressures on South Africa was declared and the full support of the FLN struggle in Algeria, against French colonial rule". Tom Mboya , a Kenyan trade unionist and anti-colonial activist, also attended this conference. This visit inspired him to increase the pace of political activity aimed at agitating for Kenya's independence. In

6681-642: The "founding mother of Pan-Africanism". Jeanne Martin Cissé was instrumental in the independence of Guinea and in bringing African women's rights to the forefront of the colonial debate, for example influencing Guinea's protection of women's rights enshrined in its constitution. Central to Cissé's work was the idea that the UN could provide an international framework that would protect African girls and women from issues such as forced marriage . In response to rapidly increasing birth rates, while in government, she stressed

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6812-472: The 'bang" has a very dampened, short and scratchy chop sound, almost like a percussion instrument. Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off beats, but also plays the following eighth-note beats on the up-stroke. An example is the intro to " Stir It Up " by the Wailers. Artist and producer Derrick Harriott says, "What happened was the musical thing was real widespread, but only among

6943-470: The 1930s, aiming at promoting pan-Africanism . Soon after the Rastafarian movement appeared, the international popularity of reggae music became associated with and increased the visibility of Rastafari and spread its gospel throughout the world. Reggae music is an important means of transporting vital messages of Rastafari. The musician becomes the messenger, and as Rastafari see it, "the soldier and

7074-581: The African Union continues to view this policy as a major step toward its goal of continent wide solidarity and integration. Although in an era of globalization and increased connectivity, challenges continue to persist that undermine the African Union's goal of continent wide solidarity. Many of these challenges have persisted for decades with some including inconsistent treaty implementation, ineffective governance and continued involvement from foreign economic superpowers amongst others. Influence from

7205-428: The African continent and the Diaspora . Women such as Amy Ashwood Garvey and Amy Jacques Garvey helped to organise the Congress meeting and played a crucial role in the conferences. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister and President of the State. Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied

7336-496: The African liberation movements opposing apartheid and fighting Portuguese colonialism. In search of a united voice, in 1963 at an African Summit conference in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 32 African states met and established the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The creation of the OAU Charter took place at this Summit and defines a coordinated "effort to raise the standard of living of member States and defend their sovereignty" by supporting freedom fighters and decolonisation. Thus,

7467-488: The All-African Peoples' Organisation (AAPO) had increased with the inclusion of the "Algerian Provisional Government (as they had not yet won independence), Cameroun, Guinea, Nigeria , Somalia and the United Arab Republic ". The Conference highlighted diverging ideologies within the movement, as Nkrumah's call for a political and economic union between the Independent African States gained little agreement. The disagreements following 1960 gave rise to two rival factions within

7598-425: The Americas that had faced and were facing similar sociopolitical situations. Musically, it was the bloco afro Olodum and its lead percussionist, Neguinho do Samba , that began to combine the basic samba beat of the blocos with merengue, salsa, and reggae rhythms and debuted their experimentations in the carnival of 1986. The new toques (drumming patterns) were labeled "samba-reggae" and consisted basically of

7729-402: The Cameroons), the first woman to drive a car in Nigeria, and the first African woman to travel to the Eastern Bloc, visiting China and Russia during the Cold War . Her son, Fela Kuti , became a world-renowned musician and founder of the genre called Afrobeat , a political musical movement that was intensely Pan-African. Scholars who study the life of FRK and her son conclusively agree that she

7860-570: The Congress to discuss the logistics of such a movement. The pre-existing Pan African Women's Organisation primarily consisted of the wives of heads of states, ministers, and other high-ranking women. In the United States , the term is closely associated with Afrocentrism , an ideology of African-American identity politics that emerged during the civil rights movement of the 1960s to 1970s. Although Pan-Africanism called for unity between all those of African ancestry, it missed out almost half of these people by overlooking women's contribution. In

7991-434: The Maytals, Carlton Barrett from Bob Marley and the Wailers , Lloyd Brevett from the Skatalites , Paul Douglas from Toots and the Maytals, Lloyd Knibb from the Skatalites, Winston Grennan , Sly Dunbar , and Anthony "Benbow" Creary from the Upsetters . The bass guitar often plays the dominant role in reggae. The bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and equalized so the upper frequencies are removed and

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8122-532: The Netherlands Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Regge . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regge&oldid=887389582 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Surnames of Italian origin Hidden categories: Short description

8253-416: The Police 's 1978 debut album, Outlandos d'Amour , laid down the template for the basic structure of a lot of rock/reggae songwriting: a reggae-infused verse containing upstrokes on guitar or keyboards and a more aggressive, on-the-beat punk/rock attack during the chorus. The end of the 1970s featured a ska revival in the UK. By the end of the 1970s, a revival movement had begun in England, with such bands as

8384-471: The Reggae Compassionate Act, in a deal brokered with top dancehall promoters and Stop Murder Music activists. They renounced homophobia and agreed to "not make statements or perform songs that incite hatred or violence against anyone from any community". Five artists targeted by the anti-homophobia campaign did not sign up to the act, including Elephant Man, TOK , Bounty Killa and Vybz Kartel . Buju Banton and Beenie Man both gained positive press coverage around

8515-419: The Sanniquellie Declaration outlining the principles for the achievement of the unity of Independent African States whilst maintaining a national identity and autonomous constitutional structure. The Declaration called for a revised understanding of Pan-Africanism and the uniting of the independent states. In 1960, the second All-African Peoples' Conference was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The membership of

8646-478: The Sheriff " which made it onto the playlists of mainstream rock and pop radio stations worldwide. Clapton's "I Shot the Sheriff" used modern rock production and recording techniques and faithfully retained most of the original reggae elements; it was a breakthrough pastiche devoid of any parody and played an important part in bringing the music of Bob Marley to a wider rock audience. By the mid-1970s, authentic reggae dub plates and specials were getting some exposure in

8777-448: The South African political situation both through literature and speeches resonated with the British liberal intelligentsia. Kinloch frequently made efforts to engage in dialogue with activist groups in England. She spoke at Newcastle, York and Manchester for the Aborigines Protection Society which led to a resolution being passed that demanded the British government to end racial oppression in South Africa. Kinloch's detailed accounts of

8908-524: The Specials, Madness, the (English) Beat, and the Selecter. The Specials' leader and keyboardist, Jerry Dammers , founded the 2 Tone record label, which released albums from the aforementioned racially integrated groups and was instrumental in creating a new social and cultural awareness. The 2 Tone movement referenced reggae's godfathers, popular styles (including the genre's faster and more dance-oriented precursors, ska and rocksteady), and previous modes of dress (such as black suits and porkpie hats) but updated

9039-412: The States, of unity and anti-Imperialism. Frantz Fanon , journalist , freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian FLN party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria . Considering the armed struggle of the FLN against French colonial rule, the Conference attendees agreed to support the struggle of those States under colonial oppression. This encouraged the commitment of direct involvement in

9170-416: The UK on John Peel 's radio show, who promoted the genre for the rest of his career. Around the same time, British filmmaker Jeremy Marre documented the Jamaican music scene in Roots Rock Reggae , capturing the heyday of Roots reggae . While the quality of Reggae records produced in Jamaica took a turn for the worse following the oil crisis of the 1970s, reggae produced elsewhere began to flourish. In

9301-402: The United States, the United Kingdom and France continues to remain while new countries such as China are increasingly becoming involved politically and economically on the continent with many referring to this era as a "new scramble for Africa". As originally conceived by Henry Sylvester Williams (although some historians credit the idea to Edward Wilmot Blyden ), pan-Africanism referred to

9432-738: The Wom'n's International League for Peace and Freedom. She also became embroiled in the politics of Ghana, where she became a friend of the leading African voice on Pan Africanism and president of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah , who credited her 'with being an inspiration to the Ghana Women's Association.' One of her most notable contributions was the formation of the Abeokuta Ladies Club - this was a collective of Nigerian market women, whose powerful economic position in Abeokuta sought to influence

9563-444: The bass drum so that it tightens up the kick to a deep, punchy thud, and (3) go without a ride cymbal, focusing on the hi-hat for timekeeping and thin crashes with fast decay for accents. The guitar in reggae usually plays on the off beat of the rhythm. So if one is counting in 4 time and counting "1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ...", one would play a downstroke on the "and" part of the beat. A musical figure known as skank or

9694-404: The biggest sites where this production is taking place. In July 2015, Botswana satirical writer and speaker Siyanda Mohutsiwa posed a question on her Twitter account that led to the creation of the hashtag #IfAfricaWasABar. After one week, more than 60,000 tweets with the hashtag were created, which allowed users on the platform to grapple with a vision of widespread African interaction throughout

9825-520: The book Pan-Africanism History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787, it mentioned forty Pan-Africanists, of which only three were women. Due to the lack of representation paid to women in Pan- Africanism, Clenora Hudson-Weems coined the term Africana Womanism in the 1980s, which is an ideology that specifically focuses on black women's achievements and gains, similar to

9956-554: The campus and the community the richness, vibrance, diversity, and vitality of African, African American, and Caribbean cultures" and to "presenting students and the community with an Afrocentric analysis" of anti-Black racism . Syracuse University also offers a master's degree in Pan African Studies . One of the earliest flags used to represent pan-Africanism is the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) flag,

10087-525: The cancellation of UK tours by Beenie Man and Sizzla. Toronto, Canada has also seen the cancellation of concerts due to artists such as Elephant Man and Sizzla refusing to conform to similar censorship pressures. After lobbying from the Stop Murder Music coalition, the dancehall music industry agreed in 2005 to stop releasing songs that promote hatred and violence against gay people. In June 2007, Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton signed up to

10218-509: The colonial policy which destroyed their ability to make money and remain independent. By the 1940s, more than 20,000 women had a membership. She changed the name to the Abeokuta Women's Union , marking the movement towards direct activism. For example, in November 1947, she was responsible for organising demonstrations that as many as 10,000 women participated. She continued to organise for women's rights all her life until in 1977, when

10349-533: The common experience of colonialism. The Festival further strengthened the standing of Algeria's President Boumediene in Africa and the Third World. After the death of Kwame Nkrumah in 1972, Muammar Gaddafi assumed the mantle of leader of the Pan-Africanist movement and became the most outspoken advocate of African Unity, like Nkrumah before him – for the advent of a "United States of Africa". It

10480-491: The compound premised upon the exploitation of black South Africans, such as the practice of making hundreds of black miners attend work naked to ensure diamonds were not being stolen. Kinloch wrote two articles in 1896, after moving to Britain in 1895, for the society named "The Recognition of the Brotherhood of Man", which was well received and earned her high praise from the editors. Her experiences and clear articulation of

10611-549: The constant plantation and colonial uprisings and the "Back to Africa" movements of the 19th century. Based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress, it aims to "unify and uplift" people of African ancestry. At its core, pan-Africanism is a belief that "African people, both on the continent and in the diaspora , share not merely a common history, but a common destiny." Pan-Africanist intellectual, cultural, and political movements tend to view all Africans and descendants of Africans as belonging to

10742-407: The continent and demanded the inclusion of African American women into the conversation, emphasising that they too were committed to liberating Africa. In the Caribbean, Peggy Antrobus lobbied policymakers to highlight that Caribbean women were the poorest in the Caribbean and that UNICEF was the first international organization to draw attention to the negative impact of structural adjustment on

10873-599: The continent and the benefits of cooperation as a way of resisting imperialism and colonialism. Some universities went as far as creating "Departments of Pan-African Studies" in the late 1960s. This includes the California State University , where that department was founded in 1969 as a direct reaction to the civil rights movement , and is today dedicated to "teaching students about the African World Experience", to "demonstrate to

11004-415: The continent that together have a GDP of upwards of US$ 2.5 trillion. The emergence of COVID-19 has delayed its implementation but in the long term, the African Union hopes that the agreement will spur industrialization, substantially boost trade, and contribute to increasing economic integration throughout the continent. The African Union has also sought to make changes on policies involving movement within

11135-593: The continent. Nigerian artist Burna boy 's guiding philosophy is Pan-Africanism, as he firmly believes in rebuilding bridges with the African Diaspora, viewing Africa as the Mother Continent and birthplace of humankind. The intersection between the digital media revolution and pan-Africanism has also had implications for the education sector. Pan-African organizations have used the internet and digital media to produce educational content for both children and adults in an effort to improve learning outcomes across

11266-465: The continent. Similar to the current agreement in the European Union , the African Union proposed a free movement policy that would allow residents of countries in the union to move throughout the continent freely and participate in economic endeavors in other countries. The majority of countries have not formally signed off on the agreement and others are critical of the prospects of success but

11397-543: The continent. The most popular is Ubongo which is Africa's largest manufacturer of educational content for children and uses shows such as Akil and Me to help Africa's youth improve literacy outcomes. The results have been widespread with Ubongo claiming that 24 million children have displayed enhanced learning outcomes and a study in Tanzania finding an association between improved mathematics skills and children consuming Ubongo's content. Pan-African thought influenced

11528-426: The difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent and within communities in the diaspora . As a philosophy , pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system traces its origins from ancient times, and promotes values that are

11659-450: The drum's emphasis on beat three to create a unique sense of phrasing. The reggae offbeat can be counted so that it falls between each count as an "and" (example: 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ... , etc.) or counted as a half-time feel at twice the tempo so it falls on beats 2 and 4. This is in contrast to the way most other popular genres focus on beat one, the "downbeat". The tempo of reggae is usually slower than both ska and rocksteady . It

11790-635: The dynamics of the element as being at once cerebral, socio-political, sensual and spiritual." The term cod reggae is popularly used to describe reggae done by non-Caribbean people, often in a disparaging manner because of perceived inauthenticity . Boy George has been described as “one of the great cod reggae artists of all time.” Stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of rhythm and blues (R&B), jazz , mento , calypso , African, and Latin American music, as well as other genres. Reggae scenes consist of two guitars, one for rhythm and one for lead—drums, congas, and keyboards, with

11921-536: The establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (now the African Union ) in 1963. One of the biggest goals that the African Union has set for the continent in the 21st century is improving long-term economic growth. Major steps have been taken to address this issue particularly with the creation of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). The establishment of this free trade zone connects nations throughout

12052-499: The exception of South Africa, all independent states of the African continent attended: Egypt , Ethiopia , Ghana , Liberia , Libya , Morocco , Tunisia , and Sudan . This conference signified a monumental event in the pan-African movement, as it revealed a political and social union between those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among

12183-411: The flags of Malawi , Kenya , South Sudan and Saint Kitts and Nevis . Several pan-African organizations and movements have also often employed the emblematic red, black and green tri-color scheme in variety of contexts. Another flag that inspired pan-African groups is the horizontal tricolor of green, yellow and red. This colour combination was originally adopted from the 1897 flag of Ethiopia , and

12314-588: The importance of family planning and legislated sex education in Guinea's primary schools, despite strong opposition from the Muslim majority population. In an article written in 1979, on the family dynamic in Africa, Cissé makes unprecedented criticisms of the forced role of mothers in brainwashing their daughters to follow prescriptive gender roles. She was also instrumental in the 1968 legislation in Guinea which outlawed polygamy , believing it would effectively combat

12445-503: The incorporation of the Spanish language; the use of translations and versions based on known riddims and background music; and regional consciousness. It is a medium of rebellious contestation rising from the underground. Hispanic reggae is related to rap, sharing characteristics that can be found not only in the social conditions in which they developed in the region but also in the characteristics of social sectors and classes that welcome them. Brazilian samba-reggae utilized themes such as

12576-486: The independent reggae music industry. Jamaican Prime Minister Bruce Golding made February 2008 the first annual Reggae Month in Jamaica. To celebrate, the Recording Industry Association of Jamaica (RIAJam) held its first Reggae Academy Awards on 24 February 2008. In addition, Reggae Month included a six-day Global Reggae conference, a reggae film festival, two radio station award functions, and

12707-535: The late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Many reggae artists began their careers in the UK, and there have been a number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica and the Caribbean community in Europe. Reggae in Africa was boosted by the visit of Bob Marley to Zimbabwe in 1980. The 1967 edition of the Dictionary of Jamaican English lists reggae as "a recently estab. sp. for rege ", as in rege-rege ,

12838-806: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the UK punk rock scene flourished, and reggae was a notable influence. The DJ Don Letts would play reggae and punk tracks at clubs such as The Roxy . Punk bands such as the Clash , the Ruts , the Members and the Slits played many reggae-influenced songs. Around the same time, reggae music took a new path in the UK; one that was created by the multiracial makeup of England's inner cities and exemplified by groups like Steel Pulse , Aswad and UB40 , as well as artists such as Smiley Culture and Carroll Thompson . The Jamaican ghetto themes in

12969-576: The late 1990s and has recorded at Bob Marley's famous Tuff Gong Studios. Since the early 1990s, several Italian reggae bands have emerged, including Africa Unite, Gaudi , Reggae National Tickets, Sud Sound System , Pitura Freska and B.R. Stylers . Reggae appeared on the Yugoslav popular music scene in the late 1970s, through sporadic songs by various rock acts, most prominently by new wave bands Haustor , Šarlo Akrobata , Aerodrom , Laboratorija Zvuka , Piloti , Zana , Du Du A and Grupa I . In

13100-485: The latter half of the 20th century, phonograph records became of central importance to the Jamaican music industry, playing a significant cultural and economic role in the development of reggae music. "In the early 1950s, Jamaican entrepreneurs began issuing 78s" but this format would soon be superseded by the 7" single, first released in 1949. In 1951 the first recordings of mento music were released as singles and showcased two styles of mento: an acoustic rural style, and

13231-567: The leap to reggae include Prince Buster , Desmond Dekker , Ken Boothe , and Millie Small , best known for her 1964 blue-beat/ska cover version of " My Boy Lollipop " which was a smash hit internationally. Notable Jamaican producers influential in the development of ska into rocksteady and reggae include: Coxsone Dodd , Lee "Scratch" Perry , Leslie Kong , Duke Reid , Joe Gibbs and King Tubby . Chris Blackwell , who founded Island Records in Jamaica in 1960, relocated to England in 1962, where he continued to promote Jamaican music. He formed

13362-544: The lower frequencies emphasized. The guitar in reggae usually plays on the offbeat of the rhythm. It is common for reggae to be sung in Jamaican Patois , Jamaican English , and Iyaric dialects. Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism and religion in its lyrics, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love and socializing. Reggae is deeply linked to Rastafari , an Afrocentric religion which developed in Jamaica in

13493-479: The lyrics were replaced with UK inner city themes, and Jamaican patois became intermingled with Cockney slang. In South London around this time, a new subgenre of lovers rock , was being created. Unlike the Jamaican music of the same name which was mainly dominated by male artists such as Gregory Isaacs , the South London genre was led by female singers like Thompson and Janet Kay . The UK Lovers Rock had

13624-781: The mid-1980s appeared Del Arno Band , often considered the first Yugoslav band whose sound was primarily reggae-oriented, remaining one of the most notable reggae acts on the post-Yugoslav music scene. The first homegrown Polish reggae bands started in the 1980s with groups like Izrael . Singer and songwriter Alexander Barykin was considered the father of Russian reggae. In Sweden, Uppsala Reggae Festival attracts attendees from across Northern Europe and features Swedish reggae bands such as Rootvälta and Svenska Akademien as well as many popular Jamaican artists. Summerjam , Europe's biggest reggae festival, takes place in Cologne , Germany , and sees crowds of 25,000 or more. Rototom Sunsplash ,

13755-419: The most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms; staccato chords played by a guitar or piano (or both) on the offbeats of the measure. The tempo of reggae is usually slower-paced than both ska and rocksteady. The concept of call and response can be found throughout reggae music. The genre of reggae music is led by the drum and bass. Some key players in this sound are Jackie Jackson from Toots and

13886-631: The most prominent pan-Africanist in the British West Africa . Then-Colonial Secretary Oliver Stanley called Azikiwe (Zik) "the biggest danger of the lot." Zik drew his inspiration on the pan-African ideas of West Indians and African-Americans such as Edward Wilmot Blyden , W.E.B. Du Bois , and Marcus Garvey , as well as West Africans such as J.E. Casely Hayford and his allies in the National Congress of British West Africa . In his publication "Renascent Africa", he offered

14017-464: The movement in these places is more stamped by its origins in reggae music and social milieu. The Rastafari movement was a significant influence on reggae, with Rasta drummers like Count Ossie taking part in seminal recordings. One of the predecessors of reggae drumming is the Nyabinghi rhythm , a style of ritual drumming performed as a communal meditative practice in the Rastafarian life. In

14148-507: The musician are tools for change." Reggae has spread to many countries around the world, often incorporating local instruments and fusing with other genres. Reggae en Español spread from the Spanish-speaking Central American country of Panama to the mainland South American country of Venezuelathen to the rest of South America. Caribbean music in the United Kingdom , including reggae, has been popular since

14279-600: The nature of black oppression in Africa was unprecedented for these organisations who rarely had the opportunity to hear first-hand accounts of the African political situation. Now fully engrossed in the British anti-colonial dialogue, she wrote a 19-page pamphlet on the diamond trade in South Africa was in 1897, her views were beginning to become distinctly Pan-African in their calls for an end to continental dehumanisation. Kinloch's main contribution to pan-Africanism however

14410-480: The ones mentioned below. Pan-Africanism has seen the contribution of numerous female African activists throughout its lifespan, despite the systemic lack of attention paid to them by scholars and male pan-Africanist alike. Amy Jacques Garvey , who founded the international newspaper Negro World , was heavily involved in other Pan-Africanism organisations, such as the anti-colonial and anti-imperialist International African Service Bureau . She also helped organise

14541-611: The pan-African movement: the Casablanca Bloc and the Brazzaville Bloc. In 1962, Algeria gained independence from French colonial rule and Ahmed Ben Bella assumed the Presidency. Ben Bella was a strong advocate for Pan-Africanism and African Unity. Following the FLN's armed struggle for liberation, Ben Bella spoke at the UN and espoused for Independent Africa's role in providing military and financial support to

14672-463: The political consciousness of the audience, such as by criticizing materialism , or by informing the listener about controversial subjects such as apartheid . Many reggae songs promote the use of cannabis (also known as herb , ganja , or sinsemilla ), considered a sacrament in the Rastafari movement . There are many artists who utilize religious themes in their music – whether it be discussing

14803-591: The poor, particularly women. Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch was born in 1863 in Cape Town , South Africa, before her family moved to Kimberley . The racist and segregated environment shaped her activism on systemic oppression in South Africa. In June 1885 she married Edmund Ndosa Kinloch, a diamond miner who worked at the De Beers mining compound in Kimberley. She witnessed the degrading working conditions of

14934-557: The pre-Congress meeting. This meeting was primarily attended by Ugandan women, who set their own agenda, which was focused on women's issues such as genital mutilation and the protection of young domestic workers from rape and other abuse. Women participants of the Seventh Pan-African Congress moved towards building an agenda for the Pan African Women's Liberation Organisation and met daily during

15065-489: The product of the African civilisations and the struggles against slavery , racism , colonialism , and neocolonialism . Coinciding with numerous New World slave insurrections (hallmarked by the Haitian Revolution ), the end of the 19th century birthed an intercontinental pro-African political movement that sought to unify disparate campaigns in the goal to end oppression. Another important political form of

15196-436: The realities of South African apartheid and decolonisation . Notable male Pan-Africanists, such as Kwame Nkrumah , were influenced by Jones as she incorporated Marxist- Leninist philosophy into Pan-Africanism. In the United States, Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari played a vital role in developing Pan-African thought. These women significantly shaped the ideological and organizational contours of Pan-Africanism, developing

15327-644: The rhythm section to drive it along. Reggae's great advantage was its almost limitless flexibility: from the early, jerky sound of Lee Perry's "People Funny Boy", to the uptown sounds of Third World's "Now That We've Found Love", it was an enormous leap through the years and styles, yet both are instantly recognizable as reggae. The shift from rocksteady to reggae was illustrated by the organ shuffle pioneered by Jamaican musicians like Jackie Mittoo and Winston Wright and featured in transitional singles "Say What You're Saying" (1968) by Eric "Monty" Morris and "People Funny Boy" (1968) by Lee "Scratch" Perry . Early 1968

15458-598: The sound its name. Before that people had called it blue-beat and all kind of other things. Now it's in the Guinness World of Records. Bob Marley said that the word reggae came from a Spanish term for "the king's music". The liner notes of To the King , a compilation of Christian gospel reggae, suggest that the word reggae was derived from the Latin regi meaning 'to the king'. Reggae's direct origins are in

15589-638: The sound with a faster tempo, more guitar, and more attitude. Birmingham based reggae/ pop music band UB40 were main contributors to the British reggae scene throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The achieved international success with hits such as " Red Red Wine ", " Kingston Town " and " (I Can't Help) Falling in Love with You ." Other UK-based artists that had international impact include Aswad , Misty in Roots , Steel Pulse , Janet Kay , Tippa Irie , Smiley Culture and more recently Bitty McLean . There have been

15720-518: The unity of all continental Africa. During apartheid South Africa there was a Pan Africanist Congress led by Robert Sobukwe that dealt with the oppression of Africans in South Africa under Apartheid rule. Other pan-Africanist organisations include: Garvey 's Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League , TransAfrica and the International People's Democratic Uhuru Movement . Additionally, pan-Africanism

15851-616: The widespread abandonment of families by fathers, thus relieving the physical burden mothers faced in Guinea. On the international level, Cissé was the first African president of the United Nations Security Council in 1972 and succeeded in passing two resolutions, condemning Israel's aggression against Palestine , and Apartheid in South Africa. She also drafted and helped pass the UN Convention on Consent and Minimum Age for Marriage in 1964, which provided

15982-433: The world average, roughly 43 percent of the population of Africa uses the internet and social media with Facebook , Twitter and YouTube being among the most popular social networking sites. The ability to connect with people thousands of miles away has allowed these platforms to become places where people across the continent and diaspora have attempted to manufacture a collective African identity. Twitter has been one of

16113-477: The world for publicly renouncing homophobia by signing the Reggae Compassion Act. However, both of these artists have since denied any involvement in anti-homophobia work and both deny having signed any such act. Reggae has spread to many countries around the world, often incorporating local instruments and fusing with other genres. In November 2018 UNESCO added the "reggae music of Jamaica" to

16244-707: The years following 1958, Accra Conference also marked the establishment of a new foreign policy of non-alignment between the US and USSR, and the will to establish an "African Identity" in global affairs by advocating unity between the African States on international relations. "This would be based on the Bandung Declaration , the Charter of the UN and on loyalty to UN decisions." In 1959, Nkrumah, President Sékou Touré of Guinea and President William Tubman of Liberia met at Sanniquellie and signed

16375-624: Was held in London. A meeting of the Congress in 1919 in Paris (1st Pan-African Congress), 1921 in London (2nd Pan-African Congress), 1923 in London (3rd Pan-African Congress), 1927 in New York City (4th Pan-African Congress), and 1945 in Manchester (5th Pan-African Congress) advanced the issue of decolonisation in Africa. In the 1930s, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe 's anti-colonial writings from the United States , Accra , and Lagos established him as

16506-699: Was in her co-founding of the African Association in 1897 with lawyers Henry Sylvester Williams and Thomas J. Thompson, where they and 11 or 12 others gathered at the Charing-Cross Mansions hotel in London. Kinloch served as treasurer but in 1898 returned to South Africa with her husband. Two years later, the African Association led the Pan-African Conference, which was widely regarded as the beginning of 20th-century Pan-Africanism. Dr Tshepo Mvulane Moloi calls Kinloch

16637-551: Was not until the Seventh Pan-African Congress in 1994, which was held in Uganda , that women's issues were specifically addressed. For the first time, the Congress was asked to reflect upon the role and needs of women. In order to organise which women's issues would be raised at the Congress, a pre-Congress Women's Meeting was held two days before, to provide a framework that ensured women's voices and concerns were listened to. More than 300 people, 74 percent of whom were women, attended

16768-542: Was seminal in the formation of other musical forms like drum and bass and dubstep . The UK became the base from which many Jamaican artists toured Europe and due to the large number of Jamaican musicians emigrating there, the UK is the root of the larger European scene that exists today. Many of the world's most famous reggae artists began their careers in UK. Singer and Grammy Award-winning reggae artist Maxi Priest began his career with seminal British sound system Saxon Studio International . Three reggae-tinged singles from

16899-707: Was the formation of the African Liberation Committee (ALC), during the 1963 Summit. Championing the support of liberation movements, was Algeria's President Ben Bella, immediately "donated 100 million francs to its finances and was one of the first countries, of the Organisation to boycott Portuguese and South African goods". In 1969, Algiers hosted the Pan-African Cultural Festival, on July 21 and it continued for eight days. At this moment in history, Algeria stood as

17030-732: Was the main political influence on the Pan-African and political dimension to his music. In 1949, FRK founded and led the Nigerian Women's Union which in 1953 changed its name to the Federation of Nigerian Women's Societies, rallying for inter-regional unity among women's movements in Nigeria. Subsequently, she was courted by international movements for women's rights such as the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF) and

17161-471: Was when the first bona fide reggae records were released: "Nanny Goat" by Larry Marshall and "No More Heartaches" by the Beltones. That same year, the newest Jamaican sound began to spawn big-name imitators in other countries. American artist Johnny Nash 's 1968 hit " Hold Me Tight " has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener charts. Around the same time, reggae influences were starting to surface in rock and pop music ; one example

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