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43-745: A Rhodanic Republic had already been envisaged in March 1798 by General Guillaume Brune , commander of the French troops in Switzerland, as one of three successor republics of the Old Swiss Confederacy (the other two being Tellgovie and the Helvetic). Brune's République rhodanique would have incorporated the present-day cantons of Vaud , Valais, Ticino , Fribourg and part of Bern ( Oberland ) with Lausanne as its capital. The canton

86-614: A command of troops fighting in War of the Fourth Coalition and occupied Swedish Pomerania , taking Stralsund and the Island of Rugen. Despite these victories, his staunch republicanism and a meeting with Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden raised Napoleon's suspicions. These suspicions were only made worse by Brune, who refused to talk to Napoleon about the matter, claiming simply that "It's a lie". Brune made his biggest blunder while drafting

129-607: A few received financial endowments from the Emperor, with two of them – Louis-Alexandre Berthier and André Masséna – receiving more than one million Francs each. Two Marshals – Joachim Murat and Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte – went on to become kings, with the latter being the direct ancestor of the current Swedish royal family . Most of the Marshals held significant commands during the Napoleonic Wars , winning some of

172-463: A fisherman and buried by local farmers, and was later recovered by his wife Angélique Nicole to be buried in the cemetery of Saint-Just-Sauvage . An inquiry compelled by his widow later made public that Brune's murder had been covered up by the royal authorities, and revealed that the mob responsible was led by baseless allegations that Brune was the one parading the Princess of Lamballes ' head on

215-586: A pike around Paris during the September Massacres . In 1839, one year after Angélique's death, a monument to Marshal Brune was erected in his hometown of Brives. In 1793, Brune married Angélique Nicole Pierre, from Arpajon . They had no issue but adopted two daughters. Marshal of the Empire Marshal of the Empire ( French : Maréchal d'Empire ) was a civil dignity during

258-648: A purely civil dignity reserved to distinguished generals and not a military rank, a Marshal displayed four stars, while the top military rank of the time, the General of Division displayed three. Contrary to a well-established idea and to the representation on most paintings of the time, the Marshal's four stars were silvered, not gilded. A Marshal was required to wear a standard uniform, which was established through decree on 18 July 1804 and designed by painter Jean-Baptiste Isabey and designer Charles Percier . Nevertheless,

301-458: A result of battle wounds. During his five years as a Marshal of the Empire (1809–1814), Nicolas-Charles Oudinot received seven of a total of 34 battle wounds suffered throughout his career, but went on to live to the then venerable age of 81. Often formidable when serving under the direct command of Napoleon, the Marshals proved to be less effective when having to cooperate in the Emperor's absence. Some repeatedly acted in bad faith when placed under

344-527: A single person, but three decades after Bouvines, Louis IX of France set sail for the 1248 Crusade with two Marshals. As early as the 15th century, the Marshals no longer cared for the King's horses and stables, and were simply military leaders, a role that they would retain through to modern times. Although the position remained highly prestigious, their number grew throughout the centuries, with Louis XIV naming as many as 51 Marshals during his 72-year reign. In

387-463: A stable supervisor who took care of the king's horses. With the growing importance of the battle horse during the early Middle Age , the role came to acquire some prestige and began to be known as Marshal of France . Albéric Clément , who led King Philippe-Auguste 's vanguard during the victory over the English at Bouvines in 1214, was the first recorded incumbent. At first, the role was granted to

430-479: A treaty between France and Sweden when he wrote "the French army" instead of "His Imperial Majesty's Army". Whether an intentional insult or act of incompetence, Napoleon was infuriated and Brune was removed from duty. He then spent the next years at his country estate in disgrace and was not re-employed until 1815. After Napoleon's abdication, Brune was awarded the Cross of Saint Louis by Louis XVIII , but rallied to

473-715: A treaty signed in Sion and Bex by France, the Italian Republic , the Helvetic Republic and the now independent Republic of Valais. The treaty's third article confirmed French defense and control over the Simplon Pass. Napoleon quickly ordered the development of a route which would connect Paris with Milan , capital of the Italian Republic, but works were undertaken slowly. In 1806, the road

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516-629: A young general, possibly bitter that he had not been nominated also observed that: "If Bessières is a Marshal, then anyone can be." Ironically, Marmont himself was made a Marshal of the Empire in 1809, though it was said he was awarded the distinction for his close friendship with Napoleon as opposed to any great generalship. Battle of Arcole , Battle of Rivoli , French invasion of Switzerland , Cisalpine Coup , Battle of Castricum , Battle of Monzambanno , Battle of Pollozzo , Siege of Stralsund , Hundred Days Chief of Rivoli Peer of France Peer of France Peer of France ( Bas-Rhin ), Staff of

559-545: The First French Empire . It was established by Sénatus-consulte / Napoléon Bonaparte on 18 May 1804 and to a large extent reinstated the formerly abolished title of Marshal of France . According to the Sénatus-consulte , a Marshal was a grand officer of the Empire, entitled to a high-standing position at the court and to the presidency of an electoral college . Although in theory reserved "to

602-585: The "honorary" title of Marshal. Six other promotions ensued, with eight other generals elevated to the Marshalate. The title often ensured a highly privileged social status – four Marshals were created Counts of the Empire and 17 received either the title of Duke or Prince . With two exceptions – Jean-Baptiste Bessières and Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier – the Marshals led a sumptuous lifestyle and left behind significant, at times immense, fortunes. Several of them received significant annuities; in addition,

645-780: The Anglo-Russian forces were defeated in the Battle of Castricum , and compelled, after a harsh retreat, to re-embark. He rendered further good service in Vendée and in the Italian Peninsula from 1799 to 1801, winning the 1800 Battle of Pozzolo . In 1802, Napoleon dispatched Brune to Constantinople as ambassador to the Ottoman Empire . During his two-year diplomatic service, he initiated relations between France and Persia . Following his coronation as Emperor of

688-859: The Army of Moselle, Adjutant General Brigade Chief, Active in the Army of the Rhine , Brigadier General, Deputy and Command of the Right wing in the Army of Italy, Defense of Genoa, Colonel General of Consular Guard , Governor General of Camp Boulogne , Corp in Austria , and Prussia , II Corp in Spain , Chief of Forces in Spain, IV Corps (1813), Command of French Forces at the Pyrenees Frontier , Chief of Staff for

731-586: The Empire and coincided with the proclamation of the First French Empire and was used as an opportunity for the new Emperor to strengthen the new regime. The list included 14 names of generals who had served in the armies of the Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars: seven of them were generals who had served directly under Napoleon during his campaigns in Italy and Egypt. Moreover, he

774-728: The French in 1804, Napoleon made Brune a Marshal of the Empire ( Maréchal d'Empire ) while he was still in Constantinople. During the campaigns against Austria during the War of the Third Coalition , Marshal Brune commanded the army in Boulogne from 1805 to 1807 overseeing drilling and keeping a watchful eye on the British. In 1807 Brune was appointed Governor General for the Hanseatic Ports and in 1808, Brune held

817-476: The Marshals often chose to wear either variants of the official uniform or costumes of totally different design. The ultimate distinctive sign of a Marshal was his baton. It was cylindrical, 50 centimetres long and 4 centimetres and a half in diameter, made of wood and covered in dark blue velvet, decorated with golden eagles or honey bees, both Imperial symbols. The creation of the new civil dignity allowed Napoleon to strengthen his newly created regime by rewarding

860-813: The Valais and on the manners of its inhabitants"). By an imperial decree of 12 November 1810, Napoleon annexed to the French Empire the territory of the Republic of Valais, as a department under the name of Simplon . In the decree, he justified the annexation: Considering that the Simplon Road, which unites the Empire to our Kingdom of Italy , is useful to more than sixty million men; that it cost our treasures in France and Italy more than eighteen million, an expense which would become useless if commerce could find there no convenience and perfect security; That

903-531: The Valais did not fulfill any of the engagements it had contracted when we had the work begun to open this great communication; Wanting moreover to put an end to the anarchy which afflicts this country, and to cut short the abusive pretensions of sovereignty of a part of the population on the other. With the collapse of the Empire during the War of the Sixth Coalition , the department was occupied by Austrian troops in late December 1813. In August 1815,

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946-582: The Valais entered the new Swiss Confederation as a canton. Guillaume Brune Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune, 1st Count Brune ( French pronunciation: [ɡijom maʁi an bʁyn] , 13 March 1764 – 2 August 1815) was a French military commander, Marshal of the Empire , and political figure who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Brune was born in Brives (now called Brive-la-Gaillarde) in

989-624: The command of another Marshal, with conflicts sometimes leading to fatal military consequences. After Napoleon's downfall, most of them swore allegiance to the Bourbon Restoration and several went on to hold significant commands and positions. The most active Marshal's in the Napoleonic war, Napoleon Campaign: The French word Maréchal traces its origins back to the Carolingians , from the ancient German word marascahl ,

1032-760: The emperor's cause after his escape from exile in Elba . Leaving behind their past quarrels, Napoleon appointed Brune commander of the Army of the Var during the Hundred Days . Here he defended Southern France against the forces of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Sardinia , with the addition of the British Mediterranean Fleet and local Royalist guerrillas. Brune, while he held Liguria , slowly began to retreat, holding Toulon. Brune kept

1075-411: The following names, in an order which to this day remains unclear: Four additional names were mentioned on the list: these were former senior generals who had held commands of armies and had been elected senators of the Republic. Their status was honorary due to their age and they weren't set to be given field commands. Three new marshals were created in the aftermath of the Battle of Wagram . Among

1118-740: The grand officers of the Empire, among which the highest-standing were the Marshals. In the Imperial court hierarchy, they came in the fifth rank, behind the Emperor and Empress, the Imperial family, the great dignitaries and the ministers. They were entitled to a special etiquette: whenever the Emperor would write to them, he would call them Mon Cousin ("Cousin"), when a third party would write to them, they would be called Monsieur le Maréchal ; and when spoken to, they would be called Monseigneur ("My Liege"). They were greeted with 13 cannon shots when at their headquarters and 11 when away. They were also entitled to their own personal coat of arms . Although

1161-423: The men who were offered the Marshalate, there was a mix of famous generals, who had commanded the armies of the Republic (Brune, Jourdan, Kellermann, Lefebvre, Masséna, Moncey), as well as more junior generals, whose command never exceeded division-sized forces (Mortier, Ney, Soult). It even included relatively obscure generals from Napoleon's Italian or Egyptian expeditions, who had recently secured their promotion to

1204-614: The mobs in Marseille and Provence under control. On 22 July 1815, after hearing of the defeat at Waterloo , Brune surrendered Toulon to the British. Fearing the Royalist mobs in Provence and aware of their hatred towards him, Brune asked Admiral Edward Pellew to sail him to Italy, but the request was rudely denied, with Pellew calling him "the prince of scamps" and a "blackguard". Brune then decided to travel to Paris over land with

1247-485: The most brilliant victories of the entire Napoleonic Wars. Three of them – Jean Lannes , Louis-Nicolas Davout and Louis-Gabriel Suchet were virtually never defeated in pitched battle, despite fighting in dozens of engagements. While they were not normally expected to lead from the front, they often exposed themselves to great dangers on the battlefields of Europe; three Marshals – Jean Lannes, Jean-Baptiste Bessières and Józef Poniatowski – were killed in action or died as

1290-449: The most distinguished generals", in practice Emperor Napoleon I granted the title according to his own wishes and convictions and made at least a few controversial choices. Although not a military rank, a Marshal displayed four silver stars, while the top military rank, General of Division , displayed three stars. Furthermore, the Marshalate quickly became the prestigious sign of the supreme military attainment and it became customary that

1333-545: The most significant commands be given to a Marshal. Each Marshal held his own coat of arms, was entitled to special honours and several of them held top functions within the army. They wore distinctive uniforms and were entitled to carry a baton , which was a symbol of their authority. Throughout his reign from 1804 to 1815, Napoleon appointed a total of 26 Marshals, although their number never exceeded 20 at any one moment. The initial list of 1804 included 14 names of active generals and four names of retired generals, who were given

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1376-451: The most valuable of the generals who had served under his command during his campaigns in Italy and Egypt or soldiers who had held significant commands during the French Revolutionary Wars . Subsequently, other senior generals were promoted on six occasions, mainly following major battlefield victories. With hindsight, Napoleon's choices for the Marshalate were not always well inspired. The first promotion created eighteen new Marshals of

1419-413: The new Imperial regime. Overall, the first promotion included 14 names of generals. An initial list was drafted by State Secretary Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke and later altered by the Emperor. Napoleon added in his own handwriting Murat 's name, which was conspicuously absent from Clarke's draft. This was possibly an omission, but there seems to be no evidence to that effect. The final list included

1462-589: The promise of Royalist protection, although none was provided. He managed to arrive safely with two aides-de-camp in Avignon, but was there shot and killed by an angry Royalist mob after being chased into a hotel, as a victim of the Second White Terror . The new Bourbon government soon fabricated the story that Brune had committed suicide. His body, thrown into the River Rhone , was retrieved by

1505-788: The province of Limousin , the son of Étienne Brune, a lawyer, and Jeanne Vielbains. He moved to Paris in 1785, studied law, and became a political journalist. He embraced the ideas of the French Revolution , and soon after its outbreak enlisted in the Parisian National Guard and joined the Cordeliers , eventually becoming a friend of Georges Danton . Brune fought in Bordeaux during the Federalist revolts , and at Hondschoote and Fleurus . In 1793, Brune

1548-593: The same road, leading to confusion among the army of Italy. He was subsequently removed from command. Brune commanded the French army that occupied Switzerland in 1798 and established the Helvetic Republic . In the following year, he was in command of the French troops in defence of Amsterdam against the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland under the Duke of York , in which he was completely successful –

1591-618: The same time, as First Consul Napoleon had felt the need to better secure the strategic Simplon Pass in Valais since the Battle of Marengo in 1800, as a passage from France to Italy, considering the difficulty of crossing the Alps through the Great St Bernard Pass , also in Valais. Though unwilingly, the Helvetic authorities accepted the separation of Valais which was accomplished on 28 August 1802 (10 Fructidor , Year X), in

1634-421: The top military rank of General of Division, but had never held significant commands (Bessières, Davout, Lannes). Unsurprisingly, this created a certain degree of discontentment among the more senior commanders. André Masséna was noted for his sardonic remark, "There's fourteen of us..." , which he muttered when his friends came to congratulate him for his nomination. Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marmont , then

1677-414: The years leading to the French Revolution , there were constantly 15–16 Marshals, but a law of 4 March 1791 reduced their number to six and a decree of 21 February 1793 abolished the dignity altogether. Eleven years later, Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French and wanted to institute a military elite for the new French Empire . Article 48 of Title of the 19 May 1804 sénatus-consulte set up

1720-549: Was also careful to reward several general officers who had acquired considerable fame and political influence while commanding the armies of the Republic, as well as several highly-promising generals who had held significant divisional commands in the Army of the Rhine . The latter were well known for their largely Republican sentiments and had never served under Napoleon's command. By rewarding them for their military accomplishments, Napoleon sought to gain their loyalty and make sure that they would be supporters, rather than opponents of

1763-617: Was appointed brigadier general and took part in the fighting of the 13 Vendémiaire (5 October 1795) against royalist insurgents in Paris. In 1796, he served under Napoleon Bonaparte in the Italian campaign , and was promoted to général de division allegedly so as to avoid Napoleon having to concede the post to Bernadotte , who was at this time a political rival to Napoleon. Brune was noted as having been particularly incompetent; one anecdote has him attempting to march three divisions down

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1806-502: Was officially opened despite not being complete yet. François-René de Chateaubriand was appointed French minister to the Valais in November 1803, but as a royalist resigned in March 1804 following the execution of the Duke of Enghien by French authorities. He was replaced by Joseph Eschassériaux , who held the post from July 1804 to October 1806, the year he wrote a Lettre sur le Valais et sur les moeurs de ses habitants ("Letter on

1849-783: Was to be divided into 17 administrative districts, each with a sous-prefet. However, this idea was put aside. In 1798, when the troops of the French Republic invaded the Swiss Confederacy , the French-speaking population of the Lower Valais declared a Revolutionary République du Valais (March 16) which was swiftly incorporated (May 1) into the Helvetic Republic . The Helvetic Republic served Napoleon's purposes well for some time, until it became ridden with internal strife and disputes and became unstable. At

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