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102-630: In ancient times, the river served as the northern boundary of the kingdom of Moab . Today, the Wadi Mujib is fed by seven tributaries . The western part of the river is the site of the Mujib Biosphere Reserve , popular for hikes & canyoning amid dramatic rock formations. During the last ice age the water level of the Dead Sea reached 180 metres (590 ft) below sea level, about 240 metres (790 ft) higher than it

204-545: A "high place" for Chemosh on the hill before Jerusalem ( 1 Kings 11:7 ), which the Bible describes as "this detestation of Moab". The altar was not destroyed until the reign of Josiah ( 2 Kings 23:13 ). The Moabite Stone also mentions (line 17) a female counterpart of Chemosh, Ashtar-Chemosh . The Moabite language was spoken in Moab. It was a Canaanite language closely related to Biblical Hebrew , Ammonite and Edomite , and

306-475: A clan descended from Pahath-Moab , whose name means "ruler of Moab". The Moabite Ruth is regarded as a prototype of a convert to Judaism . At the disruption of the kingdom under the reign of Rehoboam , Moab seems to have been absorbed into the northern realm. It continued in vassalage to the Kingdom of Israel until the death of Ahab which according to E. R. Thiele 's reckoning was in about 853 BCE, when

408-411: A cleft in the sandstone. This narrow cleft became the bottleneck of an enormous drainage basin of 6,571 km (2,537 sq mi) with a huge discharge and annual sediment yield of 143,780 tonnes. During the years the cleft was scoured deeper and the gorge of Wadi Mujib was formed. The Mujib Dam was completed in 2004 at the bottom of the wadi, where the modern road crosses the river. As

510-562: A group—if it existed—was only a small minority in early Israel, even though their story came to be claimed by all." Scholars believe Psalm 45 could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the Omrides . Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are the Sons of Korah psalms, Psalm 29 , and Psalm 68 . The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during

612-638: A period of thirty days there in mourning ( Deuteronomy 34:6–8 ). According to the Book of Judges, the Israelites did not pass through the land of the Moabites ( Judges 11:18 ), but conquered Sihon's kingdom and his capital at Heshbon . After the conquest of Canaan the relations of Moab with Israel were of a mixed character, sometimes warlike and sometimes peaceable. With the tribe of Benjamin they had at least one severe struggle, in union with their kindred

714-778: A range of sources. These include the Septuagint, the Syriac language Peshitta translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch , the Dead Sea Scrolls collection, the Targum Onkelos , and quotations from rabbinic manuscripts . These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it. These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an Urtext of

816-538: A rejection of God's kingship; nevertheless, God permits it, and Saul of the tribe of Benjamin is anointed king. This inaugurates the united monarchy of the Kingdom of Israel . An officer in Saul's army named David achieves great militarily success. Saul tries to kill him out of jealousy, but David successfully escapes (1 Samuel 16–29). After Saul dies fighting the Philistines ( 1 Samuel 31 ; 2 Chronicles 10 ),

918-599: A result, a large lake has formed. The Mujib Reserve of Wadi Mujib is located in the mountainous landscape to the east of the Dead Sea, in the southern part of Jordan valley , approximately 90 kilometres (56 mi) south of Amman . A 212 km (82 sq mi) reserve was created in 1987 by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature and is regionally and internationally important, particularly for

1020-531: A return to the law because men had been marrying women who had not been converted at all ( Ezra 9:1–2 , 12; Nehemiah 13:23–25 ). The heir of King Solomon was Rehoboam , the son of an Ammonite woman, Naamah ( 1 Kings 14:21 ). On the other hand, the marriages of the Bethlehem Ephrathites (of the tribe of Judah ) Mahlon and Chilion to the Moabite women Orpah and Ruth ( Ruth 1:2–4 ), and

1122-587: A scarcity of archaeological evidence, the existence of the Kingdom of Moab prior to the rise of the Israelite state has been deduced from a colossal statue erected at Luxor by pharaoh Ramesses II , in the 13th century BCE. The statue lists Mu'ab among a series of nations conquered during a campaign. Four inscriptions from the time of Ramesses II mention Mw-i-bw as a rebellious place that refuses to recognize Egypt's control over Canaan and, together with

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1224-458: A series of ditches between themselves and the enemy, and during the night these channels were miraculously filled with water which appeared red as blood in the morning light. According to the biblical account, the crimson color deceived the Moabites into thinking that the Israelites, and their allies, had attacked one another. Eager to acquire plunder, they were ambushed and defeated by the Israelites ( 2 Kings 3 ). According to Mesha's inscription on

1326-436: A small marsh. The less severe slopes of the reserve are used by pastoralists for the grazing of sheep and goats. The hot springs of Hammamat Ma'in lie close to the borders of the reserve and popular for tourism and recreation. The Jordanian military have a temporary camp in the south of the reserve. The reserve is strategically important as a safe stop-over for the huge number of migratory birds which fly annually along

1428-577: A special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry . Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת , which is also the Hebrew for " truth "). These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However,

1530-478: A war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel. The Moabites were subdued, but seeing Mesha 's act of offering his own son (and singular heir) as a propitiatory human sacrifice on the walls of Kir of Moab filled Israel with horror, and they withdrew and returned to their own land. According to the Book of Jeremiah , Moab was exiled to Babylon for his arrogance and idolatry. According to Rashi , it

1632-531: Is attested to by numerous archaeological findings, most notably the Mesha Stele , which describes the Moabite victory over an unnamed son of King Omri of Israel , an episode also noted in 2 Kings 3 . The Moabite capital was Dibon . According to the Hebrew Bible , Moab was often in conflict with its Israelite neighbours to the west. The etymology of the word Moab is uncertain. The earliest gloss

1734-733: Is consistently presented throughout the [Hebrew Scriptures] as the God who created the world, and as the only God with whom Israel is to be concerned". This special relationship between God and Israel is described in terms of covenant . As part of the covenant, God gives his people the Promised Land as an eternal possession. The God of the covenant is also a God of redemption . God liberates his people from Egypt and continually intervenes to save them from their enemies. The Tanakh imposes ethical requirements , including social justice and ritual purity (see Tumah and taharah ) . The Tanakh forbids

1836-563: Is credited as the author of at least 73 of the Biblical Psalms . His son, Solomon , is identified as the author of Book of Proverbs , Ecclesiastes , and Song of Solomon . The Hebrew Bible describes their reigns as a golden age when Israel flourished both culturally and militarily. However, there is no archeological evidence for this, and it is most likely a "retrospective extrapolation" of conditions under King Jeroboam II ( r.  781–742 BCE). Modern scholars believe that

1938-481: Is found in the Koine Greek Septuagint ( Genesis 19:37 ) which explains the name, in obvious allusion to the account of Moab's parentage, as ἐκ τοῦ πατρός μου ("from my father"). Other etymologies which have been proposed regard it as a corruption of "seed of a father", or as a participial form from "to desire", thus connoting "the desirable (land)". Rashi explains the word Mo'ab to mean "from

2040-505: Is highly likely that extensive oral transmission of proverbs, stories, and songs took place during this period", and these may have been included in the Hebrew Bible. Elements of Genesis 12–50, which describes the patriarchal age , and the Book of Exodus may reflect oral traditions . In these stories, Israelite ancestors such as Jacob and Moses use trickery and deception to survive and thrive. King David ( c.  1000 BCE )

2142-524: Is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion . The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad : consonants written with some applied vowel letters ( " matres lectionis " ). During the early Middle Ages , scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization . This

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2244-413: Is roughly 2000. The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel , 1 Kings and 2 Kings , 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles , and Ezra–Nehemiah . The Twelve Minor Prophets ( תרי עשר ) are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their prominent first words . The Torah ( תּוֹרָה , literally "teaching") is also known as

2346-405: Is still being explored and documented. The reserve consists of mountainous, rocky, and sparsely vegetated desert (up to 800 metres (2,600 ft)), with cliffs and gorges cutting through plateaus. Perennial, spring-fed streams flow to the shores of the Dead Sea . Over 300 species of plants, 10 species of carnivores and numerous species of permanent and migratory birds have been recorded. Some of

2448-413: Is that Mw-i-bw, if it was indeed the land of Moab, was at that time inhabited by a pre-Moabite population, whereas the historical Moabites settled in the area only in the 12th century BCE. Na'aman concluded, however, that the identification of Mw-i-bw with the biblical land of Moab can no longer be upheld; the former was more likely well to the north. An 8th-century BCE inscription seems to indicate that

2550-733: Is the canonical collection of Hebrew scriptures, comprising the Torah , the Nevi'im , and the Ketuvim . Different branches of Judaism and Samaritanism have maintained different versions of the canon, including the 3rd-century BCE Septuagint text used in Second Temple Judaism , the Syriac Peshitta , the Samaritan Pentateuch , the Dead Sea Scrolls , and most recently the 10th-century medieval Masoretic Text compiled by

2652-438: Is today. It flooded the lower areas of the canyons along its banks, which became bays and begun to accumulate sediments. As the climatic conditions changed, about 20,000 years ago, the water level of the lake dropped, leaving the re-emergent canyons blocked with lake marl . Most canyons managed to cut through their plugged outlets and to resume their lower courses. However, Wadi Mujib, abandoned its former outlet by breaking through

2754-762: The Great Rift Valley between Africa and northeast Europe. It is possible to see the following birds in Wadi Mujib: Many carnivores also inhabit the various vegetation zones in Mujib, such as the striped hyena and the Syrian wolf . Another common animal in Mujib is the Nubian ibex , a large mountain goat which became threatened as a result of over-hunting. Wadi Mujib, or the Arnon Stream as it

2856-769: The Masoretes added vowel markings to the text to ensure accuracy. Rabbi and Talmudic scholar Louis Ginzberg wrote in Legends of the Jews , published in 1909, that the twenty-four book canon was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the Second Temple period . According to the Talmud , much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the Great Assembly ( Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah ), a task completed in 450  BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since. The 24-book canon

2958-602: The Masoretes , currently used in Rabbinic Judaism . The terms "Hebrew Bible" or "Hebrew Canon" are frequently confused with the Masoretic Text; however, this is a medieval version and one of several texts considered authoritative by different types of Judaism throughout history . The current edition of the Masoretic Text is mostly in Biblical Hebrew , with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic (in

3060-823: The Masoretic Text , compiled by the Jewish scribes and scholars of the Early Middle Ages , comprises the Hebrew and Aramaic 24 books that they considered authoritative. The Hellenized Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called "the Septuagint ", that included books later identified as the Apocrypha , while the Samaritans produced their own edition of

3162-408: The Mesha Stele , however, he was completely victorious and regained all the territory of which Israel had deprived him. This battle is the last important date in the history of the Moabites as recorded in the Bible. In the year of Elisha's death they invaded Israel ( 2 Kings 13:20 ) and later aided Nebuchadnezzar in his expedition against Jehoiakim ( 2 Kings 24:2 ). Allusions to Moab are frequent in

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3264-554: The Shasu of Mount Seir , conducted raids in Egypt. Pharaoh sent troops to the area and suppressed the rebellion - in the inscriptions of Ramesses II, the inhabitants are shown as having hairstyles identical to those of neighboring Canaanites (long hair collected and arranged) and not a braided hairstyle like the Shasu from later reliefs that contained the name Moab; a possible explanation

3366-538: The Taylor prism , which recounts the expedition against Hezekiah , Kammusu-Nadbi ( Chemosh-nadab ), King of Moab, brings tribute to Sargon as his suzerain. Musuri, King of Moab, paid too a tribute to Assarhaddon at the same time as Manasseh of Judah , Qosgabar of Edom and other kings of the Levant . They send building materials to Nineveh . Moab militarily supported Assurbanipal during his campaign against Egypt and

3468-490: The patriarchs : Abraham , his son Isaac , and grandson Jacob . God promises Abraham and his descendants blessing and land. The covenant God makes with Abraham is signified by male circumcision . The children of Jacob become the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel . Jacob's son Joseph is sold into slavery by his brothers, but he becomes a powerful man in Egypt. During a famine, Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. Jacob's descendants lived in Egypt for 430 years. After

3570-446: The prophetical books ( Isa 25:10 ; Ezek 25:8–11 ; Amos 2:1–3 ; Zephaniah 2:8–11 ). Two chapters of Isaiah (15 and 16) and one of Jeremiah (48) are devoted to the "burden of Moab". Its prosperity and pride, which the Israelites believed incurred the wrath of God , are frequently mentioned ( Isa 16:6 ; Jer 48:11–29 ; Zephaniah 2:10 ), and their contempt for Israel is once expressly noted ( Jer. 48:27 ). Moab would be dealt with during

3672-464: The "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called Chamisha Chumshei Torah ( חמישה חומשי תורה "Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally as Chumash . Nevi'im ( נְבִיאִים Nəḇīʾīm , "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim . This division includes the books which cover

3774-584: The 5th century BCE. This is suggested by Ezra 7 :6, which describes Ezra as "a scribe skilled in the law ( torah ) of Moses that the Lord the God of Israel had given". The Nevi'im had gained canonical status by the 2nd century BCE. There are references to the "Law and the Prophets" in the Book of Sirach , the Dead Sea Scrolls , and the New Testament . The Book of Daniel, written c.  164 BCE ,

3876-627: The Ammonites and the Amalekites ( Judges 3:12–30 ). The Benjaminite shofet Ehud ben Gera assassinated the Moabite king Eglon and led an Israelite army against the Moabites at a ford of the Jordan river, killing many of them. The Book of Ruth testifies to friendly relations between Moab and Bethlehem , one of the towns of the tribe of Judah . By his descent from Ruth, David may be said to have been part Moabite. He committed his parents to

3978-485: The Bible refers to them as the "people of Chemosh" ( Num 21:29 ; Jer 48:46 ). During the Iron Age, several Moabite cultic sites have been found in places such as Deir Alla , Damiyah , Ataruz or Khirbet al-Mudayna. According to II Kings , at times, especially in dire peril, human sacrifices were offered to Chemosh, as by Mesha, who gave up his son and heir to him ( 2 Kings 3:27 ). Nevertheless, King Solomon built

4080-521: The Book of Ruth to settle the dispute as the rule had been forgotten since the time of Boaz . Another interpretation is that the Book of Ruth is simply reporting the events in an impartial fashion, leaving any praise or condemnation to be done by the reader. The Babylonian Talmud in Yevamot 76B explains that one of the reasons was the Ammonites did not greet the Children of Israel with friendship and

4182-530: The Exodus , the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years. God gives the Israelites the Law of Moses to guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics (see Ethics in the Bible ) . This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by

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4284-487: The Hebrew Bible resulting from centuries of hand-copying. Scribes introduced thousands of minor changes to the biblical texts. Sometimes, these changes were by accident. At other times, scribes intentionally added clarifications or theological material. In the Middle Ages, Jewish scribes produced the Masoretic Text , which became the authoritative version of the Tanakh. Ancient Hebrew was written without vowels, but

4386-410: The Hebrew Bible were composed and edited in stages over several hundred years. According to biblical scholar John J. Collins , "It now seems clear that all the Hebrew Bible received its final shape in the postexilic, or Second Temple, period." Traditionally, Moses was considered the author of the Torah, and this part of the Tanakh achieved authoritative or canonical status first, possibly as early as

4488-580: The Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged in different orders. The Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Assyrian churches include the Deuterocanonical books , which are not included in certain versions of the Hebrew Bible. In Islam , the Tawrat ( Arabic : توراة ) is identified not only with the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses ), but also with the other books of

4590-533: The Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today. However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated. There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament . The Protestant Old Testament has the same books as

4692-421: The Hebrew Bible. Tanakh is an acronym , made from the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text 's three traditional divisions: Torah (literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—hence TaNaKh. The three-part division reflected in the acronym Tanakh is well attested in the rabbinic literature . During that period, however, Tanakh was not used. Instead,

4794-724: The Hebrew canon, but modern scholars believe there was no such authoritative council of rabbis. Between 70 and 100 CE, rabbis debated whether certain books "make the hands unclean" (meaning the books are holy and should be considered scripture), and references to fixed numbers of canonical books appear. There were several criteria for inclusion. Books had to be older than the 4th century BCE or attributed to an author who had lived before that period. The original language had to be Hebrew, and books had to be widely used. Many books considered scripture by certain Jewish communities were excluded during this time. There are various textual variants in

4896-572: The Holy of Holies" (Ex R. viii. 3). He was assassinated by two of his servants, one of whom was the son of an Ammonite woman and the other the offspring of a Moabite ( 2 Chron. 24:26 ); for God said: "Let the descendants of the two ungrateful families chastise the ungrateful Joash" ( Yalk. , Ex. 262). Moab and Ammon were the two offspring of Lot 's incest with his two daughters as described in Gen. 19:30–38 . Jehoshaphet subsequently joined Jehoram of Israel in

4998-514: The Israelite religion. According to the Hebrew Bible, the Moabites were not hospitable to the Israelites who exited Egypt and hired Balaam to curse them. As a consequence, male Moabites were excluded by Torah law from marrying Jewish women. The term "tenth generation" used in connection with that prohibition is considered an idiom, used for an unlimited time, as opposed to the third generation, which allows an Egyptian convert to marry into

5100-598: The Israelites is linked to the conquests by the Jewish Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus . During that period, the Moabites were called the "Arabian Moabites". In Ezekiel 25:9 the boundaries are given as being marked by Beth-jeshimoth (north), Baal-meon (east), and Kiriathaim (south). That these limits were not fixed, however, is plain from the lists of cities given in Isaiah 15–16 and Jeremiah 48 , where Heshbon , Elealeh , and Jazer are mentioned to

5202-464: The Israelites took from Sihon.( Judges 11:18 ). Following the Israelite settlement the stream divided, theoretically at least, Moab from the tribes of Reuben and Gad ( Deuteronomy 3:12–16 ). But Moab, in fact, lay as much to the north as it did to the south of the Arnon. To the north, for example, were Aroer , Dibon , Medeba , and other Moabite towns. Even under Omri and Ahab , who held part of

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5304-581: The Jacob cycle must be older than the time of King Josiah of Judah ( r.  640 – 609 BCE ), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem. The story of Moses and the Exodus appears to also originate in the north. It existed as a self-contained story in its oral and earliest written forms, but it was connected to the patriarchal stories during the exile or post-exile periods. The account of Moses's birth ( Exodus 2 ) shows similarities to

5406-736: The Kingdom of Moab expanded into the eastern part of the Jordan Valley after a successful campaign against the Ammonites . In the Nimrud clay inscription of Tiglath-pileser III (r. 745–727 BCE), the Moabite king Salmanu (perhaps the Shalman who sacked Beth-arbel in Hosea 10:14 ) is mentioned as tributary to Assyria . Sargon II mentions on a clay prism a revolt against him by Moab together with Philistia , Judah , and Edom ; but on

5508-400: The Moabite territory, Israel did not hold sway farther south than Ataroth , about ten miles north of the Arnon. Mesha , King of Moab, in his inscription ( Mesha Stele , line 10) says that the Gadites (not the Reubenites) formerly occupied Ataroth , whence he in turn expelled the people of Israel . He mentions (line 26) his having constructed a road along the Arnon. The ancient importance of

5610-435: The Moabites hired Balaam to curse them. The difference in the responses of the two people led to God allowing the Jewish people to harass the Moabites (but not go to war) but forbade them to even harass the Ammonites ( Deuteronomy 23:3–4 ). Jehoash was one of the four men who pretended to be gods. He was persuaded thereto particularly by the princes, who said to him. "Wert thou not a god thou couldst not come out alive from

5712-403: The Moabites refused to pay tribute and asserted their independence, making war upon the kingdom of Judah ( 2 Chronicles 22:1 ). After the death of Ahab in about 853 BCE, the Moabites under Mesha rebelled against Jehoram , who allied himself with Jehoshaphat , King of the Kingdom of Judah , and with the King of Edom. According to the Bible, the prophet Elisha directed the Israelites to dig

5814-409: The Moabites to the country south of the river Arnon, which formed their northern boundary ( Numbers 21:13 ; Judges 11:18 ). God renewed his covenant with the Israelites at Moab before the Israelites entered the Promised Land ( Deuteronomy 29:1 ). Moses died there ( Deut 34:5 ), prevented by God from entering the Promised Land. He was buried in an unknown location in Moab and the Israelites spent

5916-406: The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them; two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic . The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Talmud gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles. This order

6018-499: The Tanakh is monotheism , worshiping one God . The Tanakh was created by the Israelites , a people who lived within the cultural and religious context of the ancient Near East . The religions of the ancient Near East were polytheistic , but the Israelites rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Biblical scholar Christine Hayes writes that the Hebrew Bible was "the record of [the Israelites'] religious and cultural revolution". According to biblical scholar John Barton , " YHWH

6120-571: The Tanakh, such as Exodus 15, 1 Samuel 2, and Jonah 2. Books such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are examples of wisdom literature . Other books are examples of prophecy . In the prophetic books, a prophet denounces evil or predicts what God will do in the future. A prophet might also describe and interpret visions. The Book of Daniel is the only book in the Tanakh usually described as apocalyptic literature . However, other books or parts of books have been called proto-apocalyptic, such as Isaiah 24–27, Joel, and Zechariah 9–14. A central theme throughout

6222-466: The Torah to Moses . In later Biblical texts, such as Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2, it is referred to as the " Torah (Law) of Moses ". However, the Torah itself credits Moses with writing only some specific sections. According to scholars , Moses would have lived in the 2nd millennium BCE , but this was before the development of Hebrew writing. The Torah is dated to the 1st millennium BCE after Israel and Judah had already developed as states. Nevertheless, "it

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6324-410: The Torah, the Samaritan Pentateuch . According to the Dutch–Israeli biblical scholar and linguist Emanuel Tov , professor of Bible Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , both of these ancient editions of the Hebrew Bible differ significantly from the medieval Masoretic Text. In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use

6426-477: The ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was a Canaanite dialect . Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the hill country of modern-day Israel c.  1250  – c.  1000 BCE . During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The Book of Judges , written c.  600 BCE (around 500 years after

6528-402: The beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system. The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs , Ruth , Lamentations , Ecclesiastes , and Esther are collectively known as the Ḥamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). In many Jewish communities, these books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parentheses. Besides

6630-448: The bird life that the reserve supports. In 2011, UNESCO declared Mujib biosphere reserve . It extends to the Kerak and Madaba mountains to the north and south, reaching 1,277 metres (4,190 ft) above sea level in some places. This 1,708-metre (5,604 ft) variation in elevation of its drainage basin, combined with the valley's year round water flow from seven tributaries, means that Wadi Mujib enjoys magnificent biodiversity that

6732-512: The birth of Sargon of Akkad , which suggests Neo-Assyrian influence sometime after 722 BCE. While the Moses story is set in Egypt, it is used to tell both an anti-Assyrian and anti-imperial message, all while appropriating Assyrian story patterns. David M. Carr notes the possibility of an early oral tradition for the Exodus story: "To be sure, there may have been a 'Moses group,' themselves of Canaanite extraction, who experienced slavery and liberation from Egypt, but most scholars believe that such

6834-430: The books of Daniel and Ezra ), written and printed in Aramaic square-script , which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile . The Tanakh includes a variety of genres, including narratives of events set in the past. The Torah ( Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy ) contains legal material. The Book of Psalms is a collection of hymns, but songs are included elsewhere in

6936-403: The books of Daniel and Ezra , and the verse Jeremiah 10:11 ). The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism is the Masoretic Text (7th to 10th century CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into chapters and pesuqim (verses). The Hebrew Bible developed during the Second Temple Period , as the Jews decided which religious texts were of divine origin;

7038-428: The community. The Talmud expresses the view that the prohibition applied only to male Moabites, who were not allowed to marry born Jews or legitimate converts. Female Moabites, when converted to Judaism, were permitted to marry with only the normal prohibition of a convert marrying a kohen (priest) applying. However, the prohibition was not followed during the Babylonian captivity , and Ezra and Nehemiah sought to compel

7140-433: The connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either. "Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in

7242-418: The content of the Ketuvim remained fluid until the canonization process was completed in the 2nd-century CE. There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty , while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later. The speculated late-1st-century Council of Jamnia was once credited with fixing

7344-570: The covenant. God leads Israel into the Promised Land of Canaan , which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led by judges . In time, a new enemy emerged called the Philistines . They continued to trouble Israel when the prophet Samuel was judge (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1). When Samuel grew old, the people requested that he choose a king because Samuel's sons were corrupt and they wanted to be like other nations ( 1 Samuel 8 ). The Tanakh presents this negatively as

7446-478: The district below sea level in the tropical depths of the Jordan valley ( Numbers 22:1 ). References to the religion of Moab are scant. Most of the Moabites followed the ancient Semitic religion like other ancient Semitic-speaking peoples , and the Book of Numbers says that they induced the Israelites to join in their sacrifices ( Num 25:2 ; Judges 10:6 ). Their chief god seems to have been Chemosh , and

7548-533: The events it describes), portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and a tribal list that identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes. By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, the scribal culture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed to produce biblical texts. The Kingdom of Samaria

7650-486: The exploitation of widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups. In addition, the Tanakh condemns murder, theft, bribery, corruption, deceitful trading, adultery, incest, bestiality, and homosexual acts. Another theme of the Tanakh is theodicy , showing that God is just even though evil and suffering are present in the world. The Tanakh begins with the Genesis creation narrative . Genesis 12–50 traces Israelite origins to

7752-458: The father", since ab in Hebrew and Arabic and other Semitic languages means "father". He writes that as a result of the immodesty of Moab's name, God did not command the Israelites to refrain from inflicting pain upon the Moabites in the manner in which he did with regard to the Ammonites . Fritz Hommel regards Moab as an abbreviation of Immo-ab = "his mother is his father". Despite

7854-511: The kingdom is divided between his son Eshbaal and David (David ruled his tribe of Judah and Eshbaal ruled the rest). After Eshbaal's assassination, David was anointed king over all of Israel ( 2 Samuel 2–5). David captures the Jebusite city of Jerusalem ( 2 Samuel 5 :6–7) and makes it his capital. Jerusalem's location between Judah in the southern hills and the northern Israelite tribes made it an ideal location from which to rule over all

7956-400: The marriage of the latter, after her husband's death, to Boaz ( Ruth 4:10–13 ) who by her was the great-grandfather of David , are mentioned with no shade of reproach. The Talmudic explanation, however, is that the language of the law applies only to Moabite and Ammonite men (Hebrew, like all Semitic languages, has grammatical gender ). The Talmud also states that the prophet Samuel wrote

8058-672: The north of Beth-jeshimoth; Madaba , Beth-gamul , and Mephaath to the east of Baalmeon ; and Dibon , Aroer , Bezer , Jahaz , and Kirhareseth to the south of Kiriathaim. The principal rivers of Moab mentioned in the Bible are the Arnon , the Dibon or Dimon, and the Nimrim . In the north are a number of long, deep ravines , and Mount Nebo , famous as the scene of the death of Moses ( Deuteronomy 34:1–8 ). The territory occupied by Moab at

8160-476: The period of its greatest extent, before the invasion of the Amorites , divided itself naturally into three distinct and independent portions: the enclosed corner or canton south of the Arnon, referred to in the Bible as "field of Moab" ( Ruth 1:1,2,6 ). The more open rolling country north of the Arnon, opposite Jericho and up to the hills of Gilead , called the "land of Moab" ( Deuteronomy 1:5; 32:49 ) and

8262-646: The pharaoh Taharqa . The status of vassal of Assyria allows Moab to benefit in return from the support of Assyria against the nomadic tribes of the Arabian desert , and in particular against the Qedarites. King Kamōš-ʿaśa seemed to have defeated Ammuladi, king of Qedar . After the Roman conquest of the Levant by Pompey in 63 BCE, Moab lost its distinct identity through assimilation. Early modern travellers in

8364-521: The point where the Via Nova route crossed the Arnon river. One of the river's confluents, Seil Heidan , was known in Roman times as Aidonas . Moab Moab ( / ˈ m oʊ æ b / ) was an ancient Levantine kingdom whose territory is today located in southern Jordan . The land is mountainous and lies alongside much of the eastern shore of the Dead Sea . The existence of the Kingdom of Moab

8466-408: The proper title was Mikra (or Miqra , מקרא, meaning reading or that which is read ) because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era. Mikra continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew , they are interchangeable. Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of

8568-450: The protection of the king of Moab (who may have been his kinsman), when hard pressed by King Saul . (1 Samuel 22:3,4) But here all friendly relations stop forever. The next time the name is mentioned is in the account of David's war, who made the Moabites tributary ( 2 Samuel 8:2 ; 1 Chronicles 18:2 ). Moab may have been under the rule of an Israelite governor during this period; among the exiles who returned to Judea from Babylonia were

8670-518: The region included Ulrich Jasper Seetzen (1805), Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (1812), Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles (1818), and Louis Félicien de Saulcy (1851). According to the biblical account, Moab and Ammon were born to Lot and Lot's elder and younger daughters, respectively, in the aftermath of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah . The Bible refers to both the Moabites and Ammonites as Lot's sons, born of incest with his daughters ( Genesis 19:37–38 ). The Moabites first inhabited

8772-602: The reign of King Jeroboam II (781–742   BCE). Before then, it belonged to Aram , and Psalm 20 is nearly identical to an Aramaic psalm found in the 4th century BCE Papyrus Amherst 63 . The author of the Books of Kings likely lived in Jerusalem. The text shows a clear bias favoring Judah, where God's worship was centralized in Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Samaria is portrayed as a godless breakaway region whose rulers refuse to worship at Jerusalem. The books that make up

8874-452: The remote mountain and valley areas are difficult to reach, and thus offer safe haven for rare species of cats, goats and other mountain animals. The slopes of the mountainous land are very sparsely vegetated, with a steppe -type vegetation on plateaus. Groundwater seepage does occur in places along the Dead Sea shore, for example at the hot springs of Zara, which support a luxuriant thicket of Acacia , Tamarix , Phoenix and Nerium , and

8976-574: The revelation at Sinai , since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text ( מקרא mikra ), pronunciation ( ניקוד niqqud ) and cantillation ( טעמים te`amim ) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text. The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena , words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinct Semitic roots , on which many of these biblical words are based,

9078-463: The rich highlands at the eastern side of the chasm of the Dead Sea, extending as far as Wadi Mujib to Wadi Hasa , from which country they expelled the Emim , the original inhabitants ( Deuteronomy 2:11 ), but they themselves were afterward driven southward by warlike tribes of Amorites , who had crossed the river Jordan . These Amorites, described in the Bible as being ruled by King Sihon , confined

9180-406: The river and of the towns in its vicinity is attested by the numerous ruins of bridges, forts, and buildings found upon or near it. Its fords are alluded to by the Book of Isaiah ( 16:2 ). Its "heights," crowned with the castles of chiefs, were also celebrated in verse ( Numbers 21:28 ). In Roman times, a fort garrisoned by Cohors III Alpinorum , known as Apud Arnona , was situated close to

9282-693: The term Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures ) as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g., Tanakh or Old Testament ). The Society of Biblical Literature 's Handbook of Style , which is the standard for major academic journals like the Harvard Theological Review and conservative Protestant journals like the Bibliotheca Sacra and the Westminster Theological Journal , suggests that authors "be aware of

9384-515: The three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel , Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles . Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics: their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion);

9486-715: The time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the "period of prophecy" ). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive. The Former Prophets ( נביאים ראשונים Nevi'im Rishonim ): The Latter Prophets ( נביאים אחרונים Nevi'im Aharonim ): The Twelve Minor Prophets ( תרי עשר , Trei Asar , "The Twelve"), which are considered one book: Kəṯūḇīm ( כְּתוּבִים , "Writings") consists of eleven books. In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in

9588-557: The time of the Messiah's rulership according to the prophets. The book of Zephaniah states that Moab would become "a permanent desolation". Moab is also made reference to in the 2 Meqabyan , a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church . In that text, a Moabite king named Maccabeus joins forces with Edom and Amalek to attack Israel, later repenting of his sins and adopting

9690-636: The tribes. He further increased Jerusalem's importance by bringing the Ark of the Covenant there from Shiloh ( 2 Samuel 6 ). David's son Solomon built the First Temple in Jerusalem. After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into the northern Kingdom of Israel (also known as the Kingdom of Samaria) with its capital at Samaria and the southern Kingdom of Judah with its capital at Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Samaria survived for 200 years until it

9792-445: Was also due to their gross ingratitude even though Abraham , Israel's ancestor, had saved Lot , Moab's ancestor from Sodom . Jeremiah prophesies that Moab's captivity will be returned in the end of days . The book of Zephaniah states that "Moab will assuredly be like Sodom, and the sons of Ammon like Gomorrah—Ground overgrown with weeds and full of salt mines, and a permanent desolation." (2:9). The prophecy regarding their defeat by

9894-463: Was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher , in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization . It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles . Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and cantillation to derive from

9996-684: Was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans were exiled to Babylon . In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, who allowed the exiles to return to Judah . Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt (see Second Temple ) . Religious tradition ascribes authorship of

10098-538: Was known in biblical times, has always been an important boundary-line. Bible scholars have noticed a seeming contradiction in the Hebrew Bible regarding the ownership of the area between the Arnon and Jabbok rivers. According to Numbers , that area originally belonged to the Moabites and was later conquered by Sihon , king of the Amorites , before the Israelites took it ( Numbers 21:13–26 ). However, Judges presents this land as initially Ammonite territory, which

10200-497: Was more powerful and culturally advanced than the Kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan . Scholars estimate that the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories occur there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means

10302-536: Was not grouped with the Prophets presumably because the Nevi'im collection was already fixed by this time. The Ketuvim was the last part of the Tanakh to achieve canonical status. The prologue to the Book of Sirach mentions "other writings" along with the Law and Prophets but does not specify the content. The Gospel of Luke refers to "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" ( Luke 24 :44). These references suggest that

10404-737: Was written using a variant of the Phoenician alphabet . Most of our knowledge of it comes from the Mesha Stele , which is the only known extensive text in this language. In addition, there are the three line El-Kerak Inscription and a few seals. The following is a list of rulers of the ancient kingdom of Moab. 31°30′06″N 35°46′36″E  /  31.50167°N 35.77667°E  / 31.50167; 35.77667 Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh ( / t ɑː ˈ n ɑː x / ; Hebrew : תַּנַ״ךְ ‎ Tanaḵ ), also known in Hebrew as Miqra ( / m iː ˈ k r ɑː / ; Hebrew : מִקְרָא ‎ Mīqrāʾ ‍ ),

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