137-628: Bos bubalis Linnaeus, 1758 The water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ), also called domestic water buffalo , Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo , is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans, Australia, North America, South America and some African countries. Two extant types of water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria:
274-483: A buffalo in Jamestown, North Dakota , and inspiration for Herman Melville 's novel Moby-Dick , a sperm whale known as Mocha Dick . The most important pigments that determine plumage colouration in birds are melanines and carotenoids. The latter are ingested in food and transformed into colour pigments by enzymes. Aberrations in this pigmentation are mostly caused by food deficiencies and usually do not have
411-523: A toque macaque ( M. sinica ), rhesus macaque ( M. mulatta ), and bonnet macaque ( M. radiata ). Albinism was observed in jungle cats ( Felis chaus ) and jackals ( Canis aureus ) along the coastline of the southern Western Ghats (Kerala and Kanyakumari coast, India). Albinism was observed in jungle cats from the Amaravila area of Trivandrum district in the Kerala State. Albinism in jackals
548-534: A "semi-lethal mutation". Pigmentation disorders such as albinism are occasionally associated with hearing impairments in mice, rats, guinea pigs and cats. Intentionally bred albinistic strains of some animal species are commonly used as model organisms in biomedical research and also as pets. Examples include the BALB/c mouse and Wistar and Sprague Dawley rat strains, laboratory rabbits and ferrets. Some researchers have argued that albino animals are not always
685-655: A colour resulting from selective colour absorption . What is perceived as a plant or animal's "colour" is the wavelengths of light that are not absorbed by the pigment, but instead are reflected. Biological pigments include plant pigments and flower pigments . Animals can appear coloured due to two mechanisms, pigments and structural colours . Animals may have both biological pigments and structural colours, for example, some butterflies with white wings. Many animal body-parts, such as skin , eyes , feathers , fur , hair , scales and cuticles, contain pigments in specialized cells called chromatophores . These cells are found in
822-493: A condition called agouti , they make multi-coloured individual hairs. The production of melanin occurs in melanocytes in a complex process involving the enzyme tyrosinase . Mammals have a gene that codes for the presence of tyrosinase in cells – called the TYR gene. If this gene is altered or damaged, melanin cannot be reliably produced and the mammal becomes an albino. Besides the TYR gene, several other genes can cause albinism. This
959-414: A different shape. The horns of female bovids are believed to have evolved for defence against predators or to express territoriality, as nonterritorial females, which are able to use crypsis for predator defence, often do not have horns. Females possess horns only in half of the bovid genera, and females in these genera are heavier than those in the rest. Females use horns mainly for stabbing. In bovids,
1096-458: A dominant albinism in the rainbow trout . Albinism occurs throughout the animal kingdom. The condition is most commonly seen in birds, reptiles and amphibians, but more rarely seen in mammals and other taxa. It is often difficult to explain occasional occurrences, especially when only one documented incidence has occurred, such as only one albino gorilla and one albino koala . In mammals, albinism occurs once in every 10,000 births, but in birds,
1233-667: A few such as the buffalo, bushbuck, reedbuck, and grysbok are exceptions. Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. The bovids usually rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. Grooming is usually by licking with the tongue. Rarely do antelopes roll in mud or dust. Wildebeest and buffalo usually wallow in mud, whereas the hartebeest and topi rub their heads and horns in mud and then smear it over their bodies. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. These involve varied postures of neck, head, horns, hair, legs, and ears to convey sexual excitement, emotional state, or alarm. One such expression
1370-546: A fungus, such as Lacazia loboi . Famous albino mammals include Migaloo , a humpback whale living off the coast of Australia; Pinky , a bottlenose dolphin living in and around in Calcasieu Lake , Louisiana; Carolina Snowball, a popular albino bottlenose dolphin displayed at the Miami Seaquarium in the early 1960s; Snowflake , a Barcelona Zoo gorilla , and Mahpiya Ska , ( Sioux for White Cloud),
1507-437: A genetic basis. Well-known examples are flamingos , which owe their distinct pink colour to the presence of red carotenoids in their natural food. When these carotenoids are in short supply, these birds appear white after the next moult . Mutations causing changes in carotenoid-based colour pigments are rare; melanine mutations occur much more frequently. Two types of melanin, eumelanin and phaeomelanin, are present in birds. In
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#17327650619931644-403: A good diagnostic feature with which to distinguish leucistic and albino individuals – the colour of the eye." However, there are multiple forms of albinism – currently seven types recognised for humans – most of which do not result in red or pink pupils. The term "partial albino" is sometimes used in the literature. However, it has been stated that "A common misnomer is 'partial albino' – this
1781-430: A grey skin at birth, which becomes slate blue later. Albinoids are present in some populations. River buffaloes have longer faces, smaller girths, and bigger limbs than swamp buffaloes. Their dorsal ridges extend further back and taper off more gradually. Their horns grow downward and backward, then curve upward in a spiral. Swamp buffaloes are heavy-bodied and stockily built, with a short body and large belly. The forehead
1918-627: A lack of protection. Albino humans must use an excessive amount of sunscreen, even if the sun is hidden behind the clouds. Animals with albinism may lack protective camouflage in some environments, and are therefore less able to conceal themselves from their predators or prey. However, in other environments albino animals are less likely to be killed, and selection may favor them. The lower survival rate of animals with albinism in certain environments has been documented, however, it has been stated that in studies where animals had many places to hide, predators captured albino and normally coloured animals at
2055-509: A level muzzle. Fighting techniques differ amongst the bovid families and also depend on their build. While the hartebeest fight on knees, others usually fight on all fours. Gazelles of various sizes use different methods of combat. Gazelles usually box, and in serious fights may clash and fence, consisting of hard blows from short range. Ibex, goat and sheep males stand upright and clash into each other downwards. Wildebeest use powerful head butting in aggressive clashes. If horns become entangled,
2192-420: A medical condition that they were born with" and "a person or animal with white skin and hair and pink eyes" do not include feathers, scales or cuticles of birds, fish and invertebrates, nor do they include plants. Some definitions are too broad to be of much use, e.g. "an animal or plant with a marked deficiency in pigmentation". Other definitions of albinism encompass most of the major animal taxa, but ignore
2329-470: A pale white (as in the Arabian oryx ) to black (as in the black wildebeest ). However, only the intermediate shades, such as brown and reddish brown (as in the reedbuck ), are commonly observed. In several species, females and juveniles exhibit a light-coloured coat, while those of males darken with age. As in the wildebeest , the coat may be marked with prominent or faint stripes. In some species such as
2466-829: A permanent sheath of keratin. Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species, there are exceptions such as the four-horned antelope and the Jacob sheep . The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from other pecorans . A high correlation exists between horn morphology and fighting behaviour of the individual. For instance, long horns are intended for wrestling and fencing, whereas curved horns are used in ramming. Males with horns directed inwards are monogamous and solitary, while those with horns directed outwards tend to be polygynous . These results were independent of body size. Male horn development has been linked to sexual selection , Horns are small spikes in
2603-707: A present from the Khan of the Avars , a Turkic nomadic tribe that dwelt near the Danube River at the time. Sir H. Johnston knew of a herd of water buffaloes presented by a King of Naples to the Bey of Tunis in the mid-19th century that had resumed the feral state in northern Tunis . European water buffaloes are all of the river-type and considered to be of the same breed named the Mediterranean buffalo. In Italy,
2740-475: A role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of water buffalo milk. Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products , including: Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, water buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved ( rendang , for example) where
2877-862: A small amount of milk. Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from those of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins . The physical and chemical parameters of swamp-type and river-type water buffalo milk differ. Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein , fat , calcium , and phosphorus , and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk . The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid content in water buffalo milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play
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#17327650619933014-537: A thick coating of mud. Both are well-adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to 30 °C (86 °F) and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in thermoregulation . Some water buffalo breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain . Water buffaloes thrive on many aquatic plants . During floods, they graze submerged, raising their heads above
3151-517: A tribe of Caprinae, in Africa date back to the late Miocene. The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene, and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam and Awash Valley . The first African fossils of Reduncinae date back to 6-7 Mya. Reduncinae and Peleinae probably diverged in the mid-Miocene. All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt end, one or more pairs of horns (generally present on males) immediately after
3288-501: A white beak, white plumage, non-coloured skin, white talons and pink or red eyes. Albinism is only seen in about 1 of every 1,800 birds. The two most common species of albino birds are the common house martin and the American robin . Famous albino birds include " Snowdrop ", a Bristol Zoo penguin . In one study, albinism in birds has been categorised according to the extent of pigment absence. However, it has been argued that
3425-449: A wide range of animals including amphibians , fish , reptiles , crustaceans and cephalopods . Mammals and birds , in contrast, have a class of cells called melanocytes for colouration. The term chromatophore can also refer to coloured, membrane-associated vesicles found in some forms of photosynthetic bacteria . Chromatophores are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in poikilothermic animals and are generated in
3562-528: Is a piebald water buffalo featuring a unique black and white colouration that is favoured by the Toraja of Sulawesi . The swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes , while the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Water buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, but the embryos of such hybrids reach maturity in laboratory experiments, albeit at lower rates than non-hybrids. The rumen of
3699-458: Is a clearly defined set of seven types of genetic mutations which reduce or completely prevent the synthesis of eumelanin or pheomelanin , resulting in reduced pigmentation. Type I oculocutaneous albinism (OCA1a) is the form most commonly recognised as 'albino' as this results in a complete absence of melanin in the skin, hair/fur/feathers, and pink pupils, however this has led many to assume that all albinos are pure white with pink pupils, which
3836-489: Is a popular hunting location, where a steady population up to 4,000 individuals exists. Safari outfits are run from Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the Top End, often with the use of bush pilots ; buffalo horns, which can measure up to a record of 3.1 m (10 ft) tip-to-tip, are prized hunting trophies. Water buffaloes were exported live to Indonesia until 2011, at a rate of about 3,000 per year. After
3973-640: Is because other hormones and proteins are involved in melanin production, the presence of which is genetically determined. In mice, a total of 100 genes are known to affect albinism. Most forms of albinism follow a recessive pattern of inheritance. However, this is not always the case. In palomino horses, genes coding for coat whiteness are dominant, and this is also true for several arctic mammals who possess dominant white colors which are pseudo-albinistic. However, these mammals differ from truly recessive albinos in that they still produce tyrosinase , and have normal eye pigmentation. In Japan, research has identified
4110-593: Is believed to have come into being in the Pliocene, but became extinct in the middle Pleistocene . Several genera of Hippotraginae are known since the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This subfamily appears to have diverged from the Alcelaphinae in the latter part of early Miocene. The Bovinae are believed to have diverged from the rest of the Bovidae in the early Miocene . The Boselaphini became extinct in Africa in
4247-449: Is called a bovid . With 143 extant species and 300 known extinct species , the family Bovidae consists of 11 (or two) major subfamilies and thirteen major tribes. The family evolved 20 million years ago, in the early Miocene . The bovids show great variation in size and pelage colouration. Except some domesticated forms , all male bovids have two or more horns , and in many species, females possess horns, too. The size and shape of
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4384-708: Is disputed, with suggestions of as many as ten and as few as two subfamilies. However, molecular, morphological and fossil evidence indicates the existence of eight distinct subfamilies: Aepycerotinae (consisting of just the impala), Alcelaphinae (bontebok, hartebeest, wildebeest and relatives), Antilopinae (several antelopes, gazelles, and relatives), Bovinae (cattle, buffaloes, bison and other antelopes), Caprinae (goats, sheep, ibex, serows and relatives), Cephalophinae (duikers), Hippotraginae (addax, oryx and relatives) and Reduncinae (reedbuck and kob antelopes). In addition, three extinct subfamilies are known: Hypsodontinae (mid- Miocene ), Oiocerinae ( Turolian ) and
4521-408: Is flat, the eyes are prominent, the face is short, and the muzzle is wide. The neck is comparatively long, and the withers and croup are prominent. A dorsal ridge extends backward and ends abruptly just before the end of the chest. Their horns grow outward and curve in a semicircle, but always remain more or less on the plane of the forehead. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks . Size of
4658-491: Is in the savannas of Eastern Africa . Other bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. Bovidae includes a number of domesticated species, including three whose use has spread worldwide, namely cattle , sheep , and goats . Dairy products , such as milk , butter , and cheese , are manufactured largely from domestic cattle. Bovids are also raised for their leather , meat , and wool . The name "Bovidae"
4795-549: Is not possible since albinism affects the whole plumage of a bird, not just part" and the definition of albinism precludes the possibility of "partial albinism" in which a mostly white bird shows some form of melanin pigmentation. "It is simply impossible, just like being 'partially pregnant' ". Conditions that are commonly termed "partial albino" include neural crest disorders such as piebaldism , Waardenburg syndrome , or other depigmentation conditions such as vitiligo . These conditions result from fundamentally different causes to
4932-530: Is not the case. In plants, albinism is characterised by partial or complete loss of chlorophyll pigments and incomplete differentiation of chloroplast membranes. Albinism in plants interferes with photosynthesis , which can reduce survivability. Some plant variations may have white flowers or other parts. However, these plants are not totally devoid of chlorophyll. Terms associated with this phenomenon are "hypochromia" and "albiflora". Biological pigments are substances produced by living organisms that have
5069-433: Is occasionally associated with hearing impairments. However, when tested, there was no differences in responses between wild-type and albinistic European wels catfish ( Silurus glanis ) and South American bronze catfish ( Corydoras aeneus ). Similarly, Mexican blind cave fish ( Astyanax mexicanus ) do not differ in hearing sensitivity from the normally pigmented and eyed surface-dwelling populations. Fish lack melanin in
5206-623: Is the Bininj Kunwok word for buffalo, which are represented in rock art paintings at Djabidjbakalloi. The buffalo left behind after the failed British attempt at settlement became a threat to the local Aboriginal peoples , as they had no guns at that time. As the herds expanded across into Arnhem Land , some local people seized the chance to hunt the animals for their hides in the 1880s, as they did not belong to anyone, unlike sheep and cattle. The industry continues to provide employment opportunities and income for traditional owners . During
5343-402: Is the flehmen response . Bovids usually stand motionless, with the head high and an intent stare, when they sense danger. Some like the impala, kudu, and eland can even leap to heights of a few feet. Bovids may roar or grunt to caution others and warn off predators. Bovids such as gazelles stot or pronk in response to predators, making high leaps on stiff legs, indicating honestly both that
5480-490: Is the congenital absence of melanin in an animal or plant resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and reddish pink or blue eyes. Individuals with the condition are referred to as albinos . Varied use and interpretation of the terms mean that written reports of albinistic animals can be difficult to verify. Albinism can reduce the survivability of an animal; for example, it has been suggested that albino alligators have an average survival span of only 24 hours due to
5617-718: Is the only bovid that is both solitary and not territorial. This antelope hardly displays aggression, and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds, though in a favourable habitat, several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another. Excluding the cephalophines (duikers), tragelaphines (spiral-horned antelopes) and the neotragines, most African bovids are gregarious and territorial. Males are forced to disperse on attaining sexual maturity, and must form their own territories, while females are not required to do so. Males that do not hold territories form bachelor herds. Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance, and fights tend to be more rigorous in limited rutting seasons . With
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5754-576: Is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events. Twenty-two breeds of the river buffalo are known, including the Murrah , NiliRavi , Surti , Carabao , Anatolian, Mediterranean , and Egyptian buffaloes. China has a huge variety of water buffalo genetic resources , with 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions. Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that
5891-1124: The Antilopinae , was later placed in its own subfamily, Pantholopinae . However, molecular and morphological analysis supports the inclusion of Pantholops in Caprinae . Below is a cladogram based on Yang et al . , 2013 and Calamari, 2021: Bovini (bison, buffalo, cattle, etc.) [REDACTED] Boselaphini (nilgai and four-horned antelope) [REDACTED] Tragelaphini (kudus, nyalas etc.) [REDACTED] Aepycerotinae (impala) [REDACTED] Nesotraginae (suni and bates's antelope) Antilopinae (gazelles, springbok, dik-dik, royal antelope, saiga, etc.) [REDACTED] Cephalophinae (duikers etc.) [REDACTED] Oreotraginae (klipspringer) Reduncinae (kobs, reedbucks, waterbucks etc.) [REDACTED] Caprinae (chamois, sheep, ibexes, goats, muskox, etc.) [REDACTED] Alcelaphinae (hartebeest, topi, wildebeest etc.) [REDACTED] Hippotraginae (sable antelopes, oryxes etc.) [REDACTED] Alternatively, all members of
6028-577: The Firdos Square statue destruction , these lands were reflooded and a 2007 report on Maysan and Dhi Qar shows a steady increase in the number of water buffaloes. The report puts the number at 40,008 head in those two provinces. Water buffaloes were probably introduced to Europe from India or other eastern sources. In Italy, the Longobard King Agilulf is said to have received water buffaloes around 600 AD. These were probably
6165-791: The Meluhhas . The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows the sacrifice of water buffaloes. Water buffaloes are especially suitable for tilling rice fields , and their milk is richer in fat and protein than that of dairy cattle . A large feral population became established in northern Australia in the late 19th century, and there are smaller feral herds in Papua New Guinea , Tunisia and northeastern Argentina . Feral herds are also present in New Britain , New Ireland , Irian Jaya , Colombia , Guyana , Suriname , Brazil, and Uruguay . Carl Linnaeus first described
6302-491: The addax , the coat colour can vary by the season. Scent glands and sebaceous glands are often present. Some species, such as the gemsbok , sable antelope , and Grant's gazelle , are camouflaged with strongly disruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye. Many species, such as gazelles, may be made to look flat, and hence to blend into the background, by countershading . The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration,
6439-399: The dental pad , that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage. They are hypsodont and selenodont , since the molars and premolars are low- crowned and crescent-shaped cusps . The lower incisors and canines project forward. The incisors are followed by a long toothless gap, known as the diastema . The general dental formula for bovids is 0.0.2-3.3 3.1.3.3 . Most members of
6576-449: The neural crest during embryonic development. Mature chromatophores are grouped into subclasses based on their colour under white light: Animals can also appear coloured due to structural colour , the result of coherent scattering perceived as iridescence . The structures themselves are colourless. Light typically passes through multiple layers and is reflected more than once. The multiple reflections compound one another and intensify
6713-564: The river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans, Egypt and Italy; and the swamp buffalo from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze Valley of China in the east. The wild water buffalo ( Bubalus arnee ) most probably represents the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo. Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and
6850-860: The sheaves during the rice harvest. They provide power for oilseed mills, sugarcane presses, and devices for raising water. They are widely used as pack animals , and in India and Pakistan, for heavy haulage, also. In their invasions of Europe, the Turks used water buffaloes for hauling heavy battering rams. Their dung is used as a fertilizer , and as a fuel when dried. Around 26 million water buffaloes are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. They contribute 72 million tonnes of milk and three million tonnes of meat annually to world food, much of it in areas that are prone to nutritional imbalances. In India, river buffaloes are kept mainly for milk production and for transport, whereas swamp buffaloes are kept mainly for work and
6987-414: The 1950s, water buffaloes were hunted for their skins and meat, which was exported and used in the local trade. In the late 1970s, live exports were made to Cuba and continued later into other countries. Swamp buffaloes are now crossed with river buffaloes in artificial insemination programs, and are kept in many areas of Australia. Some of these crossbreeds are used for milk production. Melville Island
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#17327650619937124-492: The 1980s. The BTEC was finished when the Northern Territory was declared free of the disease in 1997. Numbers dropped dramatically as a result of the campaign, but had recovered to an estimated 150,000 animals across northern Australia in 2008, and up to an estimated 200,000 by 2022. Both swamp and river buffaloes exist in feral populations, but swamp buffaloes are more prevalent than river buffaloes. " Nganabbarru "
7261-530: The Aegodontia, can be classified within the subfamily Antilopinae, with the individual subfamilies being tribes in this treatment. In the early Miocene, bovids began diverging from the cervids (deer) and giraffids . The earliest bovids, whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene (20 Mya ) has been ascertained, were small animals, somewhat similar to modern gazelles , and probably lived in woodland environments. Eotragus ,
7398-529: The Albino Squirrel Preservation Society. They have also been protected in studies on their ecology, sociology and behaviour. Studies on medaka fish in the laboratory, i.e. with no predators, sufficient food supply, controlled temperatures, etc., found that albinos had considerably reduced viability; from 800 albino embryos, only 29 survived to full adulthood. Early studies on fish led some researchers to describe albinism as
7535-440: The Bovidae, where for example Bos , Ovis , bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings. Again, communication is the likely function. Excepting some domesticated forms, all male bovids have horns, and in many species, females, too, possess horns. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in
7672-560: The Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago. The following cladogram is based on the 2003 study. Tragulidae [REDACTED] Antilocapridae [REDACTED] Giraffidae [REDACTED] Cervidae [REDACTED] Moschidae [REDACTED] Bovidae [REDACTED] Molecular studies have supported monophyly in the family Bovidae (a group of organisms comprises an ancestral species and all their descendants). The number of subfamilies in Bovidae
7809-535: The Caribbean, specifically in Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba. The husbandry system of water buffaloes depends on the purpose for which they are bred and maintained. Most of them are kept by people who work on small farms in family units. Their water buffaloes live in close association with them, and are often their greatest capital asset . The women and girls in India generally look after the milking buffaloes, while
7946-781: The Indian Murrah breed, and in Romania, some were crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah. As of 2016, about 13,000 buffaloes were in Romania, down from 289,000 in 1989. Populations in Turkey are of the Anatolian buffalo breed. Between 1824 and 1849, swamp buffaloes were introduced into the Northern Territory , from Timor and Kisar and probably other islands in the Indonesian archipelago , to provide meat and hide. When
8083-842: The Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called the Mediterranea Italiana buffalo to distinguish it from other European breeds, which differ genetically. Mediterranean buffalo are also kept in Romania , Bulgaria , Greece , Serbia , Albania , Kosovo , and North Macedonia , with a few hundred in the United Kingdom , Ireland , Germany , the Netherlands , Switzerland , and Hungary . Little exchange of breeding water buffaloes has occurred among countries, so each population has its own phenotypic features and performances. In Bulgaria, they were crossbred with
8220-752: The Murrah and Jafarabadi from India, and the carabao from the Philippines. The official Brazilian herd number in 2019 is 1.39 million head. During the 1970s, small herds were imported to Costa Rica , Ecuador , Cayenne , Panama , Suriname , Guyana , and Venezuela . In Argentina, many game ranches raise water buffaloes for commercial hunting. Other important herds in South America are Colombia (>300.000), Argentina (>100.000) and Venezuela with unconfirmed reports ranging from 200 to 500 thousand head. In 1974, four water buffaloes were imported to
8357-410: The Pliocene. By the late Miocene, around 10 Mya, the bovids rapidly diversified , leading to the creation of 70 new genera. This late Miocene radiation was partly because many bovids became adapted to more open, grassland habitats. The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene, and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted. Fossils of ovibovines,
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#17327650619938494-733: The United States from Guam to be studied at the University of Florida . In February 1978, the first herd arrived for commercial farming. Until 2002, only one commercial breeder was in the United States. Water buffalo meat is imported from Australia. Until 2011, water buffaloes were raised in Gainesville, Florida , from young obtained from zoo overflow. They were used primarily for meat production, and frequently sold as hamburger. Other U.S. ranchers use them for production of high-quality mozzarella cheese. Water buffaloes are also kept in
8631-440: The afternoon. Temperature is regulated through sweating in cattle, whereas goats use panting for the same. The right lung , consisting of four to five lobes , is around 1.5 times larger than the left, which has three lobes. Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth. While the upper incisors are absent, the upper canines are either reduced or absent. Instead of the upper incisors, bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue, called
8768-406: The age of 30 is not uncommon, and instances of a working life of 40 years have been recorded. The most probable ancestor of domesticated water buffalo is the wild water buffalo ( Bubalus arnee ), which is native to the Indian subcontinent and tropical Southeast Asia. Two types of domesticated water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo (of
8905-415: The animal is 12 years or even older. A good river buffalo male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on mating occurs. Heat stress reduces libido . Although water buffaloes are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. The cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying oestrus , conception rate, and calving rate. The age at
9042-543: The anoa branching somewhere between swamp and river buffalos. A 2023 Filipino study using the CytB gene instead found the tamaraw branching between the two. By 2011, the global water buffalo population was about 172 million. The estimated global population of water buffalo is 208,098,759 head distributed in 77 countries in five continents. More than 95.8% of the world population of water buffaloes are kept in Asia, including both
9179-620: The beginning of 2012, less than one million were in the country, partly as a result of illegal shipments to neighbouring countries where sales prices are higher than in Thailand. Water buffaloes are also present in the southern region of Iraq in the Mesopotamian Marshes . The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes by Saddam Hussein was an attempt to punish the south for the 1991 Iraqi uprisings . After 2003 and
9316-417: The beginning of the 21st century it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae . However, a 2003 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France ) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae . According to the study, Cervidae diverged from
9453-436: The behaviour of albinos in the wild, e.g. leaping from branch to branch, is similar to pigmented squirrels. A 2012 survey of the literature reported that in India, there were several records of albino mammals including the tiger , lesser mouse-tailed bat , chital , common palm civet , northern palm squirrel , five-striped palm squirrel and wild boar . Albino macaques have been reported in several occasions including
9590-476: The best choice for scientific studies due to the consequences of albinism (e.g. hearing and visual impairments). Many individual albino mammals are in captivity and were caught while young. However, the survival prospects of these creatures into adulthood outside of captivity are uncertain. It is doubtful whether these individuals would have survived to become adults without the protection and care they receive in captivity. It has been claimed that "Squirrels are
9727-517: The body and shape of horns may vary greatly among breeds. Height at the withers is 129–133 cm (51–52 in) for bulls and 120–127 cm (47–50 in) for cows, but large individuals may attain 160 cm (63 in). Head-lump length at maturity typically ranges from 240–300 cm (94–118 in) with a 60–100 cm (24–39 in) long tail. They range in weight from 300–550 kg (660–1,210 lb), but weights of over 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) have also been observed. Tedong bonga
9864-413: The centre of the retina is under-developed and there is a deficit of rod cells, which detect light levels; the central ganglion cell density is approximately 25% below normal (except for the eastern gray squirrel ). In nearly all mammals, the overwhelming majority of photoreceptors are rods rather than cones, which detect color. Albinism specifically affects the rod cells, but the number and distribution of
10001-416: The colours. Structural colour differs according to the observer's position whereas pigments appear the same regardless of the angle-of-view. Animals that show iridescence include mother of pearl seashells, fish, and peacocks. These are just a few examples of animals with this quality, but it is most pronounced in the butterfly family. The primary function of pigments in plants is photosynthesis , which uses
10138-409: The complex cellulose into simpler fatty acids , which are then absorbed through the rumen wall. Bovids have a long small intestine ; the length of the small intestine in cattle is 29–49 m (95–161 ft). Body temperature fluctuates through the day; for instance, in goats the temperature can change slightly from nearly 37 °C (99 °F) in the early morning to 40 °C (104 °F) in
10275-407: The cones is unaffected. In contrast, the retinas of birds are cone rich, meaning that the vision of albino birds is affected less than albino mammals. Melanin protects the skin from ultra-violet radiation in sunlight. Melanosomes block harmful electromagnetic radiation from the sun while allowing beneficial frequencies to enter the body. This means some animals may die from UV radiation due to
10412-694: The costs, some individuals do reach adult age and breeding status. Albino dolphins were first sighted in the Gulf of Mexico in 1962. Since 1994, three further individuals have been seen. These tend to be pink in colour due to blood vessels showing through the blubber and unpigmented skin. A report published in 2008 stated that in marine mammals, "anomalously white" individuals have been reported for 21 cetacean species and seven pinniped species but there were no known reports of anomalously white sea otters ( Enhydra lutris ) or sirenians . Whales and dolphins also may appear white if extensively scarred, or covered with
10549-596: The day. While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed on high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands. Most bovids are polygynous . Mature bovids mate at least once a year and smaller species may even mate twice. In some species, neonate bovids remain hidden for a week to two months, regularly nursed by their mothers; in other species, neonates are followers, accompanying their dams, rather than tending to remain hidden. The greatest diversities of bovids occur in Africa . The maximum concentration of species
10686-896: The definition of albinism precludes the possibility of "partial albinism" in which a mostly white bird shows some form of melanin pigmentation. "It is simply impossible, just like being 'partially pregnant'. As with other animals, it has been stated that for fish to be properly described as "albino", they must have a white body and pink or red eyes. Zebrafish have three types of chromatophores—iridophores, melanophores, and xanthophores—which produce silver, black, and yellow pigmentation respectively. Zebrafish that lack iridophores are known as roy mutants , those that lack melanophores as albino mutants , and those which lack both melanophores and iridophores are ruby mutants . The gross eye morphology, feeding and swimming behaviours between wild-type and albino zebrafish were indistinguishable, except under dim or bright light or low contrast. In mammals, albinism
10823-506: The duiker browse for a few hours during day or night. Feeding habits are related to body size; while small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed upon high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands. Subfamilies exhibit different feeding strategies. While Bovinae species graze extensively on fresh grass and diffused forage, Cephalophinae species (with the exception of Sylvicapra ) primarily consume fruits. Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources, but
10960-497: The earliest known bovid, weighed 18 kg (40 lb) and was nearly the same in size as the Thomson's gazelle . Early in their evolutionary history, the bovids split into two main clades: Boodontia (of Eurasian origin) and Aegodontia (of African origin). This early split between Boodontia and Aegodontia has been attributed to the continental divide between these land masses. When these continents were later rejoined, this barrier
11097-467: The early Pliocene; their latest fossils were excavated in Langebaanweg (South Africa) and Lothagam (Kenya). The middle Miocene marked the spread of the bovids into China and the Indian subcontinent. According to Vrba, the radiation of the subfamily Alcelaphinae began in the latter part of middle Miocene. The Caprinae tribes probably diverged in the early middle Miocene. The Caprini emerged in
11234-723: The exception of migratory males, males generally hold the same territory throughout their lives. In the waterbuck, some male individuals, known as "satellite males", may be allowed into the territories of other males and have to wait till the owner grows old so they may acquire his territory. Lek mating , where males gather together and competitively display to potential mates, is known to exist among topis , kobs , and lechwes . The tragelaphines, cattle, sheep, and goats are gregarious and not territorial. In these species, males must gain absolute dominance over all other males, and fights are not confined to territories. Males, therefore, spend years in body growth. Most bovids are diurnal, although
11371-647: The family are herbivorous , but most duikers are omnivorous . Like other ruminants, bovids have four-chambered stomachs, which allow them to digest plant material, such as grass , that cannot be used by many other animals. Ruminants (and some others like kangaroos , rabbits , and termites ) are able to use micro-organisms living in their guts to break down cellulose by fermentation . The bovids have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Further, these types may each be divided into territorial and nonterritorial behaviour. Small bovids such as
11508-409: The first oestrus of heifers varies between breeds from 13 to 33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. Gestation lasts from 281 to 334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffaloes carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffaloes. Finding water buffaloes that continue to work well at
11645-451: The genus Bos and the water buffalo under the binomial Bos bubalis in 1758; the species was known to occur in Asia and was held as a domestic form in Italy. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics , whereas others treated them as different species . The nomenclatorial treatment of the wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within
11782-590: The green pigment chlorophyll along with several red and yellow pigments including porphyrins , carotenoids , anthocyanins and betalains . Definitions of albinism vary and are inconsistent. While they are clear and precise for humans and other mammals, this is because the majority of mammals have only one pigment, melanin. Many animals have pigments other than melanin, and some also have structural colours. Some definitions of albinism, whilst taking most taxa into account, ignore others. So, "a person or animal with very pale skin, white hair or fur, and pink eyes caused by
11919-501: The ground. The bovids show great variation in size: the gaur can weigh more than 1,500 kg (3,300 lb), and stand 2.2 m (87 in) high at the shoulder. The royal antelope , in sharp contrast, is only 25 cm (9.8 in) tall and weighs at most 3 kg (6.6 lb). The klipspringer , another small antelope, stands 45–60 cm (18–24 in) at the shoulder and weighs just 10–20 kg (22–44 lb). Differences occur in pelage colouration, ranging from
12056-671: The horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin . Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth. Most bovids are diurnal . Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. Bovids typically rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. They have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour , which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. Most species alternately feed and ruminate throughout
12193-482: The klipspringer, oribi , and steenbok are generally solitary and territorial. They hold small territories into which other members of the species are not allowed to enter. These antelopes form monogamous pairs. Many species such as the dik-dik use pheromone secretions from the preorbital glands and sometimes dung, as well, to mark their territories. The offspring disperse at the time of adolescence, and males must acquire territories prior to mating. The bushbuck
12330-498: The lack of protection from UV radiation and their lack of camouflage to avoid predators. It is a common misconception that all albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes (resulting from the lack of pigment in the iris allowing the blood vessels of the retina to be visible); this is not the case for some forms of albinism. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in
12467-461: The latter are specially adapted to arid areas. Members of Caprinae, being flexible feeders, forage even in areas with low productivity. Tribes Alcelaphini, Hippotragini, and Reduncini have high proportions of monocots in their diets. On the contrary, Tragelaphini and Neotragini (with the exception of Ourebia ) feed extensively on dicots . No conspicuous relationship exists between body size and consumption of monocots. Albinism Albinism
12604-714: The leaves, stems or trimmings of banana, cassava , Mangelwurzel , esparto , Leucaena leucocephala and kenaf , maize, oats , Pandanus , peanut, sorghum , soybean , sugarcane , bagasse , and turnips . Citrus pulp and pineapple wastes have been fed safely to buffalo. In Egypt, whole sun-dried dates are fed to milk buffalo up to 25% of the standard feed mixture. Swamp buffaloes generally become reproductive at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated around 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy, they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until
12741-463: The live export ban that year, the exports dropped to zero, and had not resumed as of June 2013. Tom Dawkins, CEO of NT Buffalo Industry Council, said in May 2022 that culling should be a last resort, given the flourishing and growing live export trade and economic benefits for Aboriginal people. By the end of 2021, cattle exports to Indonesia had dropped to the lowest level since 2012, while demand for buffalo
12878-521: The males compared to the wild-type; albino males had higher mount frequencies than wild-type males. In addition, the albinos had greater differential fertilizing capacity. Albinism can also occur in marsupials and monotremes , such as echidnas , kangaroos , koalas , possums , wallabies and wombats . The costs of albinism for marine mammals may include reduced heat absorption in colder waters, poor camouflage from predators, increased sensitivity to sunlight, and impaired visual communication. Despite
13015-592: The men and boys are concerned with the working animals. Throughout Asia, they are commonly tended by children who are often seen leading or riding their charges to wallows. Water buffaloes are the ideal animals for work in the deep mud of paddy fields because of their large hooves and flexible foot joints. They are often referred to as "the living tractor of the East". They are the most efficient and economical means of cultivation of small fields. In most rice-producing countries, they are used for threshing and for transporting
13152-499: The middle Miocene, and seem to have been replaced by other bovids and cervids in Eurasia. The earliest fossils of the antilopines are from the middle Miocene, though studies show the existence of the subfamily from the early Miocene. Speciation occurred in the tribe Antilopini during the middle or upper Miocene, mainly in Eurasia. Tribe Neotragini seems to have appeared in Africa by the end of Miocene, and had become widespread by
13289-431: The monogamous duikers and other small antelopes, whereas in the polygynous, they are large and elaborately formed (for example in a spiral structure, as in the giant eland ). Thus, to some extent, horns depict the degree of competition among males in a species. However, the presence of horns in females is likely due to natural selection . The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males, and are sometimes of
13426-613: The normal development of various parts of the eye, including the iris, retina, eye muscles, and optic nerve. The absence of melanin results in abnormal development of eyes and leads to problems with focusing, and depth perception. The eyes of albino animals appear red because the colour of the red blood cells in the retina can be seen through the iris, which has no pigment to obscure this. Some albino animals may have pale-blue eyes due to other colour generating processes. Albino vertebrates exposed to intense light typically lose photoreceptors due to apoptosis . In all albino mammals studied,
13563-570: The northern Philippines , where butchered remains of domesticated water buffalo have been recovered from the Neolithic Nagsabaran site (part of the Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens , c. 2200 BCE to 400 CE). These became the ancestors of the distinctly swamp-type carabao buffalo breed of the Philippines which, in turn, spread to Guam , Indonesia , and Malaysia , among other smaller islands. The present-day river buffalo
13700-425: The only known albino mammal to survive successfully in the wild". The retina of the squirrel ( Sciurus carolinensis ) is unusual for mammals as it is rich in cones. Central cell densities are less than 5% lower in albino squirrels than in pigmented individuals. This relatively minor disruption to vision is thought to assist in the survivability of albino squirrels in the wild. This is supported by observations that
13837-413: The opponent's head rather than its body. The S-shaped horns, such as those on the impala , have various sections that help in ramming, holding, and stabbing. Serious fights leading to injury are rare. Most bovids alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While those that feed on concentrate feed and digest in short intervals, the roughage feeders take longer intervals. Only small species such as
13974-429: The opponents move in a circular manner to unlock them. Muskoxen will ram into each other at high speeds. As a rule, only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight, which is intended to determine the superior of the two. Individuals that are evidently inferior to others would rather flee than fight; for example, immature males do not fight with the mature bulls. Generally, bovids direct their attacks on
14111-442: The oval or pointed ears, a distinct neck and limbs, and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species. Most bovids exhibit sexual dimorphism , with males usually larger as well as heavier than females. Sexual dimorphism is more prominent in medium- to large-sized bovids. All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two (the hooves ), while the outer two (the dewclaws ) are much smaller and rarely touch
14248-498: The predator has been seen, and that the stotting individual is strong and not worth chasing. In the mating season, rutting males bellow to make their presence known to females. Muskoxen roar during male-male fights, and male saigas force air through their noses, producing a roar to deter rival males and attract females. Mothers also use vocal communication to locate their calves if they get separated. During fights over dominance, males tend to display themselves in an erect posture with
14385-490: The province of Sindh . The water buffalo breeds used are the Nili-Ravi, Kundi, and Azi Kheli. Karachi alone has upwards of 400,000 head of water buffalo in 2021, which provide dairy as well as meat to the local population. In Thailand, the number of water buffaloes dropped from more than 3 million head in 1996 to less than 1.24 million head in 2011. Slightly over 75% of them are kept in the country's northeastern region. By
14522-403: The rate is once in every 1,764 births. Some species, such as white peacocks, swans and geese, are not believed to be true albinos, as they do not have red eyes, rather, their colouration is suggested to be the expression of a white fur or feather gene, not a lack of melanin. Melanin has several functions in most mammals and other animals; these are disrupted by albinism. Melanin functions in
14659-483: The recognition of Peleinae and Pantholopinae , comprising the genera Pelea and Pantholops respectively, as subfamilies . In 2000, American biologist George Schaller and palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba suggested the inclusion of Pelea in Reduncinae , though the grey rhebok, the sole species of Pelea , is highly different from kobs and reduncines in morphology. Pantholops , earlier classified in
14796-544: The remains were from wild specimens. Both indicate that water buffaloes were first domesticated outside of China. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA and single-nucleotide polymorphism indicate that swamp and river buffaloes were crossbred in China. A 2020 analysis of the genomes of 91 swamp and 30 river buffaloes showed that they separated already before domestication about 0.23 million years ago . A 2021 analysis of water buffalo and lowland anoa genomes unexpectedly found
14933-436: The river and swamp types of water buffalos; the river type was referred to as Bubalus bubalis bubalis (Linnaeus, 1758) , while the swamp type was referred to as Bubalus bubalis carabanensis (Castillo, 1971) . However, Bubalus carabanensis is considered a junior synonym of Bubalus kerabau Fitzinger, 1860 . The skin of the river buffalo is black, but some specimens may have dark, slate-coloured skin. Swamp buffaloes have
15070-539: The river-type and the swamp-type. The water buffalo population in India numbered over 97.9 million head in 2003, representing 56.5% of the world population. They are primarily of the river type, with 10 well-defined breeds: the Bhadawari , Banni , Jafarabadi , Marathwadi, Mehsana , Murrah , Nagpuri , Nili-Ravi , Pandharpuri , Surti , and Toda buffaloes. Swamp buffaloes occur only in small areas in northeastern India and are not distinguished into breeds. In 2003,
15207-559: The same rate. Furthermore, in certain species, albino animals may be excluded from families or other groups, or rejected as mates. On the other hand, there is also evidence for positive selection for albinism in some animals, as well as cultural selection favoring albino people in some human societies, which results in the increase of genes associated with albinism. The founder effect may explain why some animal populations become selected for albinism. The novelty of albino animals has occasionally led to their protection by groups such as
15344-599: The second-largest population lived in China, with 22.76 million head, all of the swamp-type, with many breeds kept only in the lowlands, and other breeds kept only in the mountains; as of 2003, 3.2 million swamp-type carabao buffaloes were in the Philippines, nearly 3 million swamp buffaloes were in Vietnam, and roughly 773,000 buffaloes were in Bangladesh. About 750,000 head were estimated in Sri Lanka in 1997. In Japan,
15481-652: The seven types of oculocutaneous albinism that have been identified in humans (and confirmed in some other animals) and the use of the term "partial albino" is therefore misleading. One definition states that "albinism, (from the Latin albus, meaning "white"), hereditary condition characterized by the absence of pigment in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, or feathers", however, this does not encompass invertebrates, nor does it include plants. Furthermore, it could be interpreted that "...absence of pigment..." does not include an absence of structural colours. The lack of clarity about
15618-413: The several other pigments that non-mammalian animals have and also structural colouration. For example, "Absence of the pigment melanin in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, or feathers." refers only to the pigment melanin. Because of the various uses of different terms applied to colouration, some authors have indicated that the colour of the eyes is the defining characteristic of albinism, e.g. "This leads to
15755-420: The skin and eyes, only eumelanin is present. In some bird species, the colour is completely caused by eumelanin, however, both types of melanin are found in most species. In birds, albinism has been defined as "a total lack of both melanins in feathers, eyes and skin as a result of an inherited absence of tyrosinase", however, this ignores the effects of other pigments and structural colours. An albino bird has
15892-502: The slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available. Their hides provide tough and useful leather, often used for shoes. Bovid Alternate taxonomy: The Bovidae comprise the biological family of cloven-hoofed , ruminant mammals that includes cattle , bison , buffalo , antelopes (including goat-antelopes ), sheep and goats . A member of this family
16029-470: The strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators. However, all the Hippotraginae (including the gemsbok) have pale bodies and faces with conspicuous markings. The zoologist Tim Caro describes this as difficult to explain, but given that the species are diurnal, he suggests that the markings may function in communication. Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in
16166-729: The subfamily Tethytraginae , which contains Tethytragus (mid- Miocene ). In 1992, Alan W . Gentry of the Natural History Museum, London divided the eight major subfamilies of Bovidae into two major clades on the basis of their evolutionary history: the Boodontia, which comprised only the Bovinae, and the Aegodontia, which consisted of the rest of the subfamilies. Boodonts have somewhat primitive teeth, resembling those of oxen , whereas aegodonts have more advanced teeth like those of goats. A controversy exists about
16303-594: The term is furthered when the name of an animal includes the term "albino" although the animals (clearly) do not have the condition. For example, the albino gaur has this name because it is ash-grey whereas other gaur are almost black. A clear definition appears to be – "Congenital absence of any pigmentation or colouration in a person, animal, or plant, resulting in white hair and pink eyes in mammals." Whilst this does not state specifically that non-mammalian albino animals (or plants) are white, this can be inferred from "...absence of any pigmentation or colouration..." Due to
16440-405: The third and fourth metapodials are combined into the cannon bone . The ulna and fibula are reduced, and fused with the radius and tibia, respectively. Long scapulae are present, whereas the clavicles are absent. Being ruminants , the stomach is composed of four chambers: the rumen (80%), the omasum , the reticulum , and the abomasum . The ciliates and bacteria of the rumen ferment
16577-702: The third attempt at settlement by the British on the Cobourg Peninsula was abandoned in 1849, the buffaloes were released. In the 1880s, a few river buffaloes were imported from India to Darwin for milk. Water buffalo have been the main grazing animals on the subcoastal plains and river basins between Darwin and Arnhem Land (the " Top End ") since the 1880s. They became feral and caused significant environmental damage. Their only natural predators in Australia are crocodiles and dingoes , which can only prey on
16714-422: The two types were domesticated independently. Sequencing of cytochrome b ( CytB ) genes of Bubalus species implies that the water buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river-type and the swamp-type have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp-type
16851-521: The varied use and interpretation of the term "albino", written reports of albinistic organisms can often not be verified. Melanin is an organic pigment that produces most of the colour seen in mammals. Depending on how it is created, melanin comes in two colour ranges, eumelanin (producing dark browns and blacks) and pheomelanin (producing light reddish tans and blondes). The dark and light melanins have their influence either alone or in conjunction, making either plain or multi-coloured coats. Sometimes, in
16988-563: The water and carrying quantities of edible plants. Water buffaloes eat reeds , Arundo donax , a kind of Cyperaceae , Eichhornia crassipes , and Juncaceae . Some of these plants are of great value to local peoples. Others, such as E. crassipes and A. donax , are a major problem in some tropical valleys and by eating them, the water buffaloes may help control these invasive plants. Green fodders are widely used for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include alfalfa ,
17125-474: The water buffalo differs from the rumen of other ruminants . It contains a larger population of bacteria, particularly the cellulolytic bacteria, lower protozoa , and higher fungi zoospores . In addition, higher levels of the rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH 4 -N) and pH have been found compared to those in cattle. River buffaloes prefer deep water. Swamp buffaloes prefer to wallow in mudholes, which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire
17262-624: The water buffalo was used as a domestic animal throughout the Ryukyu Islands or Okinawa prefecture , however it is almost extinct now and mainly used as a tourist attraction. Per a 2015 report, about 836,500 water buffaloes were in Nepal . The water buffalo is the main dairy animal in Pakistan, with 23.47 million head in 2010. Of these, 76% are kept in the Punjab . The rest are mostly kept in
17399-583: The western Indian subcontinent and west to the Levant, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean) and the swamp buffalo (found from Assam and East India in the west, east to the Yangtze Valley of China, and south through Indochina and Southeast Asia). River- and swamp-type water buffalo are believed to have been domesticated independently. Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and
17536-423: The wild, e.g., Mexican cave tetra . Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some that albinism can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease, or injury. However, this is contrary to definitions where the condition is inherited. Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA)
17673-490: The works of single authors. In March 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature achieved consistency in the naming of the wild and domestic water buffaloes by ruling that the scientific name Bubalus arnee is valid for the wild form. B. bubalis continues to be valid for the domestic form and applies also to feral populations. In the early 1970s, different names were proposed for
17810-402: The younger animals. As a result, they were hunted in the Top End from 1885 until 1980. In the early 1960s, an estimated population of 150,000 to 200,000 water buffaloes was living in the plains and nearby areas. The commencement of the brucellosis and tuberculosis campaign (BTEC) resulted in a huge culling program to reduce water buffalo herds to a fraction of the numbers that were reached in
17947-659: Was domesticated about 6,300 years ago, whereas the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia and was domesticated about 3,000 to 7,000 years ago. The river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt , the Balkans , and Italy; while swamp buffalo dispersed to the rest of Southeast Asia and up to the Yangtze Valley. Water buffaloes were traded from the Indus Valley Civilisation to Mesopotamia , in modern Iraq , in 2500 BC by
18084-443: Was given by the British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1821. The word "Bovidae" is the combination of the prefix bov- (originating from Latin bos , "ox", through Late Latin bovinus ) and the suffix -idae . The family Bovidae is placed in the order Artiodactyla (which includes the even-toed ungulates ). It includes 143 extant species, accounting for nearly 55% of the ungulates , and 300 known extinct species. Until
18221-591: Was growing both in Australia and in Southeast Asia. Water buffaloes were introduced into the Amazon River basin in 1895. They are now extensively used there for meat and dairy production. In 2005, the water buffalo herd in the Brazilian Amazon stood at roughly 1.6 million head, of which 460,000 were located in the lower Amazon floodplains. The breeds used include the Mediterranean from Italy,
18358-419: Was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw of the northern Philippines. A 2008 DNA analysis of Neolithic water buffalo remains in northern China (previously used as evidence of a Chinese domestication origin) found that the remains were of the extinct Bubalus mephistopheles and are not genetically related to modern domesticated water buffaloes. Another study in 2004 also concluded that
18495-535: Was observed from the Polooni area in Malappuram district and Chaliyam area of Calicut district (Kerala). As albinism is observed in those areas where the density of these mammals is comparatively low, it is concluded that continuous inbreeding could be the reason for expression of albinism. A study on albinistic prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster ) found that albinism in this species conferred an advantage for
18632-554: Was probable domesticated about 6,300 years ago; the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia , being domesticated between 3-7,000 years ago. The river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt , southern Europe, the Levant , and the Mediterranean regions; swamp buffalo dispersed in the opposite direction, to the rest of Southeast Asia, and as far as the Yangtze Valley in China. Swamp-type water buffalo entered Island Southeast Asia from at least 2,500 years ago through
18769-625: Was removed, and both groups expanded into the territory of the other. The tribes Bovini and Tragelaphini diverged in the early Miocene. Bovids are known to have reached the Americas in the Pleistocene by crossing the Bering land bridge . The present genera of Alcelaphinae appeared in the Pliocene . The extinct Alcelaphine genus Paramularius , which was the same in size as the hartebeest,
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