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120-572: Walpi ( Navajo : Deezʼáahjįʼ ) is a Hopi village established around 900 AD. It is located above Arizona State Route 264 , east of the Grand Canyon in Navajo County , northern Arizona . Walpi is the Hopi term for "place of the notch." Historically, the village has also been known as Ash Hill Terrace , Gaspe , Gualpi , Hualpi , Kuchapturela , Valpee , and Wolpi . Walpi became

240-449: A Super Bowl had been carried in a Native American language. In 2013, the 1977 film Star Wars was translated into Navajo. It was the first major motion picture translated into any Native American language. On October 5, 2018, an early beta of a Navajo course was released on Duolingo , a popular language learning app. After many Navajo schools were closed during World War II, a program aiming to provide education to Navajo children

360-503: A glottalic initiation . Navajo also has a simple glottal stop used after vowels, and every word that would otherwise begin with a vowel is pronounced with an initial glottal stop. Consonant clusters are uncommon, aside from frequent placing /d/ or /t/ before fricatives . The language has four vowel qualities: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , and /o/ . Each exists in both oral and nasalized forms, and can be either short or long. Navajo also distinguishes for tone between high and low, with

480-541: A root to identify the action and the semblance of a suffix to convey mode and aspect ; however, this suffix is fused beyond separability. The stem is given somewhat more transparent prefixes to indicate, in this order, the following information: postpositional object, postposition, adverb-state, iterativity , number , direct object , deictic information, another adverb-state, mode and aspect, subject, classifier (see later on), mirativity and two-tier evidentiality . Some of these prefixes may be null; for example, there

600-449: A subject–object–verb language. However, some speakers order the subject and object based on "noun ranking". In this system, nouns are ranked in three categories—humans, animals, and inanimate objects—and within these categories, nouns are ranked by strength, size, and intelligence. Whichever of the subject and object has a higher rank comes first. As a result, the agent of an action may be syntactically ambiguous. The highest rank position

720-619: A third of the state is covered in timberland , with heavily forested mountain wildernesses dominating the north. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains , the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains , run roughly north–south along the east side of the Rio Grande , in the rugged, pastoral north. The Great Plains extend into the eastern third of the state, most notably the Llano Estacado ("Staked Plain"), whose westernmost boundary

840-498: A "j" despite his personal objections. The Navajo refer to themselves as the Diné ('People'), with their language known as Diné bizaad ('People's language') or Naabeehó bizaad . Navajo is an Athabaskan language ; Navajo and Apache languages make up the southernmost branch of the family. Most of the other Athabaskan languages are located in Alaska, northwestern Canada, and along

960-498: A code based on Navajo. The language was considered ideal because of its grammar, which differs strongly from that of German and Japanese , and because no published Navajo dictionaries existed at the time. By the 1960s, Indigenous languages of the United States had been declining in use for some time. Native American language use began to decline more quickly in this decade as paved roads were built and English-language radio

1080-484: A fairly high percentage overall but less than among other Americans speaking a different Native American language (85.4 percent). Navajo was the only Native American language afforded its own category in the survey; domestic Navajo speakers represented 46.4 percent of all domestic Native language speakers (only 195,407 Americans have a different home Native language). As of July 2014, Ethnologue classes Navajo as "6b" (In Trouble), signifying that few, but some, parents teach

1200-485: A law granting all Native Americans U.S. citizenship and the right to vote in federal and state elections. However, Anglo-American arrivals into New Mexico enacted Jim Crow laws against Hispanos, Hispanic Americans, and those who did not pay taxes, targeting indigenous affiliated individuals; because Hispanics often had interpersonal relationships with indigenous peoples, they were often subject to segregation , social inequality , and employment discrimination . During

1320-456: A major language dictionary published that same year, and continued to work on studying and documenting the language in major works for the next few decades. Today an AM radio station, KTNN , broadcasts in Navajo and English, with programming including music and NFL games; AM station KNDN broadcasts only in Navajo. When Super Bowl XXX was broadcast in Navajo in 1996, it was the first time

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1440-531: A military word, code talkers used descriptive words. For example, the Navajo did not have a word for submarine , so they translated it as iron fish . These Navajo code talkers are widely recognized for their contributions to WWII. Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division Signal Officer stated, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima." Navajo lands were initially colonized by

1560-433: A more pronounced identity vis-a-vis the newer Anglo arrivals. Politically, they still controlled most town and county offices through local elections, and wealthy ranching families commanded considerable influence, preferring business, legislative , and judicial relations with fellow indigenous New Mexican groups. By contrast, Anglo Americans, who were "outnumbered, but well-organized and growing" tended to have more ties to

1680-448: A plaza, from which four streets ran outward to small, private agricultural plots and orchards; these were watered by acequias , community owned and operated irrigation canals. Just beyond the wall was the ejido , communal land for grazing, firewood, or recreation. By 1800, the population of New Mexico had reached 25,000 (not including indigenous inhabitants), far exceeding the territories of California and Texas. As part of New Spain,

1800-535: A prosperous empire to their north became the primary basis for the mythical Seven Cities of Gold , which spurred exploration by Spanish conquistadors following their conquest of the Aztecs in the early 16th century; prominent explorers included Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , Andrés Dorantes de Carranza , Alonso del Castillo Maldonado , Estevanico , and Marcos de Niza . The settlement of La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís — modern day Santa Fe –

1920-460: A trading center for existing surrounding communities such as Barelas , Isleta , Los Ranchos , and Sandia ; it was named for the viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque . Governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés established the villa in Tiguex to provide free trade access and facilitate cultural exchange in the region. Beyond forging better relations with

2040-413: A trait of fusional languages. In general, Navajo verbs contain more morphemes than nouns do (on average, 11 for verbs compared to 4–5 for nouns), but noun morphology is less transparent. Depending on the source, Navajo is either classified as a fusional agglutinative or even polysynthetic language, as it shows mechanisms from all three. In terms of basic word order , Navajo has been classified as

2160-557: Is subject–object–verb , though it is highly flexible to pragmatic factors. Verbs are conjugated for aspect and mood , and given affixes for the person and number of both subjects and objects , as well as a host of other variables. The language's orthography , which was developed in the late 1930s, is based on the Latin script . Most Navajo vocabulary is Athabaskan in origin, as the language has been conservative with loanwords due to its highly complex noun morphology. The word Navajo

2280-668: Is accessible to visitors by guided tours, given by the First Mesa Consolidated Villages' Tourism Program. Navajo language The language has struggled to keep a healthy speaker base, although this problem has been alleviated to some extent by extensive education programs in the Navajo Nation. In World War II, speakers of the Navajo language joined the military and developed a code for sending secret messages. These code talkers ' messages are widely credited with saving many lives and winning some of

2400-644: Is also evident in New Mexico's unique cuisine , music genre , and architectural styles . New Mexico received its name long before the present-day country of Mexico won independence from Spain and adopted that name in 1821. The name "Mexico" derives from Nahuatl and originally referred to the heartland of the Mexica , the rulers of the Aztec Empire , in the Valley of Mexico . Following their conquest of

2520-526: Is an exonym : it comes from the Tewa word Navahu , which combines the roots nava ('field') and hu ('valley') to mean 'large field'. It was borrowed into Spanish to refer to an area of present-day northwestern New Mexico , and later into English for the Navajo tribe and their language. The alternative spelling Navaho is considered antiquated; even the anthropologist Berard Haile spelled it with

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2640-429: Is by far the most prominent, constituting about three-fourths of the state; it includes most of the plains, foothills, and valleys above 4,500 feet, and is defined by prairie grasses, low piñon pines, and juniper shrubs. The Llano Estacado in the east features Shortgrass Prairie with blue grama , which sustain bison . The Chihuahuan Desert in the south is characterized by shrubby creosote . The Colorado Plateau in

2760-507: Is characterized by low to moderate taxation of resident personal income by national standards, with tax credits, exemptions, and special considerations for military personnel and favorable industries. New Mexico has a significant U.S. military presence, including White Sands Missile Range , and strategically valuable federal research centers, such as the Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories . The state hosted several key facilities of

2880-406: Is held by humans and lightning. Other linguists such as Eloise Jelinek consider Navajo to be a discourse configurational language , in which word order is not fixed by syntactic rules, but determined by pragmatic factors in the communicative context. In Navajo, verbs are the main elements of their sentences, imparting a large amount of information. The verb is based on a stem , which is made of

3000-528: Is mandatory: Béégashii cow sitį́. 3 . SUBJ -lie( 1 ). PERF Béégashii sitį́. cow 3.SUBJ-lie( 1 ).PERF 'The (one) cow lies.' Béégashii cow shitéézh. 3 . SUBJ -lie( 2 ). PERF New Mexico New Mexico is a state in the Southwestern region of the United States. It is one of the Mountain States of the southern Rocky Mountains , sharing

3120-719: Is marked by the Mescalero Ridge escarpment . The northwestern quadrant of New Mexico is dominated by the Colorado Plateau , characterized by unique volcanic formations, dry grasslands and shrublands, open pinyon-juniper woodland , and mountain forests. The Chihuahuan Desert , which is the largest in North America, extends through the south. Over four–fifths of New Mexico is higher than 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) above sea level. The average elevation ranges from up to 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) above sea level in

3240-534: Is most closely related to Western Apache , with which it shares a similar tonal scheme and more than 92 percent of its vocabulary, and to Chiricahua-Mescalero Apache . It is estimated that the Apachean linguistic groups separated and became established as distinct societies, of which the Navajo were one, somewhere between 1300 and 1525. Navajo is generally considered mutually intelligible with all other Apachean languages. The Apachean languages, of which Navajo

3360-486: Is one of only seven majority-minority states , with the nation's highest percentage of Hispanic and Latino Americans and the second-highest percentage of Native Americans, after Alaska . The state is home to one–third of the Navajo Nation , 19 federally recognized Pueblo communities , and three federally recognized Apache tribes. Its large Hispanic population includes Hispanos descended from settlers during

3480-533: Is one, are thought to have arrived in the American Southwest from the north by 1500, probably passing through Alberta and Wyoming. Archaeological finds considered to be proto-Navajo have been located in the far northern New Mexico around the La Plata, Animas and Pine rivers, dating to around 1500. In 1936, linguist Edward Sapir showed how the arrival of the Navajo people in the new arid climate among

3600-405: Is only a plural marker ( da/daa ) and no readily identifiable marker for the other grammatical numbers. Navajo does not distinguish strict tense per se; instead, an action's position in time is conveyed through mode, aspect, but also via time adverbials or context. Each verb has an inherent aspect and can be conjugated in up to seven modes. For any verb, the usitative and iterative modes share

3720-554: Is the marker of the Continuative aspect (to play about). Navajo distinguishes between the first, second, third, and fourth persons in the singular, dual, and plural numbers. The fourth person is similar to the third person, but is generally used for indefinite, theoretical actors rather than defined ones. Despite the potential for extreme verb complexity, only the mode/aspect, subject, classifier, and stem are absolutely necessary. Furthermore, Navajo negates clauses by surrounding

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3840-467: Is the state bird, is abundant in the southeast. Endangered species include the Mexican gray wolf , which is being gradually reintroduced in the world, and Rio Grande silvery minnow . Over 500 species of birds live or migrate through New Mexico, third only to California and Mexico. New Mexico and 12 other western states together account for 93% of all federally owned land in the U.S. Roughly one–third of

3960-401: Is usually encoded directly in the verb through the use of various prefixes or aspects, though this is by no means mandatory. In the following example, the verb on the right is used with the plural prefix da- and switches to the distributive aspect. Some verbal roots encode number in their lexical definition (see classificatory verbs above). When available, the use of the correct verbal root

4080-537: The Clovis culture of Paleo-Indians . Footprints discovered in 2017 suggest that humans may have been present in the region as long ago as 21,000–23,000 BC. Later inhabitants include the Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo cultures, which are characterized by sophisticated pottery work and urban development; pueblos or their remnants, like those at Acoma , Taos , and Chaco Culture National Historical Park , indicate

4200-733: The Compromise of 1850 , these regions were forced by the U.S. government to drop their claims, Texas received $ 10   million in federal funds, California was granted statehood, and officially establishing the Utah Territory ; therein recognizing most of New Mexico's historically established land claims. Pursuant to the compromise, Congress established the New Mexico Territory in September of that year; it included most of present-day Arizona and New Mexico, along with

4320-463: The Four Corners region with Utah , Colorado , and Arizona . It also borders the state of Texas to the east and southeast, Oklahoma to the northeast, and shares an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora to the south. New Mexico's largest city is Albuquerque , and its state capital is Santa Fe , the oldest state capital in the U.S., founded in 1610 as

4440-494: The Hopi people , is one of the older continuously inhabited villages in the United States, continuously inhabited for more than 1100 years since around 900 AD. It is an example of traditional Hopi stone architecture, used for their historic pueblos built at defensive locations on the mesa tops. The stone pueblo subtly rising from the stone mesa was well documented by photographs in the latter 19th century, by Edward S. Curtis , John K. Hillers , and others. Ansel Adams continued in

4560-765: The Las Vegas Valley and what would later become Clark County in Nevada . In 1853 the U.S. acquired the mostly desert southwestern bootheel of the state, along with Arizona's land south of the Gila River, in the Gadsden Purchase , which was needed for the right-of-way to encourage construction of a transcontinental railroad . When the U.S. Civil War broke out in 1861, both Confederate and Union governments claimed ownership and territorial rights over New Mexico Territory. The Confederacy claimed

4680-540: The Manhattan Project , which developed the world's first atomic bomb , and was the site of the first nuclear test, Trinity . In prehistoric times , New Mexico was home to Ancestral Puebloans , the Mogollon culture, and ancestral Ute . Navajos and Apaches arrived in the late 15th century and the Comanches in the early 18th century. The Pueblo peoples occupied several dozen villages, primarily in

4800-522: The Pecos , Canadian , San Juan , and Gila . Nearly bisecting New Mexico from north to south, the Rio Grande has played an influential role in the region's history; its fertile floodplain has supported human habitation since prehistoric times, and European settlers initially lived exclusively in its valleys and along its tributaries. The Pecos, which flows roughly parallel to the Rio Grande at its east,

4920-660: The Spanish in the early seventeenth century, shortly after this area was annexed as part of the Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain . When the United States annexed these territories in 1848 following the Mexican–American War , the English-speaking settlers allowed Navajo children to attend their schools. In some cases, the United States established separate schools for Navajo and other Native American children. In

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5040-461: The Spanish era , and later groups of Mexican Americans since the 19th century. The New Mexican flag , which is among the most recognizable in the U.S., reflects the state's eclectic origins, featuring the ancient sun symbol of the Zia , a Puebloan tribe, with the scarlet and gold coloration of the Spanish flag . The confluence of indigenous, Hispanic (Spanish and Mexican), and American influences

5160-522: The Taos Revolt in 1847 by Hispanos and their Pueblo allies; the insurrection led to the death of territorial governor Charles Bent and the collapse of the civilian government established by Stephen W. Kearny . In response, the U.S. government appointed local Donaciano Vigil as governor to better represent New Mexico, and also vowed to accept the land rights of Nuevomexicans and grant them citizenship. In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln symbolized

5280-588: The Union Army . The end of the war saw rapid economic development and settlement in New Mexico, which attracted homesteaders, ranchers, cowboys, businessmen, and outlaws; many of the folklore characters of the Western genre had their origins in New Mexico, most notably businesswoman Maria Gertrudis Barceló , outlaw Billy the Kid , and lawmen Pat Garrett and Elfego Baca . The influx of "Anglo Americans" from

5400-462: The 18th century, raids by Navajo , Apache , and especially Comanche inhibited the growth and prosperity of the New Mexico. The region's harsh environment and remoteness, surrounded by hostile Native Americans, fostered a greater degree of self-reliance, as well as pragmatic cooperation, between the Pueblo peoples and colonists. Many indigenous communities enjoyed a large measure of autonomy well into

5520-428: The 20th century, along with increasing tourists' 'snapshots' via Fred Harvey bus tours and their own automobiles up from Route 66 . The First Mesa Tourism Program describes the village of Walpi as "a living village where the homes are passed down through matrilineal clan lineage." About half a dozen in number live in the ancient stone dwellings, without running water or electricity, in the traditional manner. Walpi

5640-681: The Aztecs in the early 16th century, the Spanish began exploring what is now the Southwestern United States calling it Nuevo México . In 1581, the Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition named the region north of the Rio Grande San Felipe del Nuevo México . The Spaniards had hoped to find wealthy indigenous cultures similar to the Mexica. The indigenous cultures of New Mexico, however, proved to be unrelated to

5760-468: The Manhattan Project. The focus on high technology is still a top priority of the state, to the extent that it became a center for unidentified flying objects , especially following the 1947 Roswell incident . New Mexico saw its population nearly double from roughly 532,000 in 1940 to over 954,000 by 1960. In addition to federal personnel and agencies, many residents and businesses moved to

5880-420: The Mexica and lacking in riches, but the name persisted. Before statehood in 1912, the name "New Mexico" loosely applied to various configurations of territories in the same general area, which evolved throughout the Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. periods , but typically encompassed most of present-day New Mexico along with sections of neighboring states. The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of

6000-608: The Mexican and American militaries. The United States Congress admitted New Mexico as the 47th state on January 6, 1912. It had been eligible for statehood 60 years earlier, but was delayed due to the perception that its majority Hispanic population was "alien" to U.S. culture and political values. When the U.S. entered the First World War roughly five years later, New Mexicans volunteered in significant numbers, in part to prove their loyalty as full-fledged citizens of

6120-578: The Mexican government, culminating in the Revolt of 1837 ; at the same time, the region became more economically dependent on the U.S. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the U.S. annexed New Mexico as part of the larger New Mexico Territory . It played a central role in U.S. westward expansion and was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6, 1912. New Mexico's history has contributed to its unique demographic and cultural character. It

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6240-541: The Navajo Agency of the Bureau of Indian Affairs , developed and published a practical orthography in 1937. It helped spread education among Navajo speakers. In 1943 the men collaborated on The Navajo Language , a dictionary organized by the roots of the language. In World War II , the United States military used speakers of Navajo as code talkers —to transmit top-secret military messages over telephone and radio in

6360-464: The Navajo language to relay secret messages. At the end of the war the code remained unbroken. The code used Navajo words for each letter of the English alphabet. Messages could be encoded and decoded by using a simple substitution cipher where the ciphertext was the Navajo word. Type two code was informal and directly translated from English into Navajo. If there was no word in Navajo to describe

6480-596: The Navajo language, and no English, while five English language teachers instruct in the English language. Kindergarten and first grade are taught completely in the Navajo language, while English is incorporated into the program during third grade, when it is used for about 10% of instruction. According to the Navajo Nation Education Policies, the Navajo Tribal Council requests that schools teach both English and Navajo so that

6600-467: The Navajo word for "corn" is naadą́ą́ʼ , derived from two Proto-Athabaskan roots meaning "enemy" and "food", suggesting that the Navajo originally considered corn to be "food of the enemy" when they first arrived among the Pueblo people. During World Wars I and II, the U.S. government employed speakers of the Navajo language as Navajo code talkers . These Navajo soldiers and sailors used a code based on

6720-967: The North American Pacific coast. Most languages in the Athabaskan family have tones . However, this feature evolved independently in all subgroups; Proto-Athabaskan had no tones. In each case, tone evolved from glottalic consonants at the ends of morphemes; however, the progression of these consonants into tones has not been consistent, with some related morphemes being pronounced with high tones in some Athabaskan languages and low tones in others. It has been posited that Navajo and Chipewyan , which have no common ancestor more recent than Proto-Athabaskan and possess many pairs of corresponding but opposite tones, evolved from different dialects of Proto-Athabaskan that pronounced these glottalic consonants differently. Proto-Athabaskan diverged fully into separate languages c.  500 BC . Navajo

6840-630: The Pueblos, governors were forbearing in their approach to the indigenous peoples, such as was with governor Tomás Vélez Cachupín ; the comparatively large reservations in New Mexico and Arizona are partly a legacy of Spanish treaties recognizing indigenous land claims in Nuevo México. Nevertheless, relations between the various indigenous groups and Spanish settlers remained nebulous and complex, varying from trade and commerce to cultural assimilation and intermarriage to total warfare. During most of

6960-416: The Rio Grande valley of northern New Mexico. Spanish explorers and settlers arrived in the 16th century from present-day Mexico. Isolated by its rugged terrain, New Mexico was a peripheral part of the viceroyalty of New Spain dominated by Comancheria . Following Mexican independence in 1821, it became an autonomous region of Mexico, albeit increasingly threatened by the centralizing policies of

7080-488: The U.S. The state ranked fifth in the nation for military service, enlisting more than 17,000 recruits from all 33 counties; over 500 New Mexicans were killed in the war. Indigenous-Hispanic families had long been established since the Spanish and Mexican era, but most American settlers in the state had an uneasy relationship with the large Native American tribes. Most indigenous New Mexicans lived on reservations and near old placitas and villas . In 1924, Congress passed

7200-753: The U.S. reclassified the land as part of the Missouri Territory . This region of New Mexico (along with territory comprising present-day southeastern Colorado, the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles , and southwestern Kansas ) was ceded to Spain under the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819. When the First Mexican Republic began to transition into the Centralist Republic of Mexico , they began to centralize power ignoring

7320-510: The assistance of Sally Midgette (Navajo). This work is organized by root , the basis of Athabaskan languages. A 1991 survey of 682 preschoolers on the Navajo Reservation Head Start program found that 54 percent were monolingual English speakers, 28 percent were bilingual in English and Navajo, and 18 percent spoke only Navajo. This study noted that while the preschool staff knew both languages, they spoke English to

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7440-581: The average high temperature in July ranges from 99 °F (37 °C) at the lower elevations down to 78   °F (26   °C) at the higher elevations. In the colder months of November to March, many cities in New Mexico can have nighttime temperature lows in the teens above zero, or lower. The highest temperature recorded in New Mexico was 122 °F (50 °C) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Loving on June 27, 1994;

7560-496: The chance to establish their own bilingual education programs. However, qualified teachers who were fluent in Native languages were scarce, and these programs were largely unsuccessful. However, data collected in 1980 showed that 85 percent of Navajo first-graders were bilingual, compared to 62 percent of Navajo of all ages—early evidence of a resurgence of use of their traditional language among younger people. In 1984, to counteract

7680-469: The children most of the time. In addition, most of the children's parents spoke to the children in English more often than in Navajo. The study concluded that the preschoolers were in "almost total immersion in English". An American Community Survey taken in 2011 found that 169,369 Americans spoke Navajo at home—0.3 percent of Americans whose primary home language was not English. Of primary Navajo speakers, 78.8 percent reported they spoke English "very well",

7800-558: The children would remain bilingual, though their influence over the school systems was very low. A small number of preschool programs provided the Navajo immersion curriculum, which taught children basic Navajo vocabulary and grammar under the assumption that they have no prior knowledge in the Navajo language. Navajo has a fairly large consonant inventory. Its stop consonants exist in three laryngeal forms: aspirated , unaspirated, and ejective —for example, /tʃʰ/ , /tʃ/ , and /tʃʼ/ . Ejective consonants are those that are pronounced with

7920-512: The corn agriculturalists of the Pueblo area was reflected in their language by tracing the changing meanings of words from Proto-Athabaskan to Navajo. For example, the word * dè: , which in Proto-Athabaskan meant "horn" and "dipper made from animal horn", in Navajo became a-deeʼ, which meant "gourd" or "dipper made from gourd". Likewise, the Proto-Athabaskan word * ł-yəx̣s "snow lies on the ground" in Navajo became yas "snow". Similarly,

8040-634: The desert between Socorro and Alamogordo , which is today part of the White Sands Missile Range . As a legacy of the Second World War, New Mexico continues to receive large amounts of federal government spending on major military and research institutions. In addition to the White Sands Missile Range, the state hosts three U.S. Air Force bases that were established or expanded during the war. While

8160-481: The eastern U.S. (which include African Americans and recent European immigrants) reshaped the state's economy, culture, and politics. Into the late 19th century, the majority of New Mexicans remained ethnic mestizos of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry (primarily Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Genízaro, and Comanche), many of whom had roots going back to Spanish settlement in the 16th century; this distinctly New Mexican ethnic group became known as Hispanos and developed

8280-531: The economic development and welfare of their peoples. The Albuquerque metropolitan area is home to several casinos as a result. In the 21st century, employment growth areas in New Mexico include electronic circuitry , scientific research , information technology, casinos , art of the American Southwest , food, film , and media, particularly in Albuquerque . The state was the founding location of Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems , which led to

8400-543: The field, powerful indigenous groups such as the Navajo , Mescalero Apache, Kiowa , and Comanche were brutally pacified through a scorched earth policy, and thereafter forced into barren and remote reservations. Sporadic conflicts continued into the late 1880s, most notably the guerilla campaigns led by Apache chiefs Victorio and his son-in-law Nana . The political and cultural clashes between these competing ethnic groups sometimes culminated in mob violence, including lynchings of Native, Hispanic, and Mexican peoples, as

8520-614: The fight for women's suffrage in the United States , New Mexico's Hispano and Mexican women at the forefront included Trinidad Cabeza de Baca, Dolores "Lola" Armijo, Mrs. James Chavez, Aurora Lucero, Anita "Mrs. Secundino" Romero, Arabella "Mrs. Cleofas" Romero and her daughter, Marie. A major oil discovery in 1928 near the town of Hobbs brought greater wealth to the state, especially in surrounding Lea County . The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources called it "the most important single discovery of oil in New Mexico's history". Nevertheless, agriculture and cattle ranching remained

8640-475: The founding of Microsoft in Albuquerque. Intel maintains their F11X in Rio Rancho , which also hosts an IT center for HP Inc. New Mexico's culinary scene became recognized and is now a source of revenue for the state. Albuquerque Studios has become a filming hub for Netflix , and it was brought international media production companies to the state like NBCUniversal . The COVID-19 pandemic

8760-457: The government seat of Nuevo México in New Spain . New Mexico is the fifth-largest of the fifty states by area, but with just over 2.1 million residents, ranks 36th in population and 45th in population density . Its climate and geography are highly varied, ranging from forested mountains to sparse deserts; the northern and eastern regions exhibit a colder alpine climate , while

8880-461: The high military presence brought considerable investment, it has also been the center of controversy; on May 22, 1957, a B-36 accidentally dropped a nuclear bomb 4.5 miles from the control tower while landing at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque; only its conventional "trigger" detonated. The Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories , two of the nation's leading federal scientific research facilities , originated from

9000-416: The language to their offspring and that concerted efforts at revitalization could easily protect the language. Navajo had a high population for a language in this category. About half of all Navajo people live on Navajo Nation land, an area spanning parts of Arizona , New Mexico , and Utah ; others are dispersed throughout the United States. Under tribal law, fluency in Navajo is mandatory for candidates to

9120-485: The language's historical decline, the Navajo Nation Council decreed that the Navajo language would be available and comprehensive for students of all grade levels in schools of the Navajo Nation . This effort was aided by the fact that, largely due to the work of Young and Morgan, Navajo is one of the best-documented Native American languages. In 1980 they published a monumental expansion of their work on

9240-657: The language, organized by word (first initial of vowel or consonant) in the pattern of English dictionaries, as requested by Navajo students. The Navajo Language: A Grammar and Colloquial Dictionary also included a 400-page grammar, making it invaluable for both native speakers and students of the language. Particularly in its organization of verbs, it was oriented to Navajo speakers. They expanded this work again in 1987, with several significant additions, and this edition continues to be used as an important text. The Native American language education movement has been met with adversity, such as by English-only campaigns in some areas in

9360-469: The late 1990s. However, Navajo-immersion programs have cropped up across the Navajo Nation. Statistical evidence shows that Navajo-immersion students generally do better on standardized tests than their counterparts educated only in English. Some educators have remarked that students who know their native languages feel a sense of pride and identity validation. Since 1989, Diné College , a Navajo tribal community college , has offered an associate degree in

9480-406: The late 19th century due to the improved governance. To encourage settlement in its vulnerable periphery, Spain awarded land grants to European settlers in Nuevo México; due to the scarcity of water throughout the region, the vast majority of colonists resided in the central valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Most communities were walled enclaves consisting of adobe houses that opened onto

9600-552: The late 19th century, it founded boarding schools, often operated by religious missionary groups. In efforts to acculturate the children, school authorities insisted that they learn to speak English and practice Christianity. Students routinely had their mouths washed out with lye soap as a punishment if they did speak Navajo. Consequently, when these students grew up and had children of their own, they often did not teach them Navajo, in order to prevent them from being punished. Robert W. Young and William Morgan , who both worked for

9720-475: The least. Higher altitudes receive around 40 inches (1,000 mm), while the lowest elevations see as little as 8 to 10 inches (200 to 250 millimetres). Annual temperatures can range from 65 °F (18 °C) in the southeast to below 40 °F (4 °C) in the northern mountains, with the average being the mid-50s °F (12 °C). During the summer, daytime temperatures can often exceed 100 °F (38 °C) at elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 m);

9840-530: The low tone typically regarded as the default. However, some linguists have suggested that Navajo does not possess true tones, but only a pitch accent system similar to that of Japanese . In general, Navajo speech also has a slower speech tempo than English does. Navajo is difficult to classify in terms of broad morphological typology : it relies heavily on affixes —mainly prefixes—like agglutinative languages, but these affixes are joined in unpredictable, overlapping ways that make them difficult to segment,

9960-810: The lowest recorded temperature is −57 °F (−49 °C) at Ciniza (near Jamestown ) on January 13, 1963. New Mexico's stable climate and sparse population provides for clearer skies and less light pollution , making it a popular site for several major astronomical observatories , including the Apache Point Observatory , the Very Large Array , and the Magdalena Ridge Observatory , among others. Owing to its varied topography , New Mexico has six distinct vegetation zones that provide diverse sets of habitats for many plants and animals. The Upper Sonoran Zone

10080-485: The most decisive battles in the war. Navajo has a fairly large phonemic inventory, including several consonants that are not found in English. Its four basic vowel qualities are distinguished for nasality , length , and tone . Navajo has both agglutinative and fusional elements: it uses affixes to modify verbs, and nouns are typically created from multiple morphemes, but in both cases these morphemes are fused irregularly and beyond easy recognition. Basic word order

10200-401: The most of any U.S. state. New Mexico's economy is highly diversified, including cattle ranching , agriculture, lumber, scientific and technological research, tourism, and the arts; major sectors include mining, oil and gas, aerospace, media , and film. Its total gross domestic product (GDP) in 2020 was $ 95.73 billion, with a GDP per capita of roughly $ 46,300. State tax policy

10320-405: The northwest corner of New Mexico is high desert with cold winters, featuring sagebrush , shadescale , greasewood , and other plants adapted to the saline and seleniferous soil. The mountainous north hosts a wide array of vegetation types corresponding to elevation gradients, such as piñon-juniper woodlands near the base, through evergreen conifers , spruce - fir and aspen forests in

10440-546: The northwest, to less than 4,000 feet in the southeast. The highest point is Wheeler Peak at over 13,160 feet (4,010 meters) in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, while the lowest is the Red Bluff Reservoir at around 2,840 feet (870 meters), in the southeastern corner of the state. In addition to the Rio Grande, which is tied for the fourth-longest river in the U.S. , New Mexico has four other major river systems:

10560-655: The number of monolingual Navajo speakers have been in the decline, and most younger Navajo people are bilingual. Near the 1990s, many Navajo children have little to no knowledge in Navajo language, only knowing English. In 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act , which provided funds for educating young students who are not native English speakers. The Act had mainly been intended for Spanish-speaking children—particularly Mexican Americans —but it applied to all recognized linguistic minorities. Many Native American tribes seized

10680-663: The office of the President of the Navajo Nation . Both original and translated media have been produced in Navajo. The first works tended to be religious texts translated by missionaries, including the Bible. From 1943 to about 1957, the Navajo Agency of the BIA published Ádahooníłígíí ("Events" ), the first newspaper in Navajo and the only one to be written entirely in Navajo. It was edited by Robert W. Young and William Morgan, Sr. (Navajo). They had collaborated on The Navajo Language ,

10800-640: The official name as a result of a decision of the Board on Geographic Names in 1915. Walpi is an ancient stone pueblo complex located on the First Mesa (of three), 300 feet (91 m) above the canyon floor, on the Hopi Reservation . The villages of Sichomovi and Tewa (Hano) are also on First Mesa, both established after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 against the Spanish missions. Walpi, of

10920-591: The primary economic activities. New Mexico was greatly transformed by the U.S. entry into the Second World War in December 1941. As in the First World War, patriotism ran high among New Mexicans, including among marginalized Hispanic and indigenous communities; on a per capita basis, New Mexico produced more volunteers, and suffered more casualties, than any other state. The war also spurred economic development, particularly in extractive industries, with

11040-612: The province of New Mexico became part of the First Mexican Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence . Upon its secession from Mexico in 1836, the Republic of Texas claimed the portion east of the Rio Grande , based on the erroneous assumption that the older Hispanic settlements of the upper Rio Grande were the same as the newly established Mexican settlements of Texas. The Texan Santa Fe Expedition

11160-551: The recognition of Native land rights with the Lincoln Canes, sceptres of office gifted to each of the Pueblos, a tradition dating back to Spanish and Mexican eras. After the Republic of Texas was admitted as a state in 1846, it attempted to claim the eastern portion of New Mexico east of the Rio Grande, while the California Republic and State of Deseret each claimed parts of western New Mexico. Under

11280-575: The same stem, as do the progressive and future modes; these modes are distinguished with prefixes. However, pairs of modes other than these may also share the same stem, as illustrated in the following example, where the verb "to play" is conjugated into each of the five mode paradigms: The basic set of subject prefixes for the imperfective mode, as well as the actual conjugation of the verb into these person and number categories, are as follows. The remaining piece of these conjugated verbs—the prefix na- —is called an "outer" or "disjunct" prefix. It

11400-500: The scale of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings within the area. These cultures form part of the broader Oasisamerica region of pre-Columbian North America. The vast trade networks of the Ancestral Puebloans led to legends throughout Mesoamerica and the Aztec Empire ( Mexico ) of an unseen northern empire that rivaled their own, which they called Yancuic Mexico , literally translated as "a new Mexico". Aztec legends of

11520-813: The southern tract as its own Arizona Territory , and as part of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the war, waged the ambitious New Mexico Campaign to control the American Southwest and open up access to Union California. Confederate power in the New Mexico Territory was effectively broken after the Battle of Glorieta Pass in 1862, though the Confederate territorial government continued to operate out of Texas. More than 8,000 soldiers from New Mexico Territory served in

11640-479: The sovereignty of Santa Fe and disregarding Pueblo land rights. This led to the Chimayó Rebellion in 1837, led by genízaro José Gonzales. The death of then governor Albino Pérez during the revolt, was met with further hostility. Though José Gonzales was executed due to his involvement in the governor's death, subsequent governors Manuel Armijo and Juan Bautista Vigil y Alarid agreed with some of

11760-415: The state becoming a leading supplier of several strategic resources. New Mexico's rough terrain and geographic isolation made it an attractive location for several sensitive military and scientific installations; the most famous was Los Alamos , one of the central facilities of the Manhattan Project , where the first atomic bombs were designed and manufactured. The first bomb was tested at Trinity site in

11880-658: The state is known as the Bootheel . The 37°N parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states of New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in New Mexico's northwestern corner. Its surface water area is about 292 square miles (760 km ). Despite its popular depiction as mostly arid desert, New Mexico has one of the most diverse landscapes of any U.S. state, ranging from wide, auburn-colored deserts and verdant grasslands , to broken mesas and high, snow-capped peaks. Close to

12000-424: The state is semi-arid to arid, with areas of continental and alpine climates at higher elevations. New Mexico's statewide average precipitation is 13.7 inches (350 mm) a year, with average monthly amounts peaking in the summer, particularly in the more rugged north-central area around Albuquerque and in the south. Generally, the eastern third of the state receives the most rainfall, while the western third receives

12120-420: The state of Oklahoma , and 2.2 miles (3.5 kilometres) west of 103°W longitude with Texas due to a 19th-century surveying error. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, with Chihuahua making up about 90% of that. The western border with Arizona runs along the 109° 03'W longitude. The southwestern corner of

12240-467: The state, or 24.7 million of 77.8 million acres, is held by the U.S. government, the tenth-highest percentage in the country. More than half this land is under the Bureau of Land Management as either public domain land or National Conservation Lands , while another third is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as national forests . New Mexico was central to the early–20th century conservation movement , with Gila Wilderness being designated

12360-548: The state, particularly from the northeast, often drawn by its warm climate and low taxes. The pattern continues into the 21st century, with New Mexico adding over 400,000 residents between 2000 and 2020. Native Americans from New Mexico fought for the United States in both world wars. Returning veterans were disappointed to find their civil rights limited by state discrimination. In Arizona and New Mexico, veterans challenged state laws or practices prohibiting them from voting. In 1948, after veteran Miguel Trujillo Sr. of Isleta Pueblo

12480-451: The subject of Navajo. This program includes language, literature, culture, medical terminology, and teaching courses and produces the highest number of Navajo teachers of any institution in the United States. About 600 students attend per semester. One major university that teaches classes in the Navajo language is Arizona State University . In 1992, Young and Morgan published another major work on Navajo: Analytical Lexicon of Navajo , with

12600-442: The territorial government, whose officials were appointed by the U.S. federal government; subsequently, newer residents of New Mexico generally favored maintaining territorial status, which they saw as a check on Native and Hispano influence. A consequence of the civil war was intensifying conflict with indigenous peoples, which was part of the broader American Indian Wars along the frontier. The withdrawal of troops and material for

12720-861: The transitionary zone, and Krummholz , and alpine tundra at the very top. The Apachian zone tucked into the southwestern bootheel of the state has high-calcium soil, oak woodlands , Arizona cypress , and other plants that are not found in other parts of the state. The southern sections of the Rio Grande and Pecos valleys have 20,000 square miles (52,000 square kilometres) of New Mexico's best grazing land and irrigated farmland. New Mexico's varied climate and vegetation zones consequently support diverse wildlife. Black bears , bighorn sheep , bobcats , cougars , deer , and elk live in habitats above 7,000 feet, while coyotes , jackrabbits , kangaroo rats , javelina , porcupines , pronghorn antelope , western diamondbacks , and wild turkeys live in less mountainous and elevated regions. The iconic roadrunner , which

12840-562: The underlying sentiment. This led to New Mexico becoming financially and politically tied to the U.S., and preferring trade along the Santa Fe Trail . Following the victory of the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48), Mexico ceded its northern territories to the U.S., including California, Texas, and New Mexico. The Americans were initially heavy-handed in their treatment of former Mexican citizens, triggering

12960-559: The verb with the circum clitic doo= ... =da (e.g. mósí doo nitsaa da 'the cat is not big'). Dooda , as a single word, corresponds to English no . Nouns are not required to form a complete Navajo sentence. Besides the extensive information that can be communicated with a verb, Navajo speakers may alternate between the third and fourth person to distinguish between two already specified actors, similarly to how speakers of languages with grammatical gender may repeatedly use pronouns. Most nouns are not inflected for number, and plurality

13080-710: The war effort had prompted raids by hostile tribes, and the federal government moved to subdue the many native communities that had been effectively autonomous throughout the colonial period. Following the elimination of the Confederate threat, Brigadier General James Carleton , who had assumed command of the Military Department of New Mexico in 1862, led what he described as a "merciless war against all hostile tribes" that aimed to "force them to their knees, and then confine them to reservations where they could be Christianized and instructed in agriculture." With famed frontiersman Kit Carson placed in charge of troops in

13200-427: The west and south are warmer and more arid . The Rio Grande and its fertile valley runs from north-to-south, creating a riparian climate through the center of the state that supports a bosque habitat and distinct Albuquerque Basin climate. One-third of New Mexico's land is federally owned, and the state hosts many protected wilderness areas and national monuments, including three UNESCO World Heritage Sites ,

13320-646: The world's first wilderness area in 1924. The state also hosts nine of the country's 84 national monuments , the most of any state after Arizona; these include the second oldest monument, El Morro , which was created in 1906, and the Gila Cliff Dwellings , proclaimed in 1907. New Mexico's national parks , together with national monuments and trails managed by the National Park Service , are listed as follows: New Mexico's national monuments, conservation areas, and other units of

13440-438: The world's great art centers. The presence of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe attracted many others, including those along Canyon Road . In the late 20th century, Native Americans were authorized by federal law to establish gaming casinos on their reservations under certain conditions, in states which had authorized such gaming. Such facilities have helped tribes close to population centers generate revenues for reinvestment in

13560-643: Was a popular route for explorers, as was the Canadian River, which rises in the mountainous north and flows east across the arid plains. The San Juan and Gila lie west of the Continental Divide , in the northwest and southwest, respectively. With the exception of the Gila, all major rivers are dammed in New Mexico and provide a major water source for irrigation and flood control. New Mexico has long been known for its dry, temperate climate. Overall

13680-539: Was attempted at the Frisco shootout in 1884. Nevertheless, prominent figures from across these communities, and from both the Democratic and Republican parties , attempted to fight this prejudice and forge a more cohesive, multiethnic New Mexican identity; they include lawmen Baca and Garrett , and governors Curry , Hagerman , and Otero . Indeed, some territorial governors, like Lew Wallace , had served in both

13800-463: Was broadcast to tribal areas. Navajo was no exception, although its large speaker pool—larger than that of any other Native language in the United States—gave it more staying power than most. Adding to the language's decline, federal acts passed in the 1950s to increase educational opportunities for Navajo children had resulted in pervasive use of English in their schools. In more recent years,

13920-572: Was confirmed to have reached the U.S. state of New Mexico on March 11, 2020. On December 23, 2020, the New Mexico Department of Health reported 1,174 new COVID-19 cases and 40 deaths, bringing the cumulative statewide totals to 133,242 cases and 2,243 deaths since the start of the pandemic. With a total area of 121,590 square miles (314,900 km ), New Mexico is the fifth-largest state , after Alaska, Texas, California, and Montana. Its eastern border lies along 103°W longitude with

14040-565: Was established by Pedro de Peralta as a more permanent capital at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in 1610. Towards the end of the 17th century, the Pueblo Revolt drove out the Spanish and occupied these early cities for over a decade. After the death of Pueblo leader Popé , Diego de Vargas restored the area to Spanish rule, with Puebloans offered greater cultural and religious liberties. Returning settlers founded La Villa de Alburquerque in 1706 at Old Town Albuquerque as

14160-799: Was funded in the 1950s, where the number of students quickly doubled in the next decade. The Navajo Nation operates Tséhootsooí Diné Bi'ólta', a Navajo language immersion school for grades K-8 in Fort Defiance, Arizona . Located on the Arizona-New Mexico border in the southeastern quarter of the Navajo Reservation , the school strives to revitalize Navajo among children of the Window Rock Unified School District . Tséhootsooí Diné Bi'ólta' has thirteen Navajo language teachers who instruct only in

14280-550: Was launched to seize the contested territory but failed with the capture and imprisonment of the entire army by the Hispanic New Mexico militia. During the turn of the 19th century, the extreme northeastern part of New Mexico, north of the Canadian River and east of the spine of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, was still claimed by France, which sold it in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase . In 1812,

14400-470: Was told by the county registrar that he could not register to vote, he filed suit against the county in federal district court. A three-judge panel overturned as unconstitutional New Mexico's provisions that Native Americans who did not pay taxes (and could not document if they had paid taxes) could not vote. In the early to mid-20th century, the art presence in Santa Fe grew, and it became known as one of

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