Oberst ( German pronunciation: [ˈoːbɐst] ) is a senior field officer rank in several German -speaking and Scandinavian countries, equivalent to Colonel . It is currently used by both the ground and air forces of Austria , Germany , Switzerland , Denmark , and Norway . The Swedish rank överste is a direct translation, as are the Finnish rank eversti and the Icelandic rank ofursti .
158-466: Spanish Civil War World War II Werner Mölders (18 March 1913 – 22 November 1941) was a World War II German Luftwaffe pilot, wing commander , and the leading German fighter ace in the Spanish Civil War . He became the first pilot in aviation history to shoot down 100 enemy aircraft and was highly decorated for his achievements. Mölders developed fighter tactics that led to
316-487: A Schwarm (swarm). Mölders is often credited with inventing the cross-over turn. An early version of the manoeuvre, as used by a "Vic" of five aircraft (a tight formation forming the letter "V"), appeared in the Royal Air Force (RAF) Training Manual of 1922, and the manoeuvre may even date back to 1918. However, it had fallen into disuse due to the difficulty of performing it in a multi-aircraft formation with
474-595: A Junkers Ju 52 . From 6 December 1938 until March 1939, Mölders was a member of the 1st group of Jagdgeschwader 133 (JG 133) and held a staff position with the Inspector of Fighters at the Ministry of Aviation in Berlin. His task was to devise new fighter pilot tactics. In March 1939 he was given command as Staffelkapitän of 1./JG 133, taking over command from Oberleutnant Hubertus von Bonin. JG 133
632-595: A victory roll over the airfield. He was the first fighter pilot to amass 100 aerial victories in World War II. The following day he received news that he had been awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillanten ). Mölders was the first of 27 German servicemen to receive this award. The diamonds added to
790-625: A Catholic religious marriage ceremony but Klawitter, regarded by the Third Reich as politically "unreliable," had performed the ceremony. Despite petitions from politicians and high-ranking active and retired servicemen, among them Horst Seehofer , Rall and Jörg Kuebart , the Office for Military History (MGFA) noted that Mölders' membership in the Bund Neudeutschland did not provide sufficient evidence of his having been critical of
948-705: A base of a battalion of the 34th Signal Regiment of the Bundeswehr in Visselhövede received the name "Mölders". The Fighter Wing 74 ( Jagdgeschwader 74 ), stationed in Neuburg an der Donau , received the name "Mölders" in 1973. Now a general, Rall presented the cuffbands. In 1998, on the occasion of the 61st anniversary of the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War,
1106-603: A benefactor in Father Erich Klawitter, who instilled firm religious beliefs in him. From 1919 to 1931, Mölders attended, first, the elementary school and then from 1922 the Saldria - Realgymnasium , a secondary school that enjoyed a supraregional reputation. In school he discovered his love for water sports, especially rowing . He joined two rowing clubs, first the Saldria-Brandenburg and later
1264-632: A collapse as in Spain at this moment. Abroad, Spain is classified as insolvent. This is not the road to socialism or communism but to desperate anarchism without even the advantage of liberty". The disenchantment with Azaña's ruling was also voiced by Miguel de Unamuno , a republican and one of Spain's most respected intellectuals who, in June 1936, told a reporter who published his statement in El Adelanto that President Manuel Azaña should commit suicide "as
1422-620: A command post at Chaplinka airfield, from where he flew in his personal Fieseler Fi 156 Storch on tours of the Jagdwaffe and personally directed German fighter operations. Mölders also flew unofficially on missions, and actively commanded his old unit, JG 51, for several more months. On 9 November 1941, he took Herbert Kaiser on a "teaching" mission against a formation of Il-2 Sturmoviks . Mölders showed Kaiser how to shoot them down. He recalled later: "He positioned himself off to one side of-and some distance away from-the last Il-2 in
1580-580: A counter-propaganda campaign. His idea was to use Mölders' popularity in Germany by airdropping the Möldersbrief (Mölders-letter), a copy of correspondence supposedly written by Mölders to the provost of Schwerin , to create the assumption that Mölders' strong Catholic beliefs led him to oppose the Nazi regime in Germany. The letter did not bluntly call for opposition against the state and never mentioned
1738-408: A dive and I lost sight of it, as I had to defend myself against other opponents newly arriving on the scene. On 26 September 1939, JG 53 was ordered to form its III. Gruppe . Mölders relinquished command of 1./JG 53 to Oberleutnant Hans-Karl Mayer and organised the formation of III./JG 53 at Wiesbaden-Erbenheim Airfield ; within two weeks, Gruppenkommandeur Mölders reported that
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#17327802673761896-486: A formation of six. He then turned in quickly and opened fire at the enemy's cockpit from an angle of some 30 degrees. The Il-2 immediately burst into flames and crashed. 'Do you see how it's done?', Oberst Mölders' voice came over the R/T. 'Right, now you take the next one.' I carried out the same manoeuvre and, sure enough, the next Il-2 went down on fire. 'And again!' It was like being on a training flight. Another short burst and
2054-594: A lesser scale also took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, with the participation of local authorities varying from location to location. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain. Those in favour of reforming the Spanish government vied for political power with conservatives who intended to prevent such reforms from being implemented. In a tradition that started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , many liberals sought to curtail
2212-404: A monopoly on hiring; strikes; and efforts by unions to limit women's employment, all done to preserve a labour monopoly for their members. Class struggle intensified as landowners turned to counterrevolutionary organisations and local oligarchs. Strikes, workplace theft, arson, robbery and assaults on shops, strikebreakers, employers and machines became increasingly common. Ultimately, the reforms of
2370-661: A month. Generalmajor Osterkamp briefly led the Geschwader again during Mölders' convalescence. On 7 August 1940, Mölders returned to the Geschwader without medical clearance for combat, to participate in Operation Eagle Attack (code name Adlertag ). Hitler had issued Führer Directive no. 17 on 1 August 1940; the strategic objective was to engage and defeat the RAF so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ),
2528-516: A new "constituent parliament" which would be chosen by a new politically purged electorate, who would vote on the issue of republic versus monarchy. Liberal elements would remain, such as separation of church and state as well as freedom of religion. Agrarian issues would be solved by regional commissioners on the basis of smallholdings, but collective cultivation would be permitted in some circumstances. Legislation prior to February 1936 would be respected. Violence would be required to destroy opposition to
2686-411: A passenger in a Heinkel He 111 of Kampfgeschwader 27 "Boelcke" from Crimea to Germany to attend the funeral of his superior, Ernst Udet , who had committed suicide. Attempting to land at Breslau during a thunderstorm, the aircraft crashed. Mölders, pilot Oberleutnant Kolbe and flight engineer Oberfeldwebel Hobbie were killed. Major Dr. Wenzel and radio operator Oberfeldwebel Tenz survived
2844-539: A patriotic act". Laia Balcells observes that polarisation in Spain just before the coup was so intense that physical confrontations between leftists and rightists were a routine occurrence in most localities; six days before the coup occurred, there was a riot between the two in the province of Teruel. Balcells notes that Spanish society was so divided along Left-Right lines that the monk Hilari Raguer stated that in his parish, instead of playing "cops and robbers", children would sometimes play "leftists and rightists". Within
3002-449: A reprisal for Castillo's murder. But he was not at home, so they went to the house of José Calvo Sotelo , a Spanish monarchist and prominent parliamentary conservative. Luis Cuenca, a member of the arresting group and a Socialist who was known as the bodyguard of PSOE leader Indalecio Prieto , summarily executed Sotelo. Reprisals followed. The killing of Calvo Sotelo with police involvement aroused suspicions and reactions among
3160-566: A socialist Republic in association with the Soviet Union". Francisco Largo Caballero declared that "the organized proletariat will carry everything before it and destroy everything until we reach our goal". The country had rapidly become anarchic. Even the staunch socialist Indalecio Prieto , at a party rally in Cuenca in May 1936, complained: "we have never seen so tragic a panorama or so great
3318-460: A struggle between dictatorship and republican democracy , between revolution and counterrevolution , and between fascism and communism . According to Claude Bowers , U.S. ambassador to Spain during the war, it was the " dress rehearsal " for World War II . The Nationalists won the war, which ended in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975. The war began after
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#17327802673763476-533: A taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical violence throughout Madrid and south-west portion of the country. The slow response on the part of the government disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determined to persecute the church. In June and July, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) called several strikes , which led to
3634-708: A violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the CNT in Seville . This led many workers to believe the Second Spanish Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy, and the CNT announced its intention of overthrowing it via revolution . Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists. With
3792-453: A war of religion, and military authorities increasingly deferred to the Church and to the expression of Catholic sentiment. Mola's program was vague and only a rough sketch, and there were disagreements among coupists about their vision. On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who falsely convinced Casares of his loyalty to the republic. Mola began planning in
3950-613: A year of intense pressure, CEDA, the party with the most seats in parliament, finally succeeded in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. The Socialists (PSOE) and Communists reacted with an insurrection for which they had been preparing for nine months. The rebellion developed into a bloody uprising known as the Revolution of 1934 . Fairly well armed revolutionaries managed to take the whole province of Asturias, murdering numerous policemen, clergymen and civilians, destroying religious buildings including churches, convents and part of
4108-531: A year. Events in the period after November 1933, called the " black biennium ", seemed to make a civil war more likely. Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government, reversing changes made by the previous administration and granting amnesty to the collaborators of the unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo in August 1932. Some monarchists joined with
4266-414: Is a German word. Spelled with a capital O, " Oberst " is a noun and defines the military rank of colonel or group captain . Spelled with a lower case o, or " oberst ", it is an adjective, meaning "superior, top, topmost, uppermost, highest, chief, head, first, principal, or supreme". Both usages derive from the superlative of ober(e) , "the upper" or "the uppermost". As a family name , Oberst
4424-587: Is common in the southwest of Germany, in the area known as the Black Forest ( Schwarzwald ). The name is also concentrated in the north-central cantons of Switzerland ( Aargau & Zürich ). Here the Swiss version of Oberst is spelled Obrist . The name first appeared in the thirteenth century in the German-Swiss border area, and early forms were Zoberist and Oberist. The name most likely refers to
4582-467: Is equivalent to: On the shoulder straps (Heer, Luftwaffe) there are three silver pips (stars) in silver oak leaves. Oberst was in the so-called armed organs of the GDR ( German : Bewaffnete Organe der DDR ), represented by Ministry of National Defence , and Ministry for State Security , the highest field officer rank, comparable to the colonel in many NATO-Armed forces (Rangcode OF-5) . This
4740-649: Is his fair treatment after he was taken to a prisoner of war camp. However, the story about the French soldier who was sentenced to death and later pardoned by Göring is very likely fictitious. Klaus Schmider, author of Werner Mölders and the Bundeswehr , states that his victor may have been Pomier-Layrargues. However, Schmider also acknowledges the research done by Braatz, indicating that Mölders could also have been shot down by Germans. French records held at Oise reveal that initially eight civilians had been arrested for
4898-649: Is unforgivable. The argument that Mr Gil Robles tried to destroy the Constitution to establish fascism was, at once, hypocritical and false. With the rebellion of 1934, the Spanish left lost even the shadow of moral authority to condemn the rebellion of 1936." Reversals of land reform resulted in expulsions, firings and arbitrary changes to working conditions in the central and southern countryside in 1935, with landowners' behaviour at times reaching "genuine cruelty", which included violence against farmworkers and socialists, causing several deaths. One historian argued that
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5056-528: The 4th Army . On the first day of combat operations, 22 June 1941, Mölders shot down three Tupolev SB bombers and one Curtis Hawk , earning him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ). Mölders was only the second German serviceman to receive this award; Galland, the Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 26 "Schlageter" (JG 26), had received one
5214-530: The Battle of France of May to June 1940, and the Battle of Britain (July 1940 onwards). With his tally standing at 68 victories, Mölders and his unit, Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51), transferred to the Eastern Front in June 1941 for the opening of Operation Barbarossa , achieving 101 victories by mid-July 1941. Prevented from flying further combat missions for propaganda reasons, at the age of 28 Mölders
5372-724: The Brandenburger Ruderclub , and enjoyed success at rowing- regattas . From 1 October 1925, he was also a member of the Bund Neudeutschland in der katholischen Jugendbewegung , a Catholic youth organisation. Mölders graduated from school in early 1931 with the Abitur (diploma) and expressed a desire to become an officer in the armed forces. Mölders joined the Preußisches Infanterieregiment Nr. 2 , an infantry regiment under
5530-577: The Carlist movement to establish an alternative branch of the Bourbon dynasty , further destabilized the Spanish monarchy. In 1868, popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon . Two distinct factors led to the uprisings: a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military (led by General Joan Prim ), which was concerned about
5688-788: The German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion, such as Mölders, should "no longer be honoured". In 2005, the Federal Ministry of Defence decided to remove the name "Mölders" from JG 74. The decision was confirmed on 11 March 2005 by the Federal Minister of Defence Peter Struck , and at 10:00, the flags and cufftitles were removed. Mölders' supporters challenged the ruling. They pointed to his equivocal political attitude towards Nazism and his commitment to Catholicism; not only did he have
5846-510: The Gruppe was conditionally operational with 40 pilots and 48 aircraft. On 22 December, Mölders, leading four Bf 109s from III./JG 53, engaged three Hawker Hurricanes over the Saar River, between Metz and Thionville , that were trying to intercept an unidentified aircraft. Mölders and Hans von Hahn shot down two Hurricanes flown by Sergeants R. M. Perry and J. Winn, becoming
6004-765: The Guardia de Asalto (Assault Guard). Castillo was a Socialist party member who was giving military training to the UGT youth. Castillo had led the Assault Guards that violently suppressed the riots after the funeral of Guardia Civil lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes. Assault Guard Captain Fernando Condés was a friend of Castillo. The next day, after getting the approval of the minister of interior to illegally arrest members of parliament, he led his squad to arrest José María Gil-Robles y Quiñones , founder of CEDA, as
6162-560: The Iberian Peninsula to coincide with the risings there. The rising was intended to be a swift coup d'état, but the government retained control of most of the country. Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain. The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July, which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately. Little resistance was encountered. The rebels shot 189 people. Goded and Franco immediately took control of
6320-609: The Lustgarten , where the fallen were honoured. A formal state banquet for the most highly decorated soldiers was held in the marble gallery of the Reich Chancellery . Mölders was seated at table 1, with General der Flieger Hugo Sperrle , General Antonio Aranda , General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano , Oberst Walter Warlimont , Oberstleutnant Hans von Donat, Leutnant Reinhard Seiler and Oberfeldwebel Ignaz Prestele. With other airmen in Spain, Mölders developed
6478-649: The Messerschmitt Bf 109 . Mölders assumed command of the squadron on 24 May 1938, when Galland returned to Germany. He claimed his first aerial victory, shooting down a Polikarpov I-15 "Chato" ("Curtiss" to the Germans) near Algar , on 15 July 1938. Over the remaining months of the year, Mölders became the leading ace of the Condor Legion, claiming 15 aircraft in Spain: two I-15 "Curtiss", 12 I-16 "Rata" and one Tupolev SB (one "Rata" claimed on 23 September 1938
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6636-684: The Military School Dresden . On 1 June 1933, he successfully completed his training in Dresden and was promoted to ensign . He again was transferred, this time to the 1st Prussian Pioneer Battalion (Infantry Regiment 2) at the Pioneer School in Munich . During his training years, Mölders made his first attempt to fulfil his dream of flying and volunteered for pilot training, but was declared unfit for flying. He tried again and
6794-642: The POUM , the CNT and the UGT . After the deaths of José Sanjurjo on July 20, 1936, Manuel Goded Llopis on August 12, 1936, and Emilio Mola on June 3, 1937, Franco gradually emerged as the primary leader of the Nationalist side. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of
6952-740: The Radical Republican Party , had now endured a series of crises. After a number of corruption scandals, President Niceto Alcalá-Zamora , who was hostile to this government, called another election. The Popular Front narrowly won the 1936 general election . The revolutionary left-wing masses took to the streets and freed prisoners. In the thirty-six hours following the election, sixteen people were killed (mostly by police officers attempting to maintain order or to intervene in violent clashes) and thirty-nine were seriously injured. Additionally, fifty churches and seventy conservative political centres were attacked or set ablaze. Manuel Azaña
7110-764: The St. Hedwig's Cathedral , Heribert Rosal. The ceremony was witnessed by guests from the United States, Great Britain, Austria, Spain and Hungary. On 13 April 1968, a destroyer of the West German Navy was christened Mölders in Bath, Maine (USA). It was in service between 1969 and 2003. As of 2018, it is the central attraction at the German Navy Museum in Wilhelmshaven. On 9 November 1972,
7268-594: The corrupt central government of the country in Madrid , but these circles were ultimately unsuccessful. Popular perception of communism as a major threat significantly increased during this period. In 1923, a military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power. As a result, Spain transitioned to government by military dictatorship. Support for the Rivera regime gradually faded, and he resigned in January 1930. He
7426-477: The finger-four formation. He died in a plane crash as a passenger. Mölders joined the Luftwaffe, the air force of Nazi Germany , in 1934. In 1938 he volunteered for service in Germany's Condor Legion , then supporting General Francisco Franco 's Nationalist side in the Spanish Civil War, and shot down 14 aircraft. Following the start of World War II in 1939, he took part in the " Phoney War " of 1939–1940,
7584-429: The "tribe that lives the highest on the mountain" or "the family that lives the highest in the village". Translated as "superior" or "supreme", the rank of Oberst can trace its origins to the Middle Ages where the term most likely described the senior knight on a battlefield or the senior captain in a regiment. With the emergence of professional armies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, an Oberst became
7742-404: The 2./JG 51 on 11 September, was shot down by Archie McKellar and taken prisoner of war on 7 October 1940. Two Spitfires of No. 92 Squadron RAF (Sgt PR Eyles and P/O HP Hill, both killed), shot down near Dungeness on 20 September, increased Mölders' tally of aerial victories to 40. He was the first fighter pilot to reach this number during the war and was awarded the 2nd Knight's Cross of
7900-414: The Army of Africa, made up of 35,000 men, and just under half of Spain's militaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil Guards , and the Carabineers . Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of both machine guns and artillery pieces. The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, and the Nationalists took control of 10. Naval capacity
8058-411: The Bourbons were restored to the throne in the figure of Alfonso XII , Isabella's son. After the restoration, Carlists and anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy. Alejandro Lerroux , Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party , helped to bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia —a region of Spain with its own cultural and societal identity in which poverty
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#17327802673768216-409: The Carlists, Mola was chief planner and second in command. José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid-March to restrict the Falange. However, government actions were not as thorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon. The revolt was devoid of ideology. The goal was to put an end to anarchical disorder. Mola's plan for
8374-478: The Catholic country, which included the abolition of Catholic schools and charities, a move which was met with opposition. At this point, once the constituent assembly had fulfilled its mandate of approving a new constitution, but fearing an increasing popular opposition, the Radical and Socialist majority postponed the regular elections, prolonging their time in power for two more years. Diaz's Republican government initiated numerous reforms to, in their view, modernize
8532-578: The Diamonds to the Knight's Cross if there was anything he wished for. Mölders reportedly responded, "Please leave the bishop of Münster alone." Hitler assured him that "Yes, nothing will happen to the bishop of Münster." The MGFA concluded in 2004 that this story was most likely false. The MGFA revised its position again on 28 June 2007, concluding that there had been contact between Mölders and von Galen. Spanish Civil War Nationalist victory [REDACTED] Republicans [REDACTED] Nationalists 100,000–200,000 civilians killed inside
8690-456: The French coast on the English Channel . At the time, JG 51 were based at the Saint-Inglevert Airfield , Pas-de-Calais, France. Mölders flew his first combat sortie with JG 51 on 28 July, attacking a No. 41 Squadron RAF Supermarine Spitfire flown by Flying Officer Tony Lovell . On this mission, according to legend, Mölders was hit in a dogfight over Dover by the South African ace Sailor Malan , sustaining three splinter wounds in
8848-416: The German term. Ranked OF-5 within NATO and having the paygrade of M402, it is used in the Royal Danish Army and the Royal Danish Air Force . The rank can be traced back to at least 1563, when Count Günther of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt was named feltøverste ( transl. Field colonel ) of the Danish troops during the First Northern War . By 1586, Steen Maltesen Sehested [ da ]
9006-431: The Germans sent a Luftwaffe force, the Condor Legion , to assist the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War . Mölders volunteered for service, and arrived by sea in Cadiz on 14 April 1938. He was assigned to the 3. Staffel (3rd squadron) of Jagdgruppe 88 (J/88) commanded by Oberleutnant Adolf Galland . The unit, stationed at the Valencia – Ebro front , was equipped with the Heinkel He 51 , but later switched to
9164-490: The Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 21 September 1940. The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 23 September in the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. After the award ceremony, Hermann Göring invited Mölders to his hunting lodge in the Rominter Heide . Mölders returned to his unit by the end of September and continued to win aerial victories. On 11 October, Mölders claimed his 43rd victory. The No. 66 Squadron RAF Spitfire I X4562
9322-402: The Knight's Cross were introduced officially on 28 September 1941, more than two months after Mölders earned the award. Mölders was promoted to Oberst on 20 July 1941, effective immediately, and banned from further combat flying. Surrendering command of JG 51 to Major Friedrich Beckh he was transferred to the Ministry of Aviation, a temporary position he held until 6 August 1941. Mölders
9480-409: The Life Guards. As part of the Army Reform of 1867, the ranks of Major, Lieutenant colonel were removed, making oberst the only senior officer . Oberst (short: O ) is the highest staff officer rank in the German Army ( Heer ) and the German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ). The rank is rated OF-5 in NATO , and is grade A16 or B3 in the pay rules of the Federal Ministry of Defence . It
9638-411: The Luftwaffe were transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . JG 51 was subordinated to II. Fliegerkorps (2nd Air Corps), which as part of Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2). JG 51 area of operation during Operation Barbarossa was over the right flank of Army Group Center in the combat area of the 2nd Panzer Group as well as
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#17327802673769796-617: The Mölders beating and only one, Edmond Maurice Caron, was brought before a Luftwaffe court. Caron was sentenced to twelve years imprisonment later commuted to six years. The records also show that Michel Duchènes, a local factory owner, contacted Göring's staff in early 1941. Contact with Kriegsgerichtsrat (Judge Advocate) Hans-Jürgen Soehring at the Luftwaffe headquarters in Paris was established on 6 March 1941. On 24 March, Mölders informed Duchènes that he had already done all he could for Caron. Duchènes again contacted Mölders on 17 July 1941. Caron, who should have been released on 19 November 1946,
9954-486: The Nationalist zone 50,000–72,000 civilians killed inside the Republican zone The Spanish Civil War ( Spanish : guerra civil española ) was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans and the Nationalists . Republicans were loyal to the left -leaning Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic , and consisted of various socialist , communist , separatist , anarchist , and republican parties, some of which had opposed
10112-417: The Nazi Party by name, instead using metaphors like "the godless". It stated that, especially in the face of death, many supporters of Nazism still found strength and courage with Catholicism. The letter caused a stir in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime. In his diaries, Joseph Goebbels , Reich Minister of Propaganda , assumed that someone in the German Catholic church organisation wrote, and distributed,
10270-415: The Nazi regime. Von Galen publicly criticised the regime for the Gestapo's tactics and the deportation and euthanasia of the mentally ill. According to the diary kept by Heinrich Portmann, von Galen's secretary and chaplain, Mölders threatened to return his awards if von Galen's euthanasia accusation turned out to be true. Furthermore, Portmann stated that Hitler had asked Mölders during the presentation of
10428-468: The Popular Front's victory in the 1936 election, groups of officers, both active and retired, got together to discuss a coup . By the end of April General Emilio Mola emerged as the leader of a national conspiracy network. The Republican government reacted by reshuffling suspect generals from influential posts, Azana however acutely aware that as he did so, the Army still served as a possible buffer to leftist power brokers threatening his government. Franco
10586-425: The Republican-Socialist government alienated as many people as they pleased. Republican Manuel Azaña became prime minister of a minority government in October 1931. Fascism remained a reactive threat and it was facilitated by controversial reforms to the military. In December, a new reformist, liberal and democratic constitution was declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularisation of
10744-431: The Swiss Army, the Oberst ranks above the lieutenant colonel ("Oberstleutnant") and below the brigadier general ("Brigadier"). In peacetime, it is the fourth highest officer rank. The Oberst is the commander of a Kommando (Gren Kdo, Flpl Kdo), the army engineer staff, or an antiaircraft (Flab) cluster. These formations are comparable to regiments. As a staff officer, the Oberst performs various specialized functions in
10902-465: The United States, continued to recognise the Republican government but followed an official policy of non-intervention . Despite this policy, tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict. They fought mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades , which also included several thousand exiles from pro-Nationalist regimes. Smaller numbers of pro-Republican international volunteer fighters fought in
11060-421: The West German Bundeswehr both honoured Mölders by naming two fighter wings, a destroyer and a barracks after him. In 1998 the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion such as Mölders should "no longer be honoured". In 2005 the German Ministry of Defence decided to remove the name "Mölders" from the fighter wing still bearing his name. Mölders was born on 18 March 1913 in Gelsenkirchen ,
11218-424: The Western Front had increased to nine. This number included one Bristol Blenheim , two Curtiss P-36 Hawks, two Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s and four Hawker Hurricanes. On 14 May, while engaging enemy bombers over Sedan , Mölders was shot down, but bailed out safely. He claimed his 19th and 20th victories on 27 May 1940, downing two Curtiss Hawks 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) southwest of Amiens . Subsequently, he became
11376-563: The authority of the Spanish monarchy as well as to establish a nation-state under the ideology and philosophy that they believed in. The reforms of 1812 were short-lived as they were almost immediately overturned by King Ferdinand VII when he dissolved the aforementioned constitution. This ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874. There were several attempts to realign
11534-402: The available German and French records associated to the events of Mölders being shot down, his capture and its aftermath. Braatz's investigation revealed that Mölders was not shot down by Pomier-Layrargues. More likely, he was shot down by other German fighters operating in the same area. Braatz confirmed that Mölders was beaten and stripped of his possessions following his capture. Also confirmed
11692-526: The behaviour of the right in the southern countryside was one of the main causes of hatred during the Civil War and possibly even the Civil War itself. Landowners taunted workers by saying that if they went hungry, they should "Go eat the Republic!" Bosses fired leftist workers and imprisoned trade union and socialist militants; wages were reduced to "salaries of hunger". In 1935, the government, led by
11850-584: The command of Oberst Siegfried Haenicke and subordinated to the 1st Division of the Reichswehr in Allenstein , East Prussia on 1 April 1931, serving as an officer cadet in the infantry. He attained the rank of Fahnenjunker - Gefreiter on 1 October 1931, rising to Fahnenjunker - Unteroffizier on 1 April 1932. After completing his basic military training in October 1932, he transferred to
12008-481: The commander of regiment or battalion -sized formations. By the eighteenth century, Obersten were typically afforded aides or lieutenants , often titled Oberstleutnant . This led to formation of the modern German rank of the same name, translated as lieutenant colonel . Oberst is the fifth highest rank in the Austrian Armed Forces . The Danish rank of oberst is based around
12166-535: The company of armed militants. Conservatives, the middle classes, businessmen and landowners became convinced that revolution had already begun. Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals, who decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain. Both sides had become convinced that, if the other side gained power, it would discriminate against their members and attempt to suppress their political organisations. Shortly after
12324-403: The contemporary spacing of less than 100 feet (30 m) between aircraft. The wide lateral separation of 1,800 feet (550 m) introduced by J 88 both necessitated such a turning manoeuvre, to enable a Schwarm to turn as a unit, and minimised the risk of midair collisions previously associated with it. At the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939, Mölders' Staffel was stationed in
12482-551: The country. In 1932, the Jesuits were banned and their property was confiscated, the army was reduced, landowners were expropriated. Home rule was granted to Catalonia, with a local parliament and a president of its own. In June 1933, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis , "On Oppression of the Church of Spain", raising his voice against the persecution of the Catholic Church in Spain. In November 1933,
12640-444: The coup to prevent it from being crushed swiftly. The rebels termed themselves Nacionales , normally translated "Nationalists", although the former implies "true Spaniards" rather than a nationalistic cause . The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million. The Nationalists had secured the support of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by
12798-584: The coup very quickly. Conversely, if the coup had risen everywhere in Spain on the 18th rather than be delayed, it could have triumphed by the 22nd. While the militias that rose to meet the rebels were often untrained and poorly armed (possessing only a small number of pistols, shotguns and dynamite), this was offset by the fact that the rebellion was not universal. In addition, the Falangists and Carlists were themselves often not particularly powerful fighters either. However, enough officers and soldiers had joined
12956-413: The coup, though it seems Mola did not envision the mass atrocities and repression that would manifest during the civil war. Of particular importance to Mola was ensuring the revolt was an Army affair, not subject to special interests, ensuring the position of the armed forces as the basis for the new state. However, the separation of church and state was forgotten once the conflict assumed the dimension of
13114-404: The crash landing. Dr. Wenzel sustained a broken arm and leg as well as a concussion, and Tenz a broken ankle. Mölders' fatal injuries included a broken back and a crushed ribcage. Accident investigators then and since have speculated whether Mölders would have survived the crash if he had used his seat belt. Mölders was given a state funeral in Berlin on 28 November 1941. His coffin was laid out in
13272-608: The day before. The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 3 July 1941 in the Wolfsschanze Hitler's Headquarters in Rastenburg . On 30 June, Mölders had become the highest-scoring fighter pilot in the history of aerial warfare after downing five Soviet bombers and bringing his tally to 82, two more than the record set in World War I by the "Red Baron", Manfred von Richthofen . On 12 July 1941, JG 51 under
13430-651: The deteriorating military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado led a military coup against the Republican government , intending to seek peace with the Nationalists. These peace overtures, however, were rejected by Franco. Following internal conflict between Republican factions in Madrid in the same month, Franco entered the capital and declared victory on 1 April 1939. Hundreds of thousands of Spaniards fled to refugee camps in southern France . Those associated with
13588-488: The distribution of weapons among the civilian population. This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona , and Valencia , but it allowed anarchists to take control of Barcelona along with large swathes of Aragón and Catalonia. General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death. The Republican government ended up controlling almost all
13746-521: The early stages of his pilot training, he suffered continually from nausea and vomiting, but he eventually overcame these problems and finished the course at the top of his class. The next phase of his military pilot's training was from 1 January 1935 to 30 June 1935 at the combat flying school in Tutow and the Jagdfliegerschule (fighter pilot school) at Schleißheim near Munich. He received
13904-475: The east coast and central area around Madrid, as well as most of Asturias , Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north. Hugh Thomas suggested that the civil war could have ended in the favour of either side almost immediately if certain decisions had been taken during the initial coup. Thomas argues that if the government had taken steps to arm the workers, they could probably have crushed
14062-408: The electoral results but did not succeed. Despite CEDA's electoral victory, President Alcalá-Zamora declined to invite its leader, Gil Robles, to form a government, fearing CEDA's monarchist sympathies and proposed changes to the constitution. Instead, he invited the Radical Republican Party 's Alejandro Lerroux to do so. Despite receiving the most votes, CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly
14220-409: The eulogy. Mölders's nickname was "Vati" (Daddy). He was a devoutly religious individual. "He was a marvelous tactician. My admiration for him was boundless. He had a great wit and great personality." Günther Rall Mölders married Luise Baldauf, née Thurner, the widow of a friend who had been killed in active service, on 13 September 1941. Erich Klawitter, Mölders' childhood mentor, performed
14378-460: The events following his capture differ depending on the source. Ernst Obermaier and Werner Held, authors of the 1996 biography Fighter Pilot Colonel Werner Mölders – Images and Documents , state that while in French captivity, Mölders asked to shake hands with the pilot who had shot him down and learned that Pomier-Layrargues had been killed in action 30 minutes after their encounter. The authors claim that Mölders' initial experience in French captivity
14536-576: The first German fighter pilots to shoot down a Hawker Hurricane. Mölders shot down another Hurricane on 2 April, when he forced Flight Lieutenant C. D. "Pussy" Palmer of No. 1 Squadron RAF , to bail out, and on 20 April, he destroyed a French Curtiss P-36 Hawk (H-75A) east of Saarbrücken . By the time the Phoney War ended and the invasion of France and the Low Countries ( Fall Gelb ) began on 10 May 1940, Mölders' tally of aerial victories on
14694-566: The first fighter pilot to be awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) and on 29 May 1940 was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht propaganda radio report, the first of 11 such mentions. On 5 June 1940, on his 133rd combat mission of the war, engaging in aerial combat for the 32nd time, Mölders was shot down in his Bf 109 E-4 while engaged in aerial combat with French Air Force Dewoitine D.520s near Compiègne at about 18:40. Mölders
14852-612: The first month of the Popular Front's government, nearly a quarter of the provincial governors had been removed due to their failure to prevent or control strikes, illegal land occupation, political violence and arson. The Popular Front government was more likely to prosecute rightists for violence than leftists who committed similar acts. Between February and July, approximately 300 to 400 deaths occurred from political violence, while hundreds of churches, religious buildings and monuments were destroyed, damaged, or vandalised. Azaña
15010-414: The formation known as the " finger-four ". This improved the all-round field of vision and combat flexibility of a flight ( Schwarm ), enhanced mutual protection, and encouraged pilot initiative. In the "finger-four", the aircraft assumed positions corresponding to the fingertips of an outstretched hand. The fighters flew in two elements ( Rotten ) of two aircraft each; two Rotten (four aircraft) made up
15168-406: The government in the pre-war period. The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of Falangists , monarchists , conservatives , and traditionalists led by a military junta among whom General Francisco Franco quickly achieved a preponderant role. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war had many facets and was variously viewed as class struggle , a religious struggle ,
15326-400: The government's opponents on the right. Although the nationalist generals were planning an uprising, the event was a catalyst and a public justification for a coup. Stanley Payne claims that before these events, the idea of rebellion by army officers against the government had weakened; Mola had estimated only 12% of officers reliably supported the coup and Mola considered fleeing for fear he
15484-531: The hands of the government, leaving Spain militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany while the Republican side received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France , and
15642-815: The help of the British intelligence agents, the rebels chartered a Dragon Rapide aircraft to transport Franco from the Canary Islands to Spanish Morocco . Franco arrived in Morocco on 19 July. Franco was offered this position as Mola's planning for the coup had become increasingly complex and it did not look like it would be as swift as he hoped, instead likely turning into a miniature civil war that would last weeks. Mola had concluded troops in Spain were insufficient and it would be necessary to use elite units from North Africa, something Franco had always believed would be necessary. On 12 July 1936, Falangists in Madrid killed police officer Lieutenant José Castillo of
15800-605: The honour court of the Imperial Air Ministry . The guard of honour consisted of Johann Schalk , Günther Lützow , Walter Oesau , Joachim Müncheberg , Adolf Galland , Wolfgang Falck , Herbert Kaminski and Karl-Gottfried Nordmann . Mölders was buried next to Udet and Richthofen at the Invalidenfriedhof in Berlin. The 8.8 cm flak in Berlin Tiergarten fired a salute ; Göring gave
15958-424: The islands to which they were assigned. On 18 July, Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), leading the groups to proclaim a general strike—in effect, mobilising. They opened weapons caches, some buried since the 1934 risings, and formed militias. The paramilitary security forces often waited for the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing
16116-452: The law shut out workers seeking extra income as pickers. Newly established labour arbitration boards regulated salaries, contracts, and working hours, but were more favourable to workers than employers. A decree in July 1931 increased overtime pay and several laws in late 1931 restricted whom landowners could hire. Other efforts included decrees limiting: the use of machinery; efforts to create
16274-473: The leadership of Mölders reported that it had destroyed 500 Soviet aircraft since the beginning of hostilities against the Soviets on 22 June, and had suffered three casualties. That day, JG 51 also reported its 1,200th aerial victory of the war, the credit going to Hauptmann Leppla. Three days later, on 15 July 1941, Mölders surpassed the C mark, claiming victories Nos. 100 and 101, and celebrated with
16432-397: The left, was quite fragmented: on the one hand socialists and communists supported the republic but on the other, during the republic, anarchists had mixed opinions, though both major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War; the latter, in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the Republican government and presented a more unified front. Oberst Oberst
16590-595: The letter. A bounty of 100,000 Reichsmarks was posted in Hitler's name, but it revealed no clues to its origins. In the end, these actions did not affect the distribution of the letter. The Invalidenfriedhof , where Mölders is buried, lay in East Berlin and in 1975 East German officials ordered all the graves leveled. After the 1990 German reunification , Mölders' grave was rebuilt and rededicated on 11 October 1991 by Mölders' school friend and canon ( Domherr ) of
16748-460: The losing Republicans who stayed were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists. Franco established a dictatorship in which all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of his regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide and for the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces so they could consolidate their future regime. Mass executions on
16906-466: The lower leg, one in the knee and one in the left foot. Oberleutnant Richard Leppla shot down the pursuing Spitfire, and Mölders was able to make an emergency landing at Wissant , France. Recent research suggests Mölders was actually wounded in combat by Flight Lieutenant John Webster in a Spitfire of No. 41 Squadron RAF. Webster was killed in action on 5 September 1940. Mölders wounds, although not serious, kept him from further operational flying for
17064-521: The new regime was a "republican dictatorship", modelled after Salazar's Portugal and along the lines of being semi-pluralist authoritarian, rather than fascist totalitarian. The initial government would be an all-military "Directory", which would create a "strong and disciplined state". Sanjurjo would be the head of this new regime, due to being liked and respected within the military, though his position would be symbolic due to his lack of political talent. The 1931 Constitution would be suspended, replaced by
17222-631: The newly created Pilot's Badge of the Luftwaffe on 21 May 1935. On 1 July 1935, Leutnant Mölders was posted to Fliegergruppe Schwerin (I./JG 162 "Immelmann"). On 7 March 1936, during the remilitarisation of the Rhineland , Mölders and his squadron ( Staffel ) were moved to Düsseldorf . During this period, Mölders met Luise Baldauf, whom he was to marry a few years later, shortly before his death. On 20 April 1936, Adolf Hitler 's birthday, numerous promotions were handed out, and Mölders advanced to Oberleutnant , effective as of 1 April 1936. At
17380-642: The onset of the Great Depression , the government tried to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and redistributing land tenure to farm workers. The rural workers lived in some of the worst poverty in Europe at the time and the government tried to increase their wages and improve working conditions. This estranged small and medium landholders who used hired labour. The Law of Municipal Boundaries forbade owners from hiring workers outside their locality. When some localities had labour shortages,
17538-607: The partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Republican government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces , with General Emilio Mola as the primary planner and leader and General José Sanjurjo as a figurehead. The government at the time was a coalition of Republicans, supported in the Cortes by communist and socialist parties, under the leadership of centre-left president Manuel Azaña . The Nationalist faction
17696-524: The people before the military took over. The prime minister was hesitant. The uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 17:01, agreed to by the leader of the Carlists, Manuel Fal Conde . However, the timing was changed—the men in the Morocco protectorate were to rise up at 05:00 on 18 July and those in Spain proper a day later so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent back to
17854-407: The political system to match social reality. Until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture . There was little development of a bourgeois industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful; a small number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all of the important positions in government. The mid-century Carlist Wars , fought by
18012-473: The primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León , which fell quickly. They took Cádiz with help from the first troops from Africa. The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén , and Almería . In Madrid, the rebels were hemmed into the Cuartel de la Montaña siege , which fell with considerable bloodshed. Republican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral , who ordered
18170-575: The proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain. Mölders returned to approved operational flying status and flew his next two combat missions on 28 August 1940. His aide and wingman, Oberleutnant Kircheis, was shot down and taken prisoner during one of these missions; Oberleutnant Georg Claus took his place. Mölders claimed three Hurricanes on 31 August and was mentioned again in the Wehrmachtbericht . Oberleutnant Victor Mölders, his younger brother, who had been appointed Staffelkapitän of
18328-588: The provincial capitals and, following the resignation of Aznar's government, Alfonso XIII fled the country. At this time, the Second Spanish Republic was formed. This republic remained in power until the beginning of the civil war five years later. The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became the provisional government, with Alcalá-Zamora himself as president and head of state . The republic had broad support from all segments of society. In May 1931, an incident in which
18486-424: The rebellion and was released from prison in January 1935. In sparking an uprising, the non-anarchist socialists, like the anarchists, manifested their conviction that the existing political order was illegitimate. The Spanish historian Salvador de Madariaga , an Azaña supporter and an exiled vocal opponent of Francisco Franco, wrote a sharp criticism of the left's participation in the revolt: "The uprising of 1934
18644-516: The rebellion. Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town. General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano secured Seville for the rebels, arresting a number of other officers. The rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of the July 1936 military uprising in Seville , which provided a landing point for Franco's African troops, and
18802-413: The regime, but rather showed the contrary and concluded that it was questionable whether Mölders had distanced himself enough from Nazism before his death in 1941. Consequently, the decision remained in force. Other evidence has surfaced illustrating Mölders' ambiguous relationship with the Nazi regime. Mölders may have been in contact with bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen , who was highly critical of
18960-643: The religious ceremony in Falkenstein , Taunus . The marriage produced a posthumous daughter, Verena. Nazi officials disapproved of his choice of a Catholic marriage ceremony, performed by Klawitter. Klawitter had been barred from membership in the Reich Chamber of Culture and was considered politically unreliable after a 1936 breach of the Pulpit Law , a remnant of the 1870s Kulturkampf that among other religions barred Catholics from criticizing
19118-613: The right-wing parties won the general election . The causal factors were increased resentment of the incumbent government caused by a controversial decree implementing land reform, by the Casas Viejas incident , and the formation of a right-wing alliance, Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups (CEDA). Another factor was the recent enfranchisement of women, most of whom voted for centre-right parties. According to Stanley G. Payne and Jesús Palacios Tapias , left Republicans attempted to have Niceto Alcalá Zamora cancel
19276-480: The river Saar near Merzig at 4500 metres, six machines were sighted south of Conz at 5000 metres. I climbed above the enemy in a wide curve to the north and carried out a surprise attack on the rearmost machine. I opened fire from approximately 50 metres, whereupon the Curtiss began to fishtail. After a further lengthy burst, smoke came out of the machine and individual pieces flew off it. It then tipped forward into
19434-464: The same time, he became leader of the fighter training squadron of the 2nd Group of Jagdgeschwader 134 "Horst Wessel". This group was under the command of Major Theo Osterkamp , who became another of Mölders' early mentors. Mölders was appointed squadron leader ( Staffelkapitän ) of the 1st squadron of Jagdgeschwader 334 on 15 March 1937 and served as an instructor in Wiesbaden . In 1936,
19592-714: The son of teacher ( Oberlehrer ) Victor Mölders and his wife Annemarie Mölders, née Riedel. He was the third of four children, with an older sister, Annemarie, an older brother, Hans, and a younger brother, Victor. After his father, a Reserve Leutnant in the King's 145th Infantry Regiment, was killed in action on 2 March 1915 in the Argonne Forest in France, his mother moved the family into her parents' house in Brandenburg an der Havel . In Brandenburg, Mölders found
19750-550: The spring. Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Asturian miners' strike of 1934 . He was respected in the Army of Africa, the Army's toughest troops. He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting the military was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy off Franco. With
19908-406: The start of the civil war; for comparison, the 1931–33 land reform had granted only 6,000 peasants 45,000 hectares. As many strikes occurred between April and July as had occurred in the entirety of 1931. Workers increasingly demanded less work and more pay. "Social crimes"—refusing to pay for goods and rent—became increasingly common by workers, particularly in Madrid. In some cases, this was done in
20066-541: The state from the pulpit. Werner Mölders' old unit, Jagdgeschwader 51, was renamed "Mölders" in his honour, on 22 November 1941, only hours after his death. Its members were entitled to wear the "Mölders" cuffband . Mölders' death, just shortly after Udet's own suicide, was used by Sefton Delmer , the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive (PWE), as part of
20224-486: The then fascist-nationalist Falange Española y de las JONS ("Falange") to help achieve their aims. Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities, and militancy continued to increase, reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval, rather than peaceful democratic means as solutions. A small insurrection by anarchists occurred in December 1933 in response to CEDA's victory, in which around 100 people died. After
20382-523: The third Il-2 was ablaze. The whole lesson had lasted no more than 12 minutes!" In this way, Kaiser scored his 23rd and 24th kills. But because Mölders was officially banned from operational flying, the first Soviet aircraft was never officially credited to him. Within the next two months, it is speculated that Mölders unofficially shot down around another 30 Soviet aircraft. At least six of Mölders' unofficial victories are recorded in his fellow pilots' private log books. On 22 November 1941, Mölders travelled as
20540-400: The ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy , abdicated due to increasing political pressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed. The Republic was marred with political instability and conflicts and was quickly overthrown by a coup d'état by General Arsenio Martínez Campos in December 1874, after which
20698-672: The university at Oviedo. Rebels in the occupied areas proclaimed revolution for the workers and abolished the existing currency. The rebellion was crushed in two weeks by the Spanish Navy and the Spanish Republican Army , the latter using mainly Moorish colonial troops from Spanish Morocco . Azaña was in Barcelona that day, and the Lerroux-CEDA government tried to implicate him. He was arrested and charged with complicity. In fact, Azaña had no connection with
20856-529: The war, a Curtiss P-36 (according to other historians, it was one of a trio of French Hawk H-75As), of Groupe de Chasse II/5 (Sgt Queginer bailed out). Thanks to that victory, he earned the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ). He recalled his first victory: I took off with my Schwarm at 14.27 hrs to intercept six enemy monoplanes reported south of Trier . As the Schwarm overflew
21014-525: The war. After much of Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939, and Madrid cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position became hopeless. Following the fall without resistance of Barcelona in January 1939, the Francoist regime was recognised by France and the United Kingdom in February 1939. On 5 March 1939, in response to an alleged increasing communist dominance of the Republican government and
21172-562: The west protecting Germany's border in the Mosel – Saar – Pfalz region. On 8 September 1939, Mölders' fighter suffered an engine failure; he crash-landed, flipping the aircraft over and injuring his back. The injury kept him out of combat for several days. He returned to flying on 19 September. The following day, between Contz and Sierck , at the apex of the Dreiländereck , over the three borders area , he shot down his first aircraft of
21330-467: Was Oberleutnant Hartmann Grasser . Mölders claimed his first aerial victory after the lengthy vacation on 10 February 1941; his tally reached 60 on 26 February and stood at 68 when the Geschwader was recalled from the Channel front. His logbook showed 238 combat missions plus an additional 71 reconnaissance flights; he had engaged in aerial combat 70 times. In June 1941, JG 51 and the majority of
21488-491: Was appointed Inspector of Fighters . While inspecting the Luftwaffe units in the Crimea he received orders to return to Berlin to attend the state funeral of Ernst Udet , a Luftwaffe general and World War I flying ace. The aircraft in which Mölders was traveling as a passenger to Berlin experienced an engine failure and attempted an emergency landing. It crashed at Breslau , killing Mölders and two others. The Luftwaffe and
21646-517: Was called to form a government before the electoral process had ended. He shortly replaced Zamora as president, taking advantage of a constitutional loophole. Convinced that the left was no longer willing to follow the rule of law and that its vision of Spain was under threat, the right abandoned the parliamentary option and began planning to overthrow the republic, rather than to control it. PSOE's left wing socialists started to take action. Julio Álvarez del Vayo talked about "Spain being converted into
21804-402: Was compromised. He had to be convinced to remain by his co-conspirators. However, the kidnapping and murder of Sotelo transformed the "limping conspiracy" into a revolt that could trigger a civil war. The arbitrary use of lethal force by the state and lack of action against the attackers led to public disapproval of the government. No effective punitive, judicial or even investigative action
21962-418: Was flown by Pilot Officer J. H. T. Pickering, who bailed out, wounded, over Canterbury . Three Hurricanes on 12 October brought his tally to 51 victories, and he received a preferential promotion to Oberstleutnant in recognition of his 50 victories on 25 October 1940. While a severe bout of influenza then kept him grounded for a few weeks, his wingman in over 60 aerial combats, Oberleutnant Georg Claus,
22120-571: Was given conditional permission ( bedingt tauglich —with constraints) to begin flight training. After his promotion to Oberfähnrich on 1 February 1934, Mölders began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule (German transport flying school) in Cottbus , lasting from 6 February 1934 to 31 December 1934. On 1 March 1934, he was promoted to Leutnant and assigned to the recently established Luftwaffe . In
22278-489: Was harsh; he sustained abrasions to his face and his Knight's Cross was stolen from him. A French officer, Capitaine Giron, intervened, ensured he was treated fairly, and returned the stolen medal. When a French soldier was later sentenced to death by the Germans for beating Mölders, Mölders approached Hermann Göring and requested clemency, which was granted. Kurt Braatz, author of Werner Mölders – The Biography , analysed
22436-485: Was hesitant to use the army to shoot or stop rioters or protestors as many of them supported his coalition. On the other hand, he was reluctant to disarm the military as he believed he needed them to stop insurrections from the extreme left. Illegal land occupation became widespread—poor tenant farmers knew the government was disinclined to stop them. By April 1936, nearly 100,000 peasants had appropriated 400,000 hectares of land and perhaps as many as 1 million hectares by
22594-748: Was in reference to Soviet military doctrine and in line with other armed forces of the Warsaw Pact . Oberst was in the German Reich and Nazi Germany the highest field officer rank, comparable to the OF-5 rank in many NATO-Armed forces. It was equivalent to Kapitän zur See in the Kriegsmarine , and SS-Standartenführer in the Waffen-SS until 1945. ( German officer rank ) Oberst (Kapitän zur See) The rank of oberst
22752-611: Was introduced around the same time as Denmark , as Norway at the time was part of Denmark–Norway . The Swedish variant överste , is the most senior field grade military officer rank in the Swedish Army and the Swedish Air Force , immediately above the rank of lieutenant colonel and just below the rank of brigadier general . It is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the Swedish Navy . In
22910-522: Was killed over the Thames . On 1 December, Mölders claimed his last and 55th victory of 1940, 25 of which occurred in the Battle of France and 30 in the Battle of Britain . Mölders and members of JG 53 spent a couple of weeks of R&R skiing in the Vorarlberg before continuing operations against the RAF over the Channel and occupied France during early 1941. His new wingman from January 1941
23068-629: Was later renamed Jagdgeschwader 53 Pik As ( Ace of Spades ). For his achievements in Spain, Mölders was honoured with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar on 4 May 1939 and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939. The Condor Legion officially returned to Germany on 6 June 1939 and troops marched through Berlin to
23226-530: Was named Rigets oberst ( transl. Colonel of the kingdom ). On 25 May 1671, the ranks were codified, by King Christian V , with the publication of the Danish order of precedence . Here there were two types of oberst s. The colonel of the Life Guards placed below major general , and above colonels of the infantry and cavalry, which in turn was placed above the rank lieutenant colonel of
23384-460: Was not confirmed). In recognition of his exceptional performance as a commander and fighter pilot, Mölders was promoted to Hauptmann ( Captain ) on 18 October 1938, effective as of 1 October 1938. He claimed his 14th and final confirmed aerial victory of the conflict by downing a Polikarpov I-16 "Rata" near Mola on 3 November 1938. On 5 December, he passed on command of 3. Staffel to Hubertus von Bonin and flew from La Cenia back to Germany on
23542-526: Was particularly acute at the time. Conscription was a controversial policy that was eventually implemented by the government of Spain. As evidenced by the Tragic Week in 1909, resentment and resistance were factors that continued well into the 20th century. Spain was neutral in World War I . Following the war, wide swathes of Spanish society, including the armed forces, united in hopes of removing
23700-621: Was released from the Rheinbach prison on 9 February 1942. Caron's release records in Oise state "Pardoned by Marshal Göring at the request of Colonel Mölders, who had requested this before his death." Returning to Germany, Mölders was promoted to Major on 19 July 1940 and the following day was informed that he was given command of Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51) from the recently promoted Generalmajor Osterkamp. On 26 July, Mölders took command of JG 51 and flew from Brandenburg-Briest to
23858-494: Was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer , who was in turn himself replaced by Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar-Cabañas ; both men continued a policy of rule by decree . There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities. Consequently, King Alfonso XIII of Spain relented to popular pressure and called municipal elections for 12 April 1931. Left-wing entities such as the Socialist and Liberal Republicans won almost all
24016-502: Was retained by the government—however, the whole of the Republican Air Force was very outdated. The war was cast by Republican sympathisers as a struggle between tyranny and freedom, and by Nationalist supporters as communist and anarchist red hordes versus Christian civilisation. Nationalists also claimed they were bringing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country. Spanish politics, especially on
24174-619: Was sacked as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary Islands . Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as inspector general and made general of the Balearic Islands . Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to commander of Pamplona . This latter reassignment, however, allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising; General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reach an agreement with
24332-413: Was summoned to the Wolfsschanze again, where he received the Diamonds from Adolf Hitler on 26 July 1941. On 7 August 1941, he was appointed Inspector of Fighters. An Oberst at 28, Mölders' appointment as Inspector of Fighters meant he was responsible for deciding the ongoing tactical and operational doctrine of the Luftwaffe ' s fighter arm. Returning to the Soviet Union in September 1941, he set up
24490-560: Was supported by several conservative groups, including CEDA , monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious conservative Carlists , and the Falange Española de las JONS , a fascist political party. The coup was supported by military units in Morocco , Pamplona , Burgos , Zaragoza , Valladolid , Cádiz , Córdoba , Málaga , and Seville . However, rebelling units in almost all important cities—such as Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Bilbao , Murcia , and Almería —did not gain control. Those cities remained in
24648-534: Was taken; Payne points to a possible veto by socialists within the government who shielded the killers drawn from their ranks. The murder of a parliamentary leader by state police was unprecedented, and the belief the state had ceased to be neutral and effective encouraged important sectors of the right to join the rebellion. Franco changed his mind on rebellion and dispatched a message to Mola to display his firm commitment. The Socialists and Communists, led by Indalecio Prieto , demanded that arms be distributed to
24806-511: Was then captured by French soldiers and taken prisoner of war but liberated three weeks later upon the armistice with France . According to a variety of sources, which include Edward R. Hooton and Alex Kershaw , his victor was Sous lieutenant René Pomier Layrargues from Groupe de Chasse II/7, who was shot down and killed just after downing Mölders. Layrargues may have been shot down by Oberleutnant Gerhard Homuth from 3. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27). Accounts regarding
24964-408: Was uneven, with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage, but with the Navy's top commanders and two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias —captured at the Ferrol shipyard—and Baleares , in Nationalist control. The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the same problems as the army—many officers had defected or been killed after trying to do so. Two-thirds of air capability
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