45°45′43″S 170°40′05″E / 45.76194°S 170.66806°E / -45.76194; 170.66806
132-501: Whareakeake ( [ ˌ f a ɾ ɛ ˈ a k ɛ ˌ a k ɛ ] ; formerly and colloquially Murdering Beach , also "Murderers Beach" or "Murdering Bay") is a beach 25 kilometres (16 mi) northeast of Dunedin in the South Island of New Zealand , as well as the valley above and behind the beach. Located to the west of Aramoana (12 kilometres (7.5 mi) northeast of Port Chalmers ) and included as
264-482: A Classic Māori site, now thoroughly excavated, extending into the sand dunes. The latter site consists of four occupation layers of which even the oldest contains no moa bone. Artefacts from it – including fish-hooks, weapons, and amulets – have been used as type specimens of the Classic period. An unrivalled quantity of pounamu artefacts was excavated from Whareakeake in the 1880s and 1890s. One artefact found in
396-465: A Māori preserved head in 1811 and inaugurated the trade in these items; this is considered to be poorly evidenced. Local Māori tradition has it that the trouble arose over the Sophia ' s crew's treatment of the women at Ōtākou. Whareakeake was thereafter occupied by a succession of European households, and informally referred to as "Driver's Beach" or "Coleman's Beach" after two of them. However, on
528-476: A "shortage of animal protein" was also the underlying reason for Aztec cannibalism. The cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins , on the other hand, rejected such explanations as overly simplistic, stressing that cannibal customs must be regarded as "complex phenomen[a]" with "myriad attributes" which can only be understood if one considers "symbolism, ritual, and cosmology" in addition to their "practical function". In pre-modern medicine, an explanation given by
660-567: A 'heritage city' with its main streets refurbished in the Victorian style . R. A. Lawson 's Municipal Chambers ( Dunedin Town Hall ) in the Octagon were handsomely restored. The city was also recognised as a centre of excellence in tertiary education and research. The university's and polytechnic's growth accelerated. Dunedin has continued to refurbish itself, embarking on redevelopments of
792-914: A belief that eating a person's flesh or internal organs will endow the cannibal with some of the positive characteristics of the deceased. However, several authors investigating exocannibalism in New Zealand , New Guinea , and the Congo Basin observe that such beliefs were absent in these regions. A further type, different from both exo- and endocannibalism, is autocannibalism (also called autophagy or self-cannibalism ), "the act of eating parts of oneself". It does not ever seem to have been an institutionalized practice, but occasionally occurs as pathological behaviour, or due to other reasons such as curiosity. Also on record are instances of forced autocannibalism committed as acts of aggression, where individuals are forced to eat parts of their own bodies as
924-697: A boy aged around 5 or 6. As the daily energy need of an adult man is about 2,400 kilocalories, a dead male body could thus have fed a group of 25 men for a bit more than two days, provided they ate nothing but the human flesh alone – longer if it was part of a mixed diet. The nutritional value of the human body is thus not insubstantial, though Cole notes that for prehistoric hunters, large megafauna such as mammoths , rhinoceros , and bisons would have been an even better deal as long as they were available and could be caught, because of their much higher body weight. Cases of people eating human livers and hearts , especially of enemies, have been reported from across
1056-629: A central city studio. Numerous large companies had been established in Dunedin, many of which became national leaders. Late among them was Fletcher Construction , founded by Sir James Fletcher in the early 20th century. Kempthorne Prosser , established in 1879 in Stafford Street, was the largest fertiliser and drug manufacturer in the country for over 100 years. G. Methven , a metalworking and tap manufacturer based in South Dunedin ,
1188-702: A double bag ... which was put into a large pot" and so boiled alive. While not mentioning live roasting or boiling, European authors also complained about cannibalism and cruelty during the Mongol invasion of Europe , and a drawing in the Chronica Majora (compiled by Matthew Paris ) shows Mongol fighters spit-roasting a human victim. Pedro de Margarit [ es ] , who accompanied Christopher Columbus during his second voyage , afterwards stated "that he saw there with his own eyes several Indians skewered on spits being roasted over burning coals as
1320-411: A few others went to visit Whareakeake (then known to Europeans as "Small Bay") in an open boat. Among them was a settler named William Tucker , who had built a house at Whareakeake two years previously, where he ran an export business in ornamental hei-tiki ( pounamu neck pendants). At first they were welcomed, but when Tucker went into his house, the locals attacked Kelly, at the instigation of
1452-459: A form of torture . Exocannibalism is thus often associated with the consumption of enemies as an act of aggression, a practice also known as war cannibalism . Endocannibalism is often associated with the consumption of deceased relatives in funerary rites driven by affection – a practice known as funerary or mortuary cannibalism . Medicinal cannibalism (also called medical cannibalism ) means "the ingestion of human tissue ... as
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#17327728817171584-525: A group of cannibals in West Africa in the 14th century, the Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta recorded that, according to their preferences, "the tastiest part of women's flesh is the palms and the breast." Centuries later, the anthropologist Percy Amaury Talbot [ fr ] wrote that, in southern Nigeria , "the parts in greatest favour are the palms of the hands, the fingers and toes, and, of
1716-667: A land area of 3,314.8 km (1,279.9 sq mi), slightly larger than the American state of Rhode Island or the English county of Cambridgeshire , and a little smaller than Cornwall . It was the largest city in land area in New Zealand until the formation of the 5,600 km (2,200 sq mi) Auckland Council on 1 November 2010. The Dunedin City Council boundaries since 1989 have extended to Middlemarch in
1848-448: A local kaumātua named Taare Wetere Te Kahu identified Whareakeake as a traditional kāinga nohoanga (place of residence) and kāinga mahinga kai (place of food production). Other older Māori people at the time recalled "a fenced fort, a cemetery, a sacred altar and a canoe anchorage." At least two archaeological sites are present: a site with moa bones well back from the shoreline, which has received very little study, and
1980-514: A local chief named Korako. Their subsequent report claimed that the Māori had boarded the Sophia and were killed in the fight to retake it, and that Korako was captured and shot when he attempted to escape; historians caution that Kelly's account of events, made to justify the actions he took, exaggerates the danger he and his men were in. He went on to destroy multiple canoes and set fire to "the beautiful city of Otago". This probably refers to Ōtākou , on
2112-563: A long finger of land that formed the southeastern rim of the Dunedin Volcano . The peninsula is lightly settled, almost entirely along the harbour coast, and much of it is maintained as a natural habitat by the Otago Peninsula Trust . The peninsula contains several fine beaches, and is home to a considerable number of rare species including Yellow-eyed and Little penguins, seals , and shags . Taiaroa Head on
2244-471: A major part of the grieving process. It has also been explained as a way of guiding the souls of the dead into the bodies of living descendants. In contrast, exocannibalism is the consumption of a person from outside the community. It is frequently "an act of aggression, often in the context of warfare", where the flesh of killed or captured enemies may be eaten to celebrate one's victory over them. Some scholars explain both types of cannibalism as due to
2376-545: A member of the enemy faction, which was enough to get her killed by an angry mob. After the others had left, he "cut open the girl's chest ..., dug out her heart, and took it home to enjoy". In a further case that took place in Wuxuan County , likewise in the Guangxi region, three brothers were beaten to death as supposed enemies; afterwards their livers were cut out, baked, and consumed "as medicine". According to
2508-438: A narrow sense), but also " lungs , liver , brain , heart , nervous tissue , bone marrow , genitalia and skin ", as well as kidneys . For a typical adult man, the combined nutritional value of all these edible parts is about 126,000 kilocalories (kcal). The nutritional value of women and younger individuals is lower because of their lower body weight – for example, around 86% of a male adult for an adult woman and 30% for
2640-793: A nephew of the poet Robert Burns , provided spiritual guidance. By the end of the 1850s, around 12,000 Scots had emigrated to Dunedin, many from the industrial lowlands . In 1852, Dunedin became the capital of the Otago Province , the whole of New Zealand from the Waitaki south. In 1861, the discovery of gold at Gabriel's Gully , to the south-west, led to a rapid influx of people and saw Dunedin become New Zealand's first city by growth of population in 1865. The new arrivals included many Irish, but also Italians, Lebanese, French, Germans, Jews and Chinese. The Dunedin Southern Cemetery
2772-609: A representative of the New Zealand Company , Frederick Tuckett , sailed south from Nelson to determine the location of a planned Free Church settlement. After inspecting several areas around the eastern coast of the South Island, Tuckett selected the site which would become known as Dunedin. (Tuckett rejected the site of what would become Christchurch , as he felt the ground around the Avon River / Ōtākaro
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#17327728817172904-527: A section of the Otago Heads , Whareakeake was a place of habitation for Māori people from early times until the Sealers' War skirmish of 1817 from which it derived its colonial name. It is now a surfing beach renowned for its right-hand point break . Whareakeake is approximately 630 metres (2,070 ft) long and faces north-northeast. To the west it ends at the small headland called Pilot Point; to
3036-512: A similar gradient close to its Mornington depot. Beyond the inner range of hills lie Dunedin's outer suburbs, notably to the northwest, beyond Roslyn. This direction contains Taieri Road and Three Mile Hill, which between them formed the original road route to the Taieri Plains . The modern State Highway 1 follows a different route, passing through Caversham in the west and out past Saddle Hill. Lying between Saddle Hill and Caversham are
3168-486: A single cooking pot." Al-Latif notes that, while initially people were shocked by such acts, they "eventually ... grew accustomed, and some conceived such a taste for these detestable meats that they made them their ordinary provender ... The horror people had felt at first vanished entirely". After the end of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), a Chinese writer criticized in his recollections of
3300-462: A supposed medicine or tonic". In contrast to other forms of cannibalism, which Europeans generally frowned upon, the "medicinal ingestion" of various "human body parts was widely practiced throughout Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries", with early records of the practice going back to the first century CE. It was also frequently practised in China . Sacrificial cannibalism refers
3432-558: A treat for the gluttonous." Jean de Léry , who lived for several months among the Tupinambá in Brazil, writes that several of his companions reported "that they had seen not only a number of men and women cut in pieces and grilled on the boucans , but also little unweaned children roasted whole" after a successful attack on an enemy village. According to German ethnologist Leo Frobenius , children captured by Songye slave raiders in
3564-678: A variety of circumstances and for various motives. To adequately express this diversity, Shirley Lindenbaum suggests that "it might be better to talk about 'cannibalisms ' " in the plural. One major distinction is whether cannibal acts are accepted by the culture in which they occur – institutionalized cannibalism – or whether they are merely practised under starvation conditions to ensure one's immediate survival – survival cannibalism – or by isolated individuals considered criminal and often pathological by society at large – cannibalism as psychopathology or "aberrant behavior". Institutionalized cannibalism, sometimes also called "learned cannibalism",
3696-602: A variety of different landforms. To the southwest lie the Taieri Plains , the broad, fertile lowland floodplains of the Taieri River and its major tributary, the Waipori . These are moderately heavily settled, and contain the towns of Mosgiel , and Allanton . They are separated from the coast by a range of low hills rising to some 300 metres (980 ft). Inland from the Taieri Plain is rough hill country. Close to
3828-539: A vibrant youth culture (students are referred to as 'Scarfies' by people who are not students), consisting of the previously mentioned music scene , and more recently a burgeoning boutique fashion industry. A strong visual arts community also exists in Dunedin, notably in Port Chalmers and the other settlements which dot the coast of the Otago Harbour , and also in communities such as Waitati . Sport
3960-489: A whaling station at Karitane in 1837 and Sydney-born Johnny Jones established a farming settlement and a mission station (the South Island's first) at Waikouaiti in 1840. The settlements at Karitane and Waikouaiti have endured, making modern Dunedin one of the longest-standing European-settled territories in New Zealand. Early in 1844, the Deborah , captained by Thomas Wing and carrying (among others) his wife Lucy and
4092-573: A woman, the breast." Regarding the north of the country, his colleague Charles Kingsley Meek added: "Among all the cannibal tribes the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet were considered the tit-bits of the body." Among the Apambia, a cannibalistic clan of the Azande people in Central Africa, palms and soles were considered the best parts of the human body, while their favourite dish
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4224-492: A young cannibal who had just participated in a "human barbecue" and told him without hesitation: "It tastes just like chicken. Especially the liver – just the same as chicken." In 2013, during the Syrian civil war , Syrian rebel Abu Sakkar was filmed eating parts of the lung or liver of a government soldier while declaring that "We will eat your hearts and your livers you soldiers of Bashar the dog". Various accounts from around
4356-524: Is "eaten without ceremony (other than culinary), in the same manner as the flesh of any other animal". While the term has been criticized as being too vague to clearly identify a specific type of cannibalism, various records indicate that nutritional or culinary concerns could indeed play a role in such acts even outside of periods of starvation. Referring to the Congo Basin, where many of the eaten were butchered slaves rather than enemies killed in war,
4488-579: Is a debate among anthropologists on how important functionalist reasons are for the understanding of institutionalized cannibalism. Diamond is not alone in suggesting "that the consumption of human flesh was of nutritional benefit for some populations in New Guinea" and the same case has been made for other "tropical peoples ... exploiting a diverse range of animal foods", including human flesh. The materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris argued that
4620-527: Is catered for in Dunedin by the floodlit rugby and cricket venues of Forsyth Barr Stadium and University Oval, Dunedin , respectively, the new Caledonian Ground football and athletics stadium near the university at Logan Park , the large Edgar Centre indoor sports centre, the Dunedin Ice Stadium , and numerous golf courses and parks. There is also the Wingatui horseracing course to
4752-575: Is close to modern explanations. He also pointed out that some acts of Europeans in his own time could be considered as equally barbarous, making his essay " Of Cannibals " ( c. 1580 ) a precursor to later ideas of cultural relativism . Archaeologist James Cole investigated the nutritional value of the human body and found it to be similar to that of animals of similar size. He notes that, according to ethnographic and archaeological records, nearly all edible parts of humans were sometimes eaten – not only skeletal muscle tissue ("flesh" or "meat" in
4884-438: Is frequent, since much of this rainfall occurs in drizzle or light rain and heavy rain is relatively rare. Dunedin is one of the cloudiest major centres in the country, recording approximately 1,850 hours of bright sunshine per annum. Prevailing wind in the city is mainly a sometimes cool southwesterly and during late spring will alternate with northeasterlies. Warmer, dry northwest winds are also characteristic Foehn winds from
5016-407: Is known as the Octagon . It was once a gully, filled in the mid-nineteenth century to create the present plaza. The initial settlement of the city took place to the south on the other side of Bell Hill , a large outcrop which had to be reduced to provide easy access between the two parts of the settlement. The central city stretches away from this point in a largely northeast–southwest direction, with
5148-576: Is legal on any beach where it is "known to occur". Dunedin Dunedin ( / d ʌ ˈ n iː d ɪ n / duh- NEE -din ; Māori : Ōtepoti ) is the second-largest city in the South Island of New Zealand (after Christchurch ), and the principal city of the Otago region. Its name comes from Dùn Èideann ("fort of Edin"), the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh ,
5280-641: Is now Dunedin, several of them large and permanently occupied, particularly in the 14th century. The population contracted but expanded again with the evolution of the Classic Māori culture which saw the building of several pā , fortified settlements, notably Pukekura at ( Taiaroa Head ), about 1650. There was a settlement in what is now central Dunedin (Ōtepoti), occupied as late as about 1785 but abandoned by 1826. There were also Māori settlements at Whareakeake (Murdering Beach), Pūrākaunui , Mapoutahi (Goat Island Peninsula) and Huriawa ( Karitane Peninsula) to
5412-485: Is one of four surf breaks of national significance in Otago – the others being at Karitāne , Papatōwai , and Spit Beach at Aramoana . It is considered suitable for intermediate to expert surfers. When the swell is northeasterly, the beach can become crowded with surfers, as these opportunities are rare. Whareakeake is frequently used by naturists for nude bathing. New Zealand has no official nude beaches, as public nudity
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5544-525: Is otherwise clearly rejected. The survivors of the shipwrecks of the Essex and Méduse in the 19th century are said to have engaged in cannibalism, as did the members of Franklin's lost expedition and the Donner Party . Such cases often involve only necro-cannibalism (eating the corpse of someone already dead) as opposed to homicidal cannibalism (killing someone for food). In modern English law,
5676-423: Is probably also the ultimate reason why cannibalism was widespread in traditional New Guinea highland societies", and both in New Zealand and Fiji , cannibals explained their acts as due to a lack of animal meat. In Liberia , a former cannibal argued that it would have been wasteful to let the flesh of killed enemies spoil, and eaters of human flesh in New Guinea and the neighbouring Bismarck Archipelago expressed
5808-703: Is served by the Port Chalmers Branch , a branch line railway which diverges from the Main South Line and runs from Christchurch by way of Dunedin to Invercargill . Dunedin is also home to MTF , the nationwide vehicle finance company. The cityscape glitters with gems of Victorian and Edwardian architecture—the legacy of the city's gold-rush affluence. Many, including First Church, Otago Boys' High School and Larnach Castle were designed by one of New Zealand's most eminent architects R. A. Lawson . Other prominent buildings include Olveston and
5940-428: Is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. A person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal . The meaning of " cannibalism " has been extended into zoology to describe animals consuming parts of individuals of the same species as food. Anatomically modern humans , Neanderthals , and Homo antecessor are known to have practised cannibalism to some extent in
6072-524: Is the consumption of human body parts as "an institutionalized practice" generally accepted in the culture where it occurs. By contrast, survival cannibalism means "the consumption of others under conditions of starvation such as shipwreck, military siege, and famine, in which persons normally averse to the idea are driven [to it] by the will to live". Also known as famine cannibalism , such forms of cannibalism resorted to only in situations of extreme necessity have occurred in many cultures where cannibalism
6204-645: Is uncommon (perhaps every two or three years), except in the inland hill suburbs such as Halfway Bush and Wakari, which tend to receive a few days of snowfall each year. Spring can feature "four seasons in a day" weather, but from November to April it is generally settled and mild. Temperatures during summer can reach 30 °C (86 °F). Due to its maritime influence, Dunedin's mild summers and mild winters both stand out considering its latitude. Dunedin has relatively low rainfall in comparison to many of New Zealand's cities, with usually only between 600 and 750 millimetres (30 in) recorded per year. However, wet weather
6336-523: The DSM , presumably because at least serious cases (that lead to murder) are very rare. Within institutionalized cannibalism, exocannibalism is often distinguished from endocannibalism . Endocannibalism refers to the consumption of a person from the same community. Often it is a part of a funerary ceremony, similar to burial or cremation in other cultures. The consumption of the recently deceased in such rites can be considered "an act of affection" and
6468-688: The Ngāi Tahu village of Otakou at the mouth of the harbour, which became a whaling station in the 1830s. In 1848 a Scottish settlement was established by the Lay Association of the Free Church of Scotland and between 1855 and 1900 many thousands of Scots emigrated to the incorporated city. Dunedin's population and wealth boomed during the 1860s' Otago gold rush , and for a brief period of time it became New Zealand's largest urban area. The city saw substantial migration from mainland China at
6600-434: The Congo Basin . A form of cannibalism popular in early modern Europe was the consumption of body parts or blood for medical purposes . Reaching its height during the 17th century, this practice continued in some cases into the second half of the 19th century. Cannibalism has occasionally been practised as a last resort by people suffering from famine . Well-known examples include the ill-fated Donner Party (1846–1847),
6732-545: The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), hundreds of incidents of cannibalism occurred, mostly motivated by hatred against supposed "class enemies", but sometimes also by health concerns. In a case recorded by the local authorities, a school teacher in Mengshan County "heard that consuming a 'beauty's heart' could cure disease". He then chose a 13- or 14-year-old student of his and publicly denounced her as
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#17327728817176864-626: The Democratic Republic of the Congo . It was still practised in Papua New Guinea as of 2012, for cultural reasons. Cannibalism has been said to test the bounds of cultural relativism because it challenges anthropologists "to define what is or is not beyond the pale of acceptable human behavior ". A few scholars argue that no firm evidence exists that cannibalism has ever been a socially acceptable practice anywhere in
6996-773: The Dunedin Railway Station . Other unusual or memorable buildings or constructions are Baldwin Street , claimed to be the world's steepest residential street; the Captain Cook tavern; Cadbury Chocolate Factory ( Cadbury World ) (In 2018, both the factory and Cadbury World closed to make way for a new NZ$ 1.4 billion hospital to replace the existing Dunedin Public Hospital ); and the Speight's brewery. The thriving tertiary student population has led to
7128-577: The Holodomor (1932–1933), and the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 (1972), after which the survivors ate the bodies of the dead. Additionally, there are cases of people engaging in cannibalism for sexual pleasure, such as Albert Fish , Issei Sagawa , Jeffrey Dahmer , and Armin Meiwes . Cannibalism has been both practised and fiercely condemned in several recent wars, especially in Liberia and
7260-524: The Otago Polytechnic , accounting for a large proportion of the population; 21.6 per cent of the city's population was aged between 15 and 24 at the 2006 census, compared to the New Zealand average of 14.2 per cent. Dunedin is also noted for its vibrant music scene, as the 1980s birthplace of the Dunedin sound (which heavily influenced grunge , indie and modern alternative rock ). In 2014,
7392-578: The Pleistocene . Cannibalism was occasionally practised in Egypt during ancient and Roman times , as well as later during severe famines. The Island Caribs of the Lesser Antilles , whose name is the origin of the word cannibal , acquired a long-standing reputation as eaters of human flesh, reconfirmed when their legends were recorded in the 17th century. Some controversy exists over
7524-660: The Solomon Islands in the 1980s, anthropologist Michael Krieger met a former cannibal who told him that women's breasts had been considered the best part of the human body because they were so fatty, with fat being a rare and sought delicacy. They were also considered among the best parts in New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago . Based on theoretical considerations, the structuralist anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss suggested that human flesh
7656-661: The Southern District Health Board confirmed that test results indicated that long-term exposure to lead in the water supply posed little risk to the local population. In late January 2024, the Dunedin City Council and Otago Regional Council released a joint draft strategy to expand housing development and industrial land over the next thirty years to accommodate a projected 10% population growth. The Dunedin City territorial authority has
7788-629: The Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests , hunting people "was an opportunistic extension of seasonal foraging or pillaging strategies", with human bodies just as welcome as those of animals as sources of protein, according to the anthropologist Bruce M. Knauft. As populations living near coasts and rivers were usually better nourished and hence often physically larger and stronger than those living inland, they "raided inland 'bush' peoples with impunity and often with little fear of retaliation". Cases of human predation are also on record for
7920-858: The Whitcoulls group—had its origins in Dunedin in the 19th century. There were also the National Mortgage and Agency Company of New Zealand , Wright Stephensons Limited , the Union Steamship Company and the National Insurance Company and the Standard Insurance Company among many others, which survived into the 20th century. After the Second World War prosperity and population growth revived, although Dunedin trailed as
8052-531: The art gallery , railway station and the Toitū Otago Settlers Museum . Meanwhile, the continued blossoming of local creative writing saw the city gain UNESCO City of Literature status in 2014. Dunedin has flourishing niche industries including engineering, software engineering, biotechnology and fashion. Port Chalmers on the Otago Harbour provides Dunedin with deep-water facilities. It
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#17327728817178184-643: The " Sealers' War " sparked by an incident on Otago Harbour. William Tucker became the first European to settle in the area – in 1815. Permanent European occupation dates from 1831, when the Weller brothers of New South Wales founded their whaling station at Otago (present-day Otakou ) on the Otago Harbour. Epidemics severely reduced the Māori population. By the late 1830s, the Harbour had become an international whaling port. Wright & Richards started
8316-432: The 13th century and their subsequent rule over China during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), some Mongol fighters practised cannibalism and both European and Chinese observers record a preference for women's breasts, which were considered "delicacies" and, if there were many corpses, sometimes the only part of a female body that was eaten (of men, only the thighs were said to be eaten in such circumstances). After meeting
8448-401: The Arab physician Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi repeatedly saw "little children, roasted or boiled", offered for sale in baskets on street corners during a heavy famine that started in 1200 CE. Older children and possibly adults were sometimes prepared in the same way. Once he saw "a child nearing the age of puberty, who had been found roasted"; two young people confessed to having killed and cooked
8580-428: The British royals, the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York toured Dunedin. In the 1930s and early 1940s a new generation of artists such as M. T. (Toss) Woollaston , Doris Lusk , Anne Hamblett, Colin McCahon and Patrick Hayman once again represented the best of the country's talent. The Second World War saw the dispersal of these painters, but not before McCahon had met a very youthful poet, James K. Baxter , in
8712-405: The Chinese author Zheng Yi, who researched these events, "the consumption of human liver was mentioned at least fifty or sixty times" in just a small number of archival documents. He talked with a man who had eaten human liver and told him that "barbecued liver is delicious". During a massacre of the Madurese minority in the Indonesian part of Borneo in 1999, reporter Richard Lloyd Parry met
8844-441: The Congo Basin, where cannibalism had been quite widespread and where even in the 1950s travellers were sometimes served a meat dish, learning only afterwards that the meat had been of human origin. The term gastronomic cannibalism has been suggested for cases where human flesh is eaten to "provide a supplement to the regular diet" – thus essentially for its nutritional value – or, in an alternative definition, for cases where it
8976-467: The Pacific Ocean by a long line of dunes which run east–west along the city's southern coastline and separate residential areas from Ocean Beach , which is traditionally divided into St. Clair Beach at the western end and St Kilda Beach to the east. Dunedin is home to Baldwin Street , which, according to the Guinness Book of Records , is the steepest street in the world. Its gradient is 1 in 2.9. The long-since-abandoned Maryhill Cablecar route had
9108-436: The accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture. Cannibalism has been well documented in much of the world, including Fiji (once nicknamed the "Cannibal Isles"), the Amazon Basin , the Congo , and the Māori people of New Zealand. Cannibalism was also practised in New Guinea and in parts of the Solomon Islands , and human flesh was sold at markets in some parts of Melanesia and of
9240-456: The anthropologist Emil Torday notes that "the most common [reason for cannibalism] was simply gastronomic: the natives loved 'the flesh that speaks' [as human flesh was commonly called] and paid for it". The historian Key Ray Chong observes that, throughout Chinese history, "learned cannibalism was often practiced ... for culinary appreciation". In his popular book Guns, Germs and Steel , Jared Diamond suggests that "protein starvation
9372-608: The beginning of a later great national industry. The first successful commercial shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand to the United Kingdom was on the Dunedin in 1881. After ten years of gold rushes the economy slowed but Julius Vogel 's immigration and development scheme brought thousands more, especially to Dunedin and Otago, before recession set in again in the 1880s. In these first and second times of prosperity, many institutions and businesses were established, New Zealand's first daily newspaper, art school , medical school and public art gallery. The Dunedin Public Art Gallery
9504-440: The capital of Scotland . The city has a rich Māori , Scottish , and Chinese heritage. With an estimated population of 136,000 as of June 2024, Dunedin is New Zealand's seventh-most populous metropolitan and urban area. For cultural, geographical, and historical reasons, the city has long been considered one of New Zealand's four main centres. The urban area of Dunedin lies on the central-eastern coast of Otago, surrounding
9636-452: The cases, with roasting being slightly more common. In contrast to Lévi-Strauss's predictions, boiling was more often used in exocannibalism, while roasting was about equally common for both. Shankman observed that various other "ways of preparing people" were repeatedly employed as well; in one third of all cases, two or more modes were used together (e.g. some bodies or body parts were boiled or baked, while others were roasted). Human flesh
9768-524: The central city (most of these hills, such as Maori Hill , Pine Hill, and Maryhill , rise to some 200 metres [660 ft] above the plain). The head of the harbour includes a large area of reclaimed land ("The Southern Endowment"), much of which is used for light industry and warehousing. A large area of flat land, simply known colloquially as "The Flat" lies to the south and southwest of the city centre, and includes several larger and older suburbs, notably South Dunedin and St Kilda . These are protected from
9900-536: The characteristics of Edinburgh, produced a striking, "Romantic" town-planning design. There resulted both grand and quirky streets, as the builders struggled and sometimes failed to construct his bold vision across the challenging landscape. Captain William Cargill (1784–1860), a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars , served as the secular leader of the new colony. The Reverend Thomas Burns (1796–1871),
10032-405: The chief Te Matahaere. In the ensuing melee three of the settlers were killed, including Tucker himself, who made it back to the boat but lingered in the surf begging his attackers not to hurt him before being "cut limb from limb". All the dead were eaten . Kelly and the other survivors of the attack rowed back to the Sophia . He and his men then proceeded to kill large numbers of Māori, including
10164-611: The child. Another time, remains were found of a person who had apparently been roasted and served whole, the legs tied like those of "a sheep trussed for cooking". Only the skeleton was found, still undivided and in the trussed position, but "with all the flesh stripped off for food". In some cases children were roasted and offered for sale by their own parents; other victims were street children, who had become very numerous and were often kidnapped and cooked by people looking for food or extra income. The victims were so numerous that sometimes "two or three children, even more, would be found in
10296-716: The city centre, starting at due north) Burkes ; Saint Leonards ; Deborah Bay; Careys Bay; Port Chalmers ; Sawyers Bay; Roseneath; Broad Bay ; Company Bay ; Macandrew Bay ; Portobello ; Burnside ; Green Island ; Waldronville ; Westwood ; Saddle Hill; Sunnyvale ; Fairfield ; Abbotsford ; Bradford ; Brockville ; Halfway Bush ; Helensburgh . (clockwise from the city centre, starting at due north) Waitati ; Waikouaiti ; Karitane ; Seacliff ; Warrington ; Pūrākaunui ; Long Beach ; Aramoana ; Otakou ; Mosgiel; Brighton; Taieri Mouth ; Henley ; Allanton ; East Taieri ; Momona ; Outram ; West Taieri ; Waipori ; Middlemarch ; Hyde . Since local council reorganisation in
10428-429: The city was designated as a UNESCO City of Literature . Archaeological evidence shows the first human (Māori) occupation of New Zealand occurred between 1250 and 1300 AD, with the population concentrated along the southeast coast. A camp site at Kaikai Beach, near Long Beach to the north of the present-day city of Dunedin, has been dated from about that time. There are numerous archaic ( moa -hunter) sites in what
10560-518: The city. During the 1980s Dunedin's popular music scene blossomed, with many acts, such as The Chills , The Clean , The Verlaines and Straitjacket Fits , gaining national and international recognition. The term "The Dunedin sound " was coined to describe the 1960s-influenced, guitar-led music which flourished at the time. Bands and musicians are still playing and recording in many styles. By 1990, population decline had steadied and slow growth has occurred since and Dunedin re-invented itself as
10692-919: The consumption of the flesh of victims of human sacrifice , for example among the Aztecs . Human and animal remains excavated in Knossos , Crete , have been interpreted as evidence of a ritual in which children and sheep were sacrificed and eaten together during the Bronze Age . According to Ancient Roman reports, the Celts in Britain practised sacrificial cannibalism, and archaeological evidence backing these claims has by now been found. Infanticidal cannibalism or cannibalistic infanticide refers to cases where newborns or infants are killed because they are "considered unwanted or unfit to live" and then "consumed by
10824-535: The east, at the cliffs of the much larger Purehurehu Point. Immediately south lie approximately 13 hectares (32 acres) of flat ground, beyond which the land rises steeply on all sides up towards Stone Hill and Hodson Hill. A stream flows down the valley from Hodson Hill and crosses the beach near its eastern end. Beyond Pilot Point lies Long Beach , followed by Pūrākaunui , Mapoutahi , and Blueskin Bay ; beyond Purehurehu Point lie Kaikai Beach, Aramoana , Heyward Point, and
10956-496: The first surveying map of the district (dated 1863) it was labelled "Murdering Beach". This remained its official designation until 1998, when the name Whareakeake was restored in the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act . Whareakeake is a relatively quiet beach owing to the difficulty of access by road. It is a favoured spot for swimming, sunbathing, and scenery-gazing. Due to its right-hand point break , Whareakeake
11088-575: The fourth 'main centre'. A generation reacting against Victorianism started demolishing its buildings and many were lost, notably William Mason 's Stock exchange in 1969. ( Dunedin Stock Exchange building ) Although the university continued to expand, the city's population contracted, notably from 1976 to 1981. This was a culturally vibrant time with the university's new privately endowed arts fellowships bringing writers including James K Baxter , Ralph Hotere , Janet Frame and Hone Tuwhare to
11220-574: The head of Otago Harbour . The harbour and hills around Dunedin are the remnants of an extinct volcano. The city suburbs extend out into the surrounding valleys and hills, onto the isthmus of the Otago Peninsula , and along the shores of the Otago Harbour and the Pacific Ocean. Archaeological evidence points to lengthy occupation of the area by Māori prior to the arrival of Europeans. The province and region of Otago takes its name from
11352-489: The late 1980s, these are suburbs, but are not commonly regarded as such. The climate of Dunedin in general is temperate. Under the Köppen climate classification , Dunedin features an oceanic climate . This leads to mild summers and coolish winters. Winter is not particularly frosty with around 49 frosts per year, lower than most other South Island locations, but sunny. Snowfall is not particularly common and significant snowfall
11484-464: The latter is always considered a crime, even in the most trying circumstances. The case of R v Dudley and Stephens , in which two men were found guilty of murder for killing and eating a cabin boy while adrift at sea in a lifeboat, set the precedent that necessity is no defence to a charge of murder. This decision outlawed and effectively ended the practice of shipwrecked sailors drawing lots in order to determine who would be killed and eaten to prevent
11616-622: The like". Human flesh was also often "cooked into soup " or stewed in cauldrons. Eating human flesh raw was the "least popular" method, but a few cases are on record too. Chong notes that human flesh was typically cooked in the same way as "ordinary foodstuffs for daily consumption" – no principal distinction from the treatment of animal meat is detectable, and nearly any mode of preparation used for animals could also be used for people. Though human corpses, like those of animals, were usually cut into pieces for further processing, reports of people being roasted or baked whole are on record throughout
11748-555: The low-lying flats and nearby hills and across the isthmus to the slopes of the Otago Peninsula . Eastern Otago is tectonically stable, meaning that it does not experience many earthquakes. One of the only known faults near Dunedin is the Akatore Fault . The first earthquake to cause widespread damage in Dunedin since its founding was the 1974 Dunedin earthquake, which had a magnitude of 4.9 and caused about $ 3.5 million in damages (2024 terms). The central region of Dunedin
11880-403: The main streets of George Street and Princes Street meeting at The Octagon. Here they are joined by Stuart Street , which runs orthogonally to them, from the Dunedin Railway Station in the southeast, and steeply up to the suburb of Roslyn in the northwest. Many of the city's notable old buildings are located in the southern part of this area and on the inner ring of lower hills which surround
12012-554: The marketplace" during the Taiping Rebellion in 1850–1864, human hearts became a popular dish, according to some who afterwards freely admitted having consumed them. According to a missionary's report from the brutal suppression of the Dungan Revolt of 1895–1896 in northwestern China, "thousands of men, women and children were ruthlessly massacred by the imperial soldiers" and "many a meal of human hearts and livers
12144-475: The mid-17th century. European accounts have often represented these successive influxes as "invasions", but modern scholarship has cast doubt on that view. They were probably migrations – like those of the Europeans – which incidentally resulted in bloodshed. The sealer John Boultbee recorded in the late 1820s that the 'Kaika Otargo' (settlements around and near Otago Harbour ) were the oldest and largest in
12276-687: The mid-1890s, the economy revived. Institutions such as the Otago Settlers Museum (now renamed as Toitū Otago Settlers Museum ) and the Hocken Collections —the first of their kind in New Zealand—were founded. More notable buildings such as the Railway Station and Olveston were erected. New energy in the visual arts represented by G. P. Nerli culminated in the career of Frances Hodgkins . By 1900, Dunedin
12408-443: The mother, father, both parents or close relatives". Infanticide followed by cannibalism was practised in various regions, but is particularly well documented among Aboriginal Australians . Among animals, such behaviour is called filial cannibalism , and it is common in many species, especially among fish. Human predation is the hunting of people from unrelated and possibly hostile groups in order to eat them. In parts of
12540-539: The mouth of Otago Harbour . Northeasterly swells, although rare, produce barrelling waves and "mal waves" of great interest to surfers. The tides regularly strew the beach with shells and driftwood. Access to Whareakeake is by Whareakeake Road (formerly Murdering Beach Road), a steep one-lane gravel drive leading down the side of the Purehurehu Point ridge to the eastern end of the beach. During an 1879 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Ngāi Tahu land claims,
12672-524: The neighbouring Bismarck Archipelago and for Australia . In the Congo Basin, there lived groups such as the Bankutu who hunted humans for food even when game was plentiful. The term innocent cannibalism has been used for cases of people eating human flesh without knowing what they are eating. It is a subject of myths, such as the myth of Thyestes who unknowingly ate the flesh of his own sons. There are also actual cases on record, for example from
12804-481: The north of the city's urban area is undulating hill country containing several small, mainly coastal, settlements, including Waitati , Warrington , Seacliff , and Waikouaiti . State Highway 1 winds steeply through a series of hills here, notably The Kilmog . These hills can be considered a coastal extension of the Silverpeaks Range. To the east of Dunedin lies the entirety of the Otago Peninsula ,
12936-424: The north, and at Taieri Mouth and Otokia ( Henley ) to the south, all inside the present boundaries of Dunedin. Māori tradition tells first of a people called Kahui Tipua living in the area, then Te Rapuwai, semi-legendary but considered to be historical. The next arrivals were Waitaha , followed by Kāti Māmoe late in the 16th century and then Kāi Tahu ( Ngāi Tahu in modern standard Māori ) who arrived in
13068-430: The northwest . The circle of hills surrounding the inner city shelters the inner city from much of the prevailing weather, while hills just to the west of the city can often push inclement weather around to the west of the city. Inland, beyond the heart of the city and into inland Otago, the climate is sub-continental: winters are quite cold and dry, summers warm and dry. Thick freezing ground fogs are common in winter in
13200-503: The now-discredited theory of humorism for cannibalism was that it was caused by a black acrimonious humor, which, being lodged in the linings of the ventricles of the heart, produced a voracity for human flesh. On the other hand, the French philosopher Michel de Montaigne understood war cannibalism as a way of expressing vengeance and hatred towards one's enemies and celebrating one's victory over them, thus giving an interpretation that
13332-558: The opposite side of the harbour. Port Chalmers provides Dunedin's main deep-water port, including the city's container port. The Dunedin skyline is dominated by a ring of (traditionally seven) hills which form the remnants of a volcanic crater . Notable among them are Mount Cargill (700 m [2,300 ft]), Flagstaff (680 m [2,230 ft]), Saddle Hill (480 m [1,570 ft]), Signal Hill (390 m [1,280 ft]), and Harbour Cone (320 m [1,050 ft]). Dunedin's hinterland encompasses
13464-526: The other side of the harbour; however, the Whareakeake village does seem to have been burned at around the same time, and abandoned rather than rebuilt. A tapu was placed on the site and lifted in the 1860s. The motive for the attack at Whareakeake is unclear. Kelly believed it was a reprisal for previous shootings of Māori by Europeans in the ongoing state of lawless conflict known as the Sealers' War . A later account accused Tucker of having stolen
13596-512: The others from starving, a time-honoured practice formerly known as a " custom of the sea ". In other cases, cannibalism is an expression of a psychopathology or mental disorder , condemned by the society in which it occurs and "considered to be an indicator of [a] severe personality disorder or psychosis". Well-known cases include Albert Fish , Issei Sagawa , and Armin Meiwes . Fantasies of cannibalism, whether acted out or not, are not specifically mentioned in manuals of mental disorders such as
13728-477: The outer suburbs of Green Island and Abbotsford . Between Green Island and Roslyn lies the steep-sided valley of the Kaikorai Stream , which is today a residential and light industrial area. Suburban settlements—mostly regarded as separate townships—also lie along both edges of the Otago Harbour. Notable among these are Portobello and Macandrew Bay , on the Otago Peninsula coast, and Port Chalmers on
13860-816: The peninsula's northeastern point is a site of global ecological significance, as it is home to the world's only mainland breeding colony of royal albatross . (clockwise from the city centre, starting at due north) Woodhaugh ; Glenleith ; Leith Valley ; Dalmore ; Liberton ; Pine Hill ; Normanby ; Mt Mera ; North East Valley ; Opoho ; Dunedin North ; Ravensbourne ; Highcliff ; Shiel Hill ; Challis ; Waverley ; Vauxhall ; Ocean Grove (Tomahawk); Tainui ; Andersons Bay ; Musselburgh ; South Dunedin ; St Kilda ; St Clair ; Corstorphine ; Kew ; Forbury ; Caversham ; Concord ; Maryhill ; Kenmure ; Mornington ; Kaikorai Valley ; City Rise ; Belleknowes ; Roslyn ; Kaikorai ; Wakari ; Maori Hill . (clockwise from
13992-404: The period that some Mongol soldiers ate human flesh because of its taste rather than (as had also occurred in other times) merely in cases of necessity. He added that they enjoyed torturing their victims (often children or women, whose flesh was preferred over that of men) by roasting them alive, in "large jars whose outside touched the fire [or] on an iron grate". Other victims were placed "inside
14124-562: The plain, much of this is forested, notably around Berwick and Lake Mahinerangi , and also around the Silverpeaks Range which lies northwest of the Dunedin urban area. Beyond this, the land becomes drier and opens out into grass and tussock -covered land. A high, broad valley, the Strath-Taieri lies in Dunedin's far northwest, containing the town of Middlemarch , one of the area's few concentrations of population. To
14256-430: The principal local source of the nation's development capital until the Second World War . Dunedin and the region industrialised and consolidated, and the Main South Line connected the city with Christchurch in 1878 and Invercargill in 1879. Otago Boys' High School was founded in 1863. The Otago Museum opened in 1868. The University of Otago , the oldest university in New Zealand, in 1869. Otago Girls' High School
14388-400: The repast" at feasts for chiefs and warriors. The ethnologist Felix Speiser [ de ] writes: "Apart from the breasts of women and the genitals of men, palms of hands and soles of feet were the most coveted morsels." He knew a chief on Ambae , one of the islands of Vanuatu, who, "according to fairly reliably sources", dined on a young girl's breasts every few days. When visiting
14520-727: The same sentiment. In many cases, human flesh was also described as particularly delicious, especially when it came from women, children, or both. Such statements are on record for various regions and peoples, including the Aztecs, today's Liberia and Nigeria , the Fang people in west-central Africa, the Congo Basin, China up to the 14th century, Sumatra , Borneo , Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Vanuatu , and Fiji. Some Europeans and Americans who ate human flesh accidentally, out of curiosity, or to comply with local customs likewise tended to describe it as very good. There
14652-473: The same time, predominately from Guangdong and Guangxi . Dunedin is home to New Zealand's oldest Chinese community . Today Dunedin has a diverse economy which includes manufacturing, publishing, arts, tourism and technology-based industries. The mainstay of the city's economy remains centred around tertiary education , with students from the University of Otago , New Zealand's oldest university , and
14784-694: The south of the city. St Clair Beach is a well-known surfing venue, and the harbour basin is popular with windsurfers and kitesurfers . Dunedin has four public swimming pools: Moana Pool , Port Chalmers Pool, Mosgiel and St Clair Salt Water Pool. In February 2021, the East Otago towns of Waikouaiti and Karitane in New Zealand reported high lead levels in their water supplies. Local and national authorities responded by dispatching water tanks to assist local residents and providing free blood tests, fruits and vegetables. The lead poisoning scare also attracted coverage by national media. By early March 2021,
14916-430: The south. Lieutenant James Cook stood off what is now the coast of Dunedin between 25 February 1770 and 5 March 1770, naming Cape Saunders (on the Otago Peninsula ) and Saddle Hill. He reported penguins and seals in the vicinity, which led Australian, American and British sealers to visit from the beginning of the 19th century. The early years of sealing saw a feud between sealers and local Māori from 1810 to 1823,
15048-554: The surface layer in 1863 was a medal given out by Captain James Cook during his second voyage to New Zealand , and most likely subsequently traded from Queen Charlotte Sound for pounamu . Due to extensive fossicking it is difficult to analyse the changes in this site across time. In December 1817 the Sophia , a Hobart sealing ship carrying prospective settlers, anchored in Otago Harbour. Its captain James Kelly and
15180-722: The surrounding settlements and rural area. Dunedin City had a population of 128,901 in the 2023 New Zealand census , an increase of 2,646 people (2.1%) since the 2018 census , and an increase of 8,652 people (7.2%) since the 2013 census . There were 61,722 males, 66,300 females and 873 people of other genders in 49,920 dwellings. 5.8% of people identified as LGBTIQ+ . The median age was 37.0 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 19,056 people (14.8%) aged under 15 years, 34,455 (26.7%) aged 15 to 29, 53,055 (41.2%) aged 30 to 64, and 22,329 (17.3%) aged 65 or older. Human cannibalism Note: Varies by jurisdiction Note: Varies by jurisdiction Human cannibalism
15312-580: The upper reaches of the Taieri River 's course around Middlemarch , and in summer, the temperature occasionally reaches 30 °C (86 °F). The Dunedin City territorial authority has a population of 136,000 as of June 2024. This comprises 106,700 people in the Dunedin urban area, 15,150 people in the Mosgiel urban area, 1,580 people in Brighton , 1,330 people in Waikouaiti , and 11,240 people in
15444-496: The west, Waikouaiti in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east and south-east, and the Waipori/Taieri River and the township of Henley in the south-west. Dunedin is situated at the head of Otago Harbour , a narrow inlet extending south-westward for some 15 miles. The harbour is a recent creation formed by the flooding of two river valleys. From the time of its foundation in 1848, the city has spread slowly over
15576-480: The world mention women's breasts as a favourite body part. Also frequently mentioned are the palms of the hands and sometimes the soles of the feet , regardless of the victim's gender. Jerome , in his treatise Against Jovinianus , claimed that the British Attacotti were cannibals who regarded the buttocks of men and the breasts of women as delicacies. During the Mongol invasion of Europe in
15708-551: The world, but such views have been largely rejected as irreconcilable with the actual evidence. The word "cannibal" is derived from Spanish caníbal or caríbal , originally used as a name variant for the Kalinago (Island Caribs), a people from the West Indies said to have eaten human flesh. The older term anthropophagy , meaning "eating humans", is also used for human cannibalism. Cannibalism has been practised under
15840-498: The world. After the Battle of Uhud (625), Hind bint Utba ate (or at least attempted to) the liver of Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib , an uncle of Muhammad . At that time, the liver was considered "the seat of life". French Catholics ate livers and hearts of Huguenots at the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572, in some cases also offering them for sale. In China, medical cannibalism
15972-591: The world. At the archaeological site of Herxheim , Germany, more than a thousand people were killed and eaten about 7000 years ago, and the evidence indicates that many of them were spit-roasted whole over open fires. During severe famines in China and Egypt during the 12th and early 13th centuries, there was a black-market trade in corpses of little children that were roasted or boiled whole. In China, human-flesh sellers advertised such corpses as good for being boiled or steamed whole, "including their bones", and praised their particular tenderness. In Cairo , Egypt,
16104-788: Was baked in steam on preheated rocks or in earth ovens (a technique widely used in the Pacific), smoked (which allowed to preserve it for later consumption), or eaten raw. While these modes were used in both exo- and endocannibalism, another method that was only used in the latter and only in the Americas was to burn the bones or bodies of deceased relatives and then to consume the bone ash. After analysing numerous accounts from China, Key Ray Chong similarly concludes that "a variety of methods for cooking human flesh" were used in this country. Most popular were " broiling , roasting, boiling and steaming", followed by " pickling in salt, wine, sauce and
16236-550: Was also a leading firm, as was H. E. Shacklock , an iron founder and appliance manufacturer later taken over by the Auckland concern Fisher and Paykel . The Mosgiel Woollens was another Victorian Dunedin foundation. Hallensteins was the colloquial name of a menswear manufacturer and national retail chain, while the DIC and Arthur Barnett were department stores, the former a nationwide concern. Coulls, Somerville Wilkie—later part of
16368-536: Was among these new foundations. It had been actively promulgated by artist William Mathew Hodgkins . There was also a remarkable architectural flowering producing many substantial and ornamental buildings. R. A. Lawson 's First Church of Otago and Knox Church are notable examples, as are buildings by Maxwell Bury and F. W. Petre . The other visual arts also flourished under the leadership of W. M. Hodgkins . The city's landscape and burgeoning townscape were vividly portrayed by George O'Brien (1821–1888). From
16500-602: Was established in 1858, the Dunedin Northern Cemetery in 1872. In the 1860s, Ross Creek Reservoir was created so as to serve Dunedin's need for water. The London-owned Bank of Otago opened its doors in Dunedin in 1863, opened 12 branches throughout its region, then in 1873 merged with the new National Bank of New Zealand also based in London and also operated from Dunedin but, true to its name, it rapidly expanded throughout New Zealand. Dunedin remained
16632-438: Was established in 1871. By 1874, Dunedin and its suburbs had become New Zealand's largest city with a population of 29,832 displacing Auckland's 27,840 residents to second place. Between 1881 and 1957, Dunedin was home to cable trams , being both one of the first and last such systems in the world. Early in the 1880s the inauguration of the frozen meat industry, with the first shipment leaving from Port Chalmers in 1882, saw
16764-459: Was most typically boiled , with roasting also used to prepare the bodies of enemies and other outsiders in exocannibalism , but rarely in funerary endocannibalism (when eating deceased relatives). But an analysis of 60 sufficiently detailed and credible descriptions of institutionalized cannibalism by anthropologist Paul Shankman failed to confirm this hypothesis. Shankman found that roasting and boiling together accounted for only about half of
16896-451: Was no longer the country's biggest city. Influence and activity moved north to the other centres ("the drift north"), a trend which continued for much of the following century. Despite this, the university continued to expand, and a student quarter became established. At the same time, people started to notice Dunedin's mellowing, the ageing of its grand old buildings, with writers like E. H. McCormick pointing out its atmospheric charm. In 1901
17028-545: Was partaken of by soldiers", supposedly out of a belief that this would give them "the courage their enemies had displayed". In World War II, Japanese soldiers ate the livers of killed Americans in the Chichijima incident . Many Japanese soldiers who died during the occupation of Jolo Island in the Philippines had their livers eaten by local Moro fighters, according to Japanese soldier Fujioka Akiyoshi. During
17160-659: Was practised over centuries. People voluntarily cut their own body parts, including parts of their livers, and boiled them to cure ailing relatives. Children were sometimes killed because eating their boiled hearts was considered a good way of extending one's life. Emperor Wuzong of Tang supposedly ordered provincial officials to send him "the hearts and livers of fifteen-year-old boys and girls" when he had become seriously ill, hoping in vain this medicine would cure him. Later private individuals sometimes followed his example, paying soldiers who kidnapped preteen children for their kitchen. When "human flesh and organs were sold openly at
17292-471: Was prepared with "fat from a woman's breast", according to the missionary and ethnographer F. Gero. Similar preferences are on record throughout Melanesia . According to the anthropologists Bernard Deacon and Camilla Wedgwood , women were "specially fattened for eating" in Vanuatu , "the breasts being the great delicacy". A missionary confirmed that "a body of a female usually formed the principal part of
17424-471: Was swampy. ) The Lay Association of the Free Church of Scotland , through a company called the Otago Association , founded Dunedin at the head of Otago Harbour in 1848 as the principal town of its special settlement. The name "Dunedin" comes from Dùn Èideann , the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh , the capital of Scotland . Charles Kettle the city's surveyor, instructed to emulate
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