151-769: The Donner Party , sometimes called the Donner–Reed Party , were a group of American pioneers who migrated to California in a wagon train from the Midwest . Delayed by a multitude of mishaps, they spent the winter of 1846–1847 snowbound in the Sierra Nevada . Some of the migrants resorted to cannibalism to survive, mainly eating the bodies of those who had succumbed to starvation, sickness, or extreme cold, but in one case two Native American guides were murdered and eaten. The Donner Party originated from Springfield, Illinois , and departed Independence, Missouri , on
302-490: A rifle and food. The trials that the Donner Party had so far endured resulted in splintered groups, each looking out for themselves and distrustful of the others. Grass was becoming scarce, and the animals were steadily weakening. To relieve the animals' load, everyone was expected to walk. Keseberg ejected Hardkoop from his wagon, telling the elderly man that he had to walk or die. A few days later, Hardkoop sat next to
453-465: A "disagreeable" glue-like jelly. Ox and horse bones were boiled repeatedly to make soup, and they became so brittle that they would crumble upon chewing. Sometimes they were softened by being charred and eaten. Bit by bit, the Murphy children picked apart the oxhide rug that lay in front of their fireplace, roasted it in the fire and ate it. After a party set out on makeshift snowshoes in an attempt to cross
604-543: A 16-year-old named Jean Baptiste Trudeau from New Mexico , who claimed to have knowledge of the Native Americans and terrain on the way to California. The party turned south to follow the Hastings Cutoff. Within days, they found the terrain to be much more difficult than described. Drivers were forced to lock the wheels of their wagons to prevent them from rolling down steep inclines. Years of traffic on
755-522: A 25-year-old teamster named John Snyder, traveling together in three wagons. Their arrival brought the Donner Party to 87 members in 60–80 wagons. The Graves family had been part of the last group to leave Missouri, confirming the Donner Party was at the back of the year's western exodus. It was August 20 by the time that they reached a point in the mountains where they could see the Great Salt Lake . It took almost another two weeks to travel out of
906-943: A Servant of it only and a Pioneer in the Works". Various figures in American folklore and literature typify the pioneer. James Fenimore Cooper 's The Deerslayer (1841) became the most successful of his early series, the Leatherstocking Tales , about pioneer life in the Province of New York . Laura Ingalls Wilder 's Little House on the Prairie series, published a century later from 1932 to 1943 but set sixty years prior, typified later depictions of pioneer families. Daniel Boone (1734–1820) and Davy Crockett (1786–1836) became two real-life icons of pioneer history. The first westward migrations occurred as members of
1057-539: A carriage maker from Illinois, brought his wife Eleanor (25) and their two children, James (3) and Margaret (1). The Breen family consisted of Patrick Breen (51), a farmer from Iowa , his wife Margaret ("Peggy", 40) and seven children: John (14), Edward (13), Patrick, Jr. (9), Simon (8), James (5), Peter (3) and 11-month-old Isabella. Their neighbor, 40-year-old bachelor Patrick Dolan, traveled with them. German immigrant Lewis Keseberg (32) joined, along with his wife Elisabeth Philippine (22) and daughter Ada (2); son Lewis Jr.
1208-411: A family of thirteen. Her five youngest children were: John Landrum (16), Meriam ("Mary", 14), Lemuel (12), William (10) and Simon (8). Levinah's two married daughters and their families also came along: Sarah Murphy Foster (19), her husband William M. (30) and son Jeremiah George (1); Harriet Murphy Pike (18), her husband William M. (32) and their daughters Naomi (3) and Catherine (1). William H. Eddy (28),
1359-532: A foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter , found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River . Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan . Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from
1510-621: A more direct route (which actually increased the trip's mileage by 125 miles) to California across the Great Basin , which would take travelers through the Wasatch Range and across the Great Salt Lake Desert . Hastings had not traveled any part of his proposed shortcut until early 1846 on a trip from California to Fort Bridger , a scant supply station run by Jim Bridger at Blacks Fork , Wyoming. Hastings stayed at
1661-522: A mountain pass in present-day Wyoming which was relatively easy for wagons to negotiate. From there, pioneers had a choice of routes to their destinations. Lansford Hastings , an early migrant from Ohio to the West, published The Emigrants' Guide to Oregon and California to encourage settlers. As an alternative to the Oregon Trail's standard route through Idaho 's Snake River Plain , he proposed
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#17327653211991812-502: A new and better road to California" and said he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the migrants along the new cutoff. On July 20, at the Little Sandy River, most of the wagon train opted to follow the established trail via Fort Hall . A smaller group opted to head for Fort Bridger and needed a leader. Most of the younger men in the group were European immigrants and not considered ideal leaders. James Reed had lived in
1963-571: A portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada ; Fresno, California ; and Las Vegas, Nevada , has been dubbed the " Nevada Triangle ", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle . Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000, including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett . Hypotheses that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force 's Area 51 , or to
2114-448: A powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million troy ounces (340 metric tons) of gold (worth approximately US$ 16 billion in 2020 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking". A consequence of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt , heavy metals , and other pollutants were washed into streams and rivers. As of 1999 , many areas still bear
2265-520: A previous marriage: Elitha (14) and Leanna (12). George's younger brother Jacob (56) joined the party with his wife Elizabeth (45), stepsons Solomon Hook (14) and William Hook (12), and five children: George (9), Mary (7), Isaac (6), Lewis (4) and Samuel (1). Also traveling with the Donner brothers were teamsters Hiram O. Miller (29), Samuel Shoemaker (25), Noah James (16), Charles Burger (30), John Denton (28) and Augustus Spitzer (30). James F. Reed (45)
2416-706: A publication of his photographs under the title Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras , commented, "The name Sierra is already a plural. To add an s is a linguistic, Californian, and mountaineering sin." The Sierra Nevada lies primarily in Central and Eastern California , with the Carson Range , a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 500 feet (150 m) in
2567-470: A rescue party for the refugees. A rescue party including William Eddy started on February 4 from the Sacramento Valley. Rain and a swollen river forced several delays. Eddy stationed himself at Bear Valley, while the others made steady progress through the snow and storms to cross the pass to Truckee Lake, caching their food at stations along the way so they did not have to carry it all. Three of
2718-488: A rifle, a blanket each, a hatchet and some pistols , hoping to make their way to Bear Valley . Historian Charles McGlashan later called this snowshoe party the " Forlorn Hope ". Two of those without snowshoes, Charles Burger and 10-year-old William Murphy, turned back early on. Other members of the party fashioned snowshoes for 12-year-old Lemuel Murphy on the first evening from one of the packsaddles that they were carrying. The snowshoes proved to be awkward but effective on
2869-479: A rising river, but Tamsen Donner wrote to a friend in Springfield, "indeed, if I do not experience something far worse than I have yet done, I shall say the trouble is all in getting started". Young Virginia Reed recalled years later that, during the first part of the trip, she was "perfectly happy". Several other families joined the wagon train along the way. Levinah Murphy (37), a widow from Tennessee , headed
3020-435: A river below, a route likely to break wagons. In his letter Hastings had offered to guide the Donner Party around the more difficult areas, but he rode back only part way, indicating the general direction to follow. Stanton and Pike stopped to rest and Reed returned alone to the group, arriving four days after the party's departure. Without the guide they had been promised, the group had to decide whether to turn back and rejoin
3171-501: A short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42–90 °F (6–32 °C). Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows , at 8,600 feet (2,600 m) elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 °F (4 °C) with daily lows about 10 °F (−12 °C). The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation. The highest elevations of
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#17327653211993322-470: A stream, his feet so swollen they had split open; he was not seen again. William Eddy pleaded with the others to find him, but they all refused, swearing they would waste no more resources on a man almost 70 years old. Meanwhile, Reed caught up with the Donners and proceeded with one of his teamsters, Walter Herron. The two shared a horse and were able to cover 25–40 miles (40–64 km) per day. The rest of
3473-572: A wagon. But the desert soon came to an end, and the party found the Truckee River in beautiful lush country. The company had little time to rest. They pressed on to cross the Sierra Nevada before the snows came. Stanton, one of the two men who had left a month earlier to seek assistance in California, found the company; he brought mules and food from Sutter's Fort, and two Native American guides employed by John Sutter. These Miwok men from
3624-477: A whip handle—when Reed's wife attempted to intervene, she too was struck. Reed retaliated by fatally stabbing Snyder. That evening, the witnesses gathered to discuss what was to be done. American laws were not applicable west of the Continental Divide (in what was then Mexican territory ) and wagon trains often dispensed their own justice. But George Donner, the party's leader, was a full day ahead of
3775-447: Is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California . Finally, near Lone Pine , Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States . South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) near Lake Isabella , but south of
3926-910: Is a mountain range in the Western United States , between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin . The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California , although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada . The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera , an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas. The Sierra runs 400 mi (640 km) north-south, and its width ranges from 50 mi (80 km) to 80 mi (130 km) across east–west. Notable features include General Sherman ,
4077-456: Is either protected from development or strictly managed. The mountain range is home to three National Parks – Yosemite , Kings Canyon , and Sequoia – and two national monuments – Devils Postpile and Giant Sequoia . Ten national forests span much of the mountain range's remaining area. Within these national parks, monuments, and forests lie 26 wilderness areas , which together protect 15.4% of
4228-542: Is higher in the east. A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below: Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on
4379-650: Is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California. In the Cretaceous , a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent. This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American Plate . Magma, formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate , rose in plumes ( plutons ) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith . These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma. The earlier plutons formed in
4530-462: The Basin and Range Province . As this andesitic volcanism began waning about five million years ago, the rivers were able to begin eroding away the 100s of meters of volcanic deposits and resume the incision that had been halted by the first period of volcanism. Some studies have argued that this recent incision is a sign of recent tectonic uplift. Other geologists claim that the elevations of many of
4681-661: The Carson River runs into Carson Sink , the Walker River into Walker Lake ; Rush , Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake ; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake . Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California . The height of the mountains in
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4832-487: The Central Valley to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) atop the highest peaks of its crest 50 to 75 miles (80 to 121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment . Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift . The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass to
4983-505: The Cosumnes River area were known by their Catholic conversion names: Luis and Salvador. Stanton also brought news that Reed and Herron, although haggard and starving, had reached Sutter's Fort. By this point, according to Rarick, "To the bedraggled, half-starved members of the Donner Party, it must have seemed that the worst of their problems had passed." Faced with one last push over mountains that were described as much worse than
5134-527: The Humboldt River in present-day Nevada , resulted in the loss of many cattle and wagons, and divisions soon formed within the group. By early November, the migrants had reached the Sierra Nevada but became trapped by an early, heavy snowfall near Truckee Lake (now Donner Lake ) high in the mountains. Their food supplies ran dangerously low, and in mid-December some of the group set out on foot to obtain help. Rescuers from California attempted to reach
5285-562: The Humboldt River . The "shortcut" had probably delayed them by a month. Along the Humboldt River, the group met Paiute Native Americans, who joined them for a couple of days but stole or shot several oxen and horses. By now, it was well into October, and the Donner families split off to make better time. Two wagons in the remaining group became tangled, and John Snyder angrily beat the ox of Reed's hired teamster Milt Elliott. When Reed intervened, Snyder rained blows onto his head with
5436-613: The Humboldt Sink to cache (bury) his wagon; Reinhardt and Spitzer stayed behind to help. They returned without him, reporting they had been attacked by Paiutes and he had been killed. One more stretch of desert lay ahead. The Eddys' oxen had been killed by Native Americans and they were forced to abandon their wagon. The family had eaten all their stores, but the other families refused to assist their children. The Eddys were forced to walk, carrying their children and miserable with thirst. Margret Reed and her children were also now without
5587-595: The Nevadan orogeny , granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift less than five million years ago, and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along
5738-611: The North Fork Feather River . It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range . It is bounded on the west by California 's Central Valley , on the east by the Basin and Range Province , and on the southeast by the Mojave Desert . The southern boundary is at Tehachapi Pass . Physiographically,
5889-635: The Oregon Trail in the spring of 1846. The journey west usually took between four and six months, but the Donner Party was slowed after electing to follow a new route called the Hastings Cutoff , which bypassed established trails and instead crossed the Rocky Mountains ' Wasatch Range and the Great Salt Lake Desert in present-day Utah . The desolate and rugged terrain, and the difficulties they later encountered while traveling along
6040-529: The San Joaquin Valley to the rest of the state in the 1870s. This facilitated the nationwide distribution of lumber. In addition, technological advancements, such as the shay locomotive and the v-shaped log flume , made it easier to transport lumber across mountainous terrain. The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range. Yosemite Valley
6191-543: The Thirteen Colonies sought to expand their respective colonies westward. Those whose original royal charters did not specify a western limit simply extended their lands westward indefinitely. After the United States was officially formed upon the ratification of the U.S. Constitution , federal coordination and legislation began to give settlement a more unified approach. The Land Ordinance of 1785
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6342-475: The United States started to move to California via Sonora and Walker Passes . In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont , accompanied by Kit Carson , was the first European American to see Lake Tahoe . The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m). The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill , near Coloma , in the western foothills of the Sierra. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall,
6493-462: The endorheic basin of Tulare Lake , which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years. The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada . From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake , the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake ,
6644-742: The American River!" On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress . Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships. Wherever gold
6795-736: The Breens, then the Kesebergs, Stanton with the Reeds, Graves, and the Murphys. The Donners traveled last. After a few miles of rough terrain, an axle broke on one of their wagons. Jacob and George went into the woods to fashion a replacement. George Donner sliced his hand open while chiseling the wood but it seemed a superficial wound. Snow began to fall. The Breens made it up the "massive, nearly vertical slope" 1,000 feet (300 m) to Truckee Lake (now known as Donner Lake ), 3 miles (4.8 km) from
6946-474: The Donner Party crossed the next stretch of desert relatively unscathed. The journey seemed to get easier, particularly through the valley next to the Ruby Mountains . Despite their near-hatred of Hastings, they had no choice but to follow his tracks, which were weeks old. On September 26, two months after embarking on the cutoff, the party rejoined the traditional trail along a stream that became known as
7097-729: The Donner Party. Reed was laid over in San Jose until February because of regional uprisings and general confusion. He spent that time speaking with other pioneers and acquaintances. The people of San Jose responded by creating a petition to the United States Navy to assist the people at Truckee Lake. Two local newspapers reported that members of the snowshoe party had resorted to cannibalism, which helped to foster sympathy for those still trapped. Residents of Yerba Buena , many of them recent migrants, raised $ 1,300 ($ 42,500 in 2023) and organized relief efforts to build two camps to supply
7248-408: The Donner camp. Margret Reed had managed to save enough food for a Christmas pot of soup, to the delight of her children, but by January they were facing starvation and considered eating the oxhides that served as their roof. Margret Reed, Virginia Reed, Milt Elliott and the servant girl Eliza Williams attempted to walk out, reasoning that it would be better to try to bring food back than sit and watch
7399-505: The Donners, who were 5 miles (8.0 km)—half a day's journey —below them. Sixty members and associates of the Breen, Graves, Reed, Murphy, Keseberg and Eddy families set up for the winter at Truckee Lake. Three widely separated cabins of pine logs served as their homes, with dirt floors and poorly constructed flat roofs that leaked when it rained. The Breens occupied one cabin, the Eddys and
7550-531: The Harlan–Young Party. The Harlan–Young wagon train had arrived at Sutter's Fort on October 8, the last to make it over the Sierra Nevada that season. The party of roughly 30 horses and a dozen men carried food supplies, and expected to find the Donner Party on the western side of the mountain, along the Bear River below the steep approach to Emigrant Gap , perhaps starving but alive. When they arrived in
7701-465: The Murphys another, and the Reeds and the Graves the third. Keseberg built a lean-to for his family against the side of the Breen cabin. The families used canvas or oxhide to patch the faulty roofs. The cabins had no windows or doors, only large holes to allow entry. Of the 60 at Truckee Lake, 19 were men over age 18, 12 were women, and 29 were children, six of whom were toddlers or younger. Farther down
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#17327653211997852-806: The Pacific Ocean at San Francisco . The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather , Yuba , and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne , Stanislaus , Tuolumne , and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings , Kaweah , Tule , and Kern rivers, which flow into
8003-578: The Pacific Ocean, the range receives more snow than most other ranges in North America. The eastern side of the range, the Sierra Escarpment , is notoriously steep. After a wagon train left Missouri for Oregon or California, timing was crucial to ensure that it would not be bogged down by mud created by spring rains or by massive snowdrifts in the mountains from September onward, and that horses and oxen had enough spring grass to eat. In
8154-722: The Park in 1906. In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time. In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley . The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the U.S. Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O'Shaughnessy Dam
8305-513: The Reeds) died, more from malnutrition than starvation. Franklin Graves fashioned 14 pairs of snowshoes out of oxbows and hide. On December 16, a party of 17 men, women and children set out on foot in an attempt to cross the mountain pass. As evidence of how grim their choices were, four of the men were fathers. Three of the women, who were mothers, gave their young children to other women. They packed lightly, taking what had become six days' rations,
8456-478: The Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park
8607-559: The Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 m) elevation, due to orographic lift . Above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), precipitation diminishes on
8758-508: The Sierra Nevada started in the early 1800s, when settlers relied on hand tools and ox-teams. Before the California Gold Rush, the industry was relatively small, and most of the lumber used in the state was imported. However, as the demand for lumber to support the mining industry increased, logging became a major industry in the region. Initially, most of the lumber produced in California was used in mining. The Comstock Lode
8909-590: The Sierra Nevada to Rancho Johnson in late October. He was safe and recovering at Sutter's Fort, but each day he became more concerned for the fate of his family and friends. He pleaded with Colonel John C. Frémont to gather a team of men to cross the pass and help the party. In return, Reed promised to join Frémont's forces and fight in the Mexican–American War . He was joined by McCutchen, who had been unable to return with Stanton, as well as some members of
9060-431: The Sierra have an alpine climate . The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California. Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow , which greatly affects
9211-424: The Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range." The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into
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#17327653211999362-445: The Sierra's 63,118 km (24,370 sq mi) from logging and grazing. The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada. Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land. The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in
9513-424: The Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks. Extension of the Basin and Range continues today, leading to downdropping of crustal blocks just east of the Sierra Nevada during large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872. The climate of
9664-425: The Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley . The Walker Party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of giant sequoia , becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees, but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia. Starting in 1841, emigrants from
9815-500: The U.S. for a considerable time, was older and had military experience, but his autocratic attitude had rubbed many in the party the wrong way: they saw him as aristocratic, imperious and ostentatious. By comparison, the mature, experienced, American-born Donner's peaceful and charitable nature made him the group's first choice. While the members of the party were comfortably well-off by contemporary standards, most of them were inexperienced in long, difficult, overland travel. Additionally,
9966-423: The Wasatch Range, the Donner Party had to decide whether to forge ahead or rest their cattle. It was October 20 and they had been told the pass (now known as Donner Pass ) would not be snowed in until the middle of November. William Pike was killed when a gun being loaded by William Foster was discharged negligently, an event that seemed to make the decision for them; family by family, they resumed their journey—first
10117-446: The Wasatch Range. The men began arguing, and doubts were expressed about the wisdom of those who had chosen this route, in particular Reed. Food and supplies began to run out for some of the less affluent families. Stanton and Pike had ridden out with Reed but had become lost on their way back; by the time the party found them, they were a day away from eating their horses. Luke Halloran died of tuberculosis on August 25. A few days later,
10268-434: The Western settlement were the Homestead Acts , which provided formal legislation for settlers which regulated the settlement process with little to no concern for the Native inhabitants of the land. Pioneers also settled on land that was once inhabited by American Indian tribes . The word "pioneer" originates with the Middle French pionnier (originally, a foot soldier , or soldier involved in digging trenches ), from
10419-444: The activities of extra-terrestrial aliens , have no evidence to support them. The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones , each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species. Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone
10570-463: The arduous climb. The members of the party were neither well-nourished nor accustomed to camping in snow 12 feet (3.7 m) deep, and by the third day, most were snowblind . On the sixth day, Eddy discovered his wife had hidden a half-pound of bear meat in his pack. The group set out again the morning of December 21; Stanton had been straggling for several days and he remained behind, saying he would follow shortly. His remains were found at that location
10721-399: The area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park . James S. Hutchinson , a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over. Logging in the Sierra Nevada has significantly impacted the landscape. The logging industry in
10872-602: The belief that the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans belonged to European Americans and that they should settle it. Most wagon trains followed the Oregon Trail route from a starting point in Independence, Missouri , to the Continental Divide , traveling about 15 miles (24 km) a day on a journey that usually took between four and six months. The trail generally followed rivers to South Pass ,
11023-459: The best you can." Upon their return to the lake, the Breens refused them entry to their cabin, but after Glover left more food, the children were grudgingly admitted. American pioneer American pioneers , also known as American settlers , were European American , Asian American , and African American settlers who migrated westward from the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States of America to settle and develop areas of
11174-495: The camp's inhabitants initially fled. The Native Americans gave them what they had to eat: acorns, grass and pine nuts . After a few days, Eddy continued on with the help of tribe members to a ranch in a small farming community at the edge of the Sacramento Valley . A hurriedly assembled rescue party found the other six survivors on January 17. Their journey from Truckee Lake had taken 33 days. James Reed made it out of
11325-401: The carcass of an ox that had starved to death. Desperation grew in camp and some reasoned that individuals might succeed in navigating the pass where the wagons could not. In small groups they made several attempts, but each time returned defeated. Another severe storm, lasting more than a week, covered the area so deeply that the cattle and horses—their only remaining food—died and were lost in
11476-543: The children starve. They were gone for four days in the snow before they had to turn back. Their cabin was now uninhabitable; the oxhide roof served as their food supply, and the family moved in with the Breens. The servants went to live with other families. One day, the Graveses came by to collect on the debt owed by the Reeds and took the oxhides, all that the family had to eat. The mountain party at Truckee Lake began to fail. Augustus Spitzer and Baylis Williams (a driver for
11627-536: The climate and ecology of the central Great Basin . This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States. Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal. The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of
11778-656: The crest and north of 37.2°N. In the Triassic and into the Jurassic , an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny . Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which
11929-474: The desert. Many other families' cattle and horses went missing. The journey irreparably damaged some of the wagons, but no human lives were lost. Instead of the promised two-day journey over 40 miles (64 km), the journey across 80 miles (130 km) of the Great Salt Lake Desert took six. None of the party had any remaining faith in the Hastings Cutoff as they recovered at the springs on
12080-472: The east to resettle in the Oregon Territory or California, which at the time were accessible only by a very long sea voyage or a daunting overland journey. Some, such as Patrick Breen, saw California, then a part of Mexico, as a place where they would be free to live in a fully Catholic culture ; others were attracted to the West's burgeoning economic opportunities or inspired by manifest destiny ,
12231-407: The eastern edge of the southern Sierra. The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The California gold rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to its inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912. Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range ( Santa Cruz Mountains ),
12382-452: The emaciated migrants overate. All the cabins were buried in snow. Sodden oxhide roofs had begun to rot and the smell was overpowering. Thirteen people at the camps were dead, and their bodies had been loosely buried in snow near the cabin roofs. Some of the migrants seemed emotionally unstable. Three of the rescue party trekked to the Donners and brought back four gaunt children and three adults. Leanna Donner had particular difficulty walking up
12533-401: The following year. The group became lost and confused. After two more days without food, Patrick Dolan proposed one of them should volunteer to die in order to feed the others . Some suggested a duel , while another account describes an attempt at a lottery . Eddy suggested that they keep moving until someone simply fell, but a blizzard forced the group to halt. Antonio, the animal handler,
12684-479: The fort to persuade travelers to turn south on his route. As of 1846, Hastings was the second person documented to have crossed the southern part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, but neither had been accompanied by wagons. Arguably the most difficult part of the journey to California was the last 100 miles (160 km) across the Sierra Nevada . This mountain range has 500 distinct peaks over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) high, and because of its height and proximity to
12835-549: The group not to take Hastings's shortcut. By the time the Donner Party reached Blacks Fork on July 27, Hastings had already left, leading the forty wagons of the Harlan–Young group. Because Jim Bridger's trading post would fare substantially better if people used the Hastings Cutoff, Bridger told the party that the shortcut was a smooth trip, devoid of rugged country and hostile Native Americans, and would shorten their journey by 350 miles (560 km). Water would be easy to find along
12986-411: The group stripped the muscle and organs from the bodies of Antonio, Dolan, Graves and Murphy. They dried them to store for the days ahead, taking care to ensure nobody would have to eat his or her relatives. After three days' rest, they set off again, searching for the trail. Eddy eventually succumbed to his hunger and ate human flesh, but that was soon gone. They began taking apart their snowshoes to eat
13137-465: The highest peak in the range. In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, California, on a fishing trip. From 1892 to 1897 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra. Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped
13288-458: The hubs. The days were blisteringly hot and the nights frigid. Several of the group saw visions of lakes and wagon trains and believed they had finally overtaken Hastings. After three days, the water was gone and some of the party removed their oxen from the wagons to press ahead to find more. Some of the animals were so weakened they were left yoked to the wagons and abandoned. Nine of Reed's ten oxen broke free, crazed with thirst, and bolted off into
13439-591: The journey, how to interact with Native Americans and also how to respond to threatening situations such as encounters with bears. There were many other forms of this process, such as land runs including the Land Run of 1889 , when parts of the territory of Oklahoma were first made available to settlers on a first-come, first-serve basis. As western settlement grew, certain trends began to emerge. Most pioneers traveled in wagon trains with their families and other settlers, banding together for defense and to spread
13590-522: The lake, the peaks reach only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m). There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada: Communities in the Sierra Nevada include Paradise , South Lake Tahoe , Truckee , Grass Valley , Lee Vining , Mammoth Lakes , Sonora , Nevada City , Placerville , Pollock Pines , Portola , Auburn , Colfax and Kennedy Meadows . Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and
13741-620: The largest tree in the world by volume; Lake Tahoe , the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States ; and Yosemite Valley sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite , containing high waterfalls . The Sierra is home to three national parks , twenty-six wilderness areas, ten national forests, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite , Sequoia , and Kings Canyon National Parks , as well as Devils Postpile National Monument . More than one hundred million years ago during
13892-495: The late 1800s due to several factors. The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 allowed individuals to claim ownership of old-growth timber tracts, which were later consolidated under joint-stock companies , such as those founded by Midwestern lumber magnates. These companies had the financial resources to transport timber from remote locations and build sawmills near the tracks of the Southern Pacific railroad which connected
14043-455: The late 1800s, the logging industry moved westward due to the depletion of white pine forests in the upper Midwest. This shift was encouraged by the positive portrayal of the Sierra Nevada as a promising timber region. In 1859, Horace Greely marveled, "I never saw anything so much like good timber in the course of any seventy-five miles' travel as I saw in crossing the Sierra Nevada." The logging industry experienced significant growth in
14194-554: The main Oregon Trail had left an easy and obvious path, whereas the Cutoff was more difficult to find. Hastings wrote directions and left letters stuck to trees. On August 6, the party found a letter from him advising them to stop until he could show them an alternate route to that taken by the Harlan–Young Party. Reed, Charles T. Stanton and William Pike rode ahead to get Hastings. They encountered exceedingly difficult canyons where boulders had to be moved and walls cut off precariously to
14345-450: The main wagon train with his family. Snyder had been seen to hit Reed, and some claimed he had also hit his wife, but Snyder had been popular and Reed was not. Keseberg suggested that Reed should be hanged , but an eventual compromise allowed Reed to leave the camp without his family, who were to be taken care of by the others. Reed departed alone the next morning, unarmed, but his stepdaughter Virginia rode ahead and secretly provided him with
14496-616: The manner in which land would be individually claimed by and distributed to settlers. One federal effort to encourage western travel and settlement was the publication of The Prairie Traveler in 1859, three years before the Homestead Act was passed. Randolph B. Marcy , Captain of the U.S. Army, was commissioned by the War Department to provide a guide for those moving west. It provided not only mileage and stopping points during travel, but also gave advice about what to take on
14647-458: The members of the party had little knowledge about how to interact with Native Americans . Journalist Edwin Bryant reached Blacks Fork a week ahead of the Donner Party. He saw the first part of the trail and was concerned that it would be difficult for the wagons in the Donner group, especially with so many women and children. He returned to Blacks Fork to leave letters warning several members of
14798-472: The migrants, but the first relief party did not arrive until the middle of February 1847, almost four months after the wagon train became trapped. Of the 87 members of the party, 48 survived. Historians have described the episode as one of the most fascinating tragedies in California history and in the record of American westward migration. During the 1840s there was a dramatic increase in settlers leaving
14949-499: The miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered. The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored. The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head
15100-492: The modern rivers flowing down the range are only 100–300 meters (300–1,000 ft) lower than their ancient counterparts from 30–40 million years ago and the overall elevation and bedrock topography of the northern Sierra Nevada has changed little since at least 30–40 million years ago. About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout
15251-598: The mountain pass, two-thirds of those remaining at Truckee Lake were children. Mrs. Graves was in charge of eight, and Levinah Murphy and Eleanor Eddy together took care of nine. Migrants caught and ate mice that strayed into their cabins. Many were soon weakened and spent most of their time in bed. Occasionally one would be able to make the full-day trek to see the Donners. News came that Jacob Donner and three hired men had died. One of them, Joseph Reinhardt, confessed on his deathbed that he had murdered Wolfinger. George Donner's hand had become infected, which left four men to work at
15402-649: The mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith , crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass . In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California . Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada , ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between
15553-409: The mountains. Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement. American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions , pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada. The first Americans to visit
15704-486: The murder was not kept secret, Kristin Johnson notes that "Foster was not greatly blamed" for it and spent the rest of his life without being troubled by the authorities—this can be attributed to the general attitude, as expressed by Lewis Petrinovich, that the lives of Native Americans "seemed to matter little". Not more than a few days later, the group stumbled into a Native American settlement looking so deteriorated that
15855-501: The nation within the continent of North America . The pioneer concept and ethos greatly predate the migration to the Western United States , with which they are commonly associated, and many places now considered "East" were settled by pioneers from even further east. For example, Daniel Boone , a key figure in U.S. history, settled in Kentucky , when that "Dark and Bloody Ground" was still undeveloped. One important development in
16006-399: The northern Sierran valleys with volcanic deposits. These pyroclastic flows, which continued for about 10 million years, were followed by andesitic lahars which nearly completely buried the northern Sierran landscape such that only the tallest peaks emerged above a volcanic plain. This second period of volcanism appears to have been triggered by crustal extension associated with extension of
16157-696: The oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region. These dark-colored hornfels , slates , marbles , and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold , west of the Tehachapi Pass ) and east of the Sierra Crest. The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of
16308-407: The one they had just crossed, and "one of the most inhospitable places on earth" according to Rarick. Their oxen were already fatigued, and their water was nearly gone. The Donner Party pressed onward on August 30, having no alternative. In the heat of the day, the moisture underneath the salt crust rose to the surface and turned it into a gummy mass. The wagon wheels sank into it, in some cases up to
16459-429: The other side of the desert. They spent several days trying to recover cattle, retrieve the wagons left in the desert, and transfer their food and supplies to other wagons. Reed's family incurred the heaviest losses, and Reed became more assertive, asking all the families to submit an inventory of their goods and food to him. He suggested that two men should go to Sutter's Fort in California; he had heard that John Sutter
16610-461: The ox teams: Milford ("Milt") Elliott (28), James Smith (25) and Walter Herron (25). Baylis Williams (24) went along as handyman and his sister, Eliza (25), as the family's cook. Within a week of leaving Independence, the Reeds and Donners joined a group of 50 wagons nominally led by William H. Russell. By June 16, the company had traveled 450 miles (720 km), with 200 miles (320 km) to go before Fort Laramie . They had been delayed by rain and
16761-643: The oxhide webbing and discussed murdering Luis and Salvador for food. Eddy warned the two men and they quietly left. Jay Fosdick died during the night, leaving only seven members of the party. Eddy and Mary Graves left to hunt, but when they returned with deer meat, Fosdick's body had already been cut apart for food. After several more days—25 since they had left Truckee Lake—they came across Salvador and Luis, who had not eaten for about nine days and were probably close to death. William Foster shot both men, thus realizing his plans from before they had left; their bodies were butchered and their flesh dried for consumption. Though
16912-407: The party came across a tattered letter from Hastings. The pieces indicated there were two days and nights of difficult travel ahead without grass or water. The party rested their oxen and prepared for the trip. After 36 hours they set off to traverse a 1,000-foot (300 m) mountain in their path. From its peak they saw ahead a dry, barren plain, perfectly flat and covered with white salt, larger than
17063-530: The party rejoined the Donners, but their hardship continued. Native Americans chased away all of Graves' horses, and another wagon was left behind. With grass in short supply, the cattle spread out more, which allowed the Paiutes to steal 18 more during one evening; several mornings later, they shot another 21. So far, the company had lost nearly 100 oxen and cattle, and their rations were almost completely depleted. With nearly all his cattle gone, Wolfinger stopped at
17214-471: The pass summit, and camped near a cabin that had been built two years earlier by members of the Stephens–Townsend–Murphy Party . The Eddys and the Kesebergs joined the Breens, attempting to make it over the pass, but they found 5–10-foot (1.5–3.0 m) snowdrifts and were unable to find the trail. They turned back for Truckee Lake and within a day all the families were camped there except for
17365-529: The pioneer has historically played a role in American culture , literature and folklore . The pioneer is similar to other iconic figures involved in stories of the "settlement of the West," such as the cowboy , trapper, prospector, and miner; however, the pioneer is distinct in that he represents those who went into unexplored territory in search of a new life, looking to establish permanent settlement. Various figures in American folklore and literature typify
17516-603: The pioneer. The Deerslayer was the most successful of an early series, the Leatherstocking Tales , about pioneer life in New York. Little House on the Prairie , a century later, typified a later series of novels describing a pioneer family. Daniel Boone and Davy Crockett are two real-life icons of pioneer history. Sierra Nevada The Sierra Nevada ( / s i ˌ ɛr ə n ɪ ˈ v æ d ə , - ˈ v ɑː d -/ see- ERR -ə nih- VA(H)D -ə )
17667-521: The plural ( Smokies , Rockies , Cascades , etc.), since Sierra is already pluralized in its native language, some locals who live in "the Sierra" are not hesitant to admonish those who refer to the area as "the Sierras". However, there are historical and literary references that use the plural, such as the 1871 collection of Joaquin Miller poems, Songs of the Sierras . Ansel Adams , in response to
17818-420: The range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds. Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there,
17969-441: The rescue party turned back, but seven forged on. On February 18, the seven-man rescue party scaled Frémont Pass (now Donner Pass); as they neared where Eddy told them the cabins would be, they began to shout. A haggard Mrs. Murphy appeared from a hole in the snow, stared at them and asked, "Are you men from California, or do you come from heaven?" The relief party doled out food in small portions, concerned that it might kill them if
18120-399: The river valley, they found only a migrant couple who had been separated from their company and were near starvation. Two guides deserted Reed and McCutchen with some of their horses, but they pressed on farther up the valley to Yuba Bottoms, walking the last mile on foot. Reed and McCutchen stood looking up at Emigrant Gap, only 12 miles (19 km) from the top, blocked by snow, possibly on
18271-470: The same day the Breens attempted to lead one last effort to crest the pass from the east. Despondent, they turned back to Sutter's Fort. Much of the military in California were engaged in the Mexican–American War, and with them the able-bodied men. Throughout the region, roads were blocked, communications compromised and supplies unavailable. Only three men responded to a call for volunteers to rescue
18422-516: The same root as peon or pawn . In the English language , the term independently evolved a sense of being an innovator or trailblazer . As early as 1664, Englishman John Evelyn used the term with a self-effacing "workman" meaning when he wrote in his treatise on planting, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees : "I speak now in relation to the Royal Society, not my self, who am but
18573-559: The scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life. It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world. The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking
18724-440: The snow. Patrick Breen began keeping a diary on November 20. He concerned himself primarily with the weather, marking the storms and how much snow had fallen, but gradually began to include religious references in his entries. Life at Truckee Lake was miserable. The cabins were cramped and filthy, and it snowed so much that people were unable to go outdoors for days. Diets soon consisted of oxhide, strips of which were boiled to make
18875-400: The snowdrifts, and no one was strong enough to carry them. Margret Reed faced the agonizing predicament of accompanying her two older children to Bear Valley and watching her two frailest be taken back to Truckee Lake without a parent. She made rescuer Aquilla Glover swear on his honor as a Mason that he would return for her children. Patty told her, "Well, mother, if you never see me again, do
19026-458: The southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep . Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year. The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age,
19177-471: The spring of 1846, almost 500 wagons headed west from Independence. At the rear of the train, a group of nine wagons containing 32 members of the Reed and Donner families and their employees left on May 12. George Donner was about 60 years old and living near Springfield, Illinois . With him were his 44-year-old wife Tamsen , their three daughters Frances (6), Georgia (4) and Eliza (3), and George's daughters from
19328-521: The steep incline from Alder Creek to Truckee Lake, later writing "such pain and misery as I endured that day is beyond description". George Donner's arm was so gangrenous he could not move. Twenty-three people were chosen to go with the rescue party, leaving 21 in the cabins at Truckee Lake and twelve at Alder Creek. The rescuers concealed the fate of the snowshoe party, informing the rescued migrants only that they did not return because they were frostbitten . Patty and Tommy Reed were soon too weak to cross
19479-425: The survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer , Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King , explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863. In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon . In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range, and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley , mistakenly believing he had summited Mount Whitney ,
19630-490: The term "Sierra Nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior. In 1776, Pedro Font 's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada. The literal translation is "snowy mountains", from sierra "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latin serra "a saw"; and from fem. of Spanish nevado "snowy". While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in
19781-417: The traditional trail, follow the tracks left by the Harlan–Young Party through the difficult terrain of Weber Canyon or forge their own trail in the direction that Hastings had recommended. At Reed's urging, the group chose the new Hastings route. Their progress slowed to about one and a half miles (2.4 km) a day. All able-bodied men were required to clear brush, fell trees and heave rocks to make room for
19932-510: The trail, close to Alder Creek , the Donner families hastily constructed tents to house 21 people, including Mrs. Wolfinger, her child and the Donners' drivers: six men, three women and twelve children in all. It began to snow again on the evening of November 4—the beginning of an eight-day storm. By the time the party made camp, very little food remained from the supplies that Stanton had brought back from Sutter's Fort. The oxen began to die, and their carcasses were frozen and stacked. Truckee Lake
20083-548: The wagons. As the Donner Party made its way across the Wasatch Range of the Rocky Mountains , the Graves family, who had set off to find them, reached them. They consisted of Franklin Ward Graves (57), his wife Elizabeth (45), their children Mary (20), William (18), Eleanor (15), Lovina (13), Nancy (9), Jonathan (7), Franklin, Jr. (5), Elizabeth (1) and married daughter Sarah (22), plus son-in-law Jay Fosdick (23) and
20234-424: The water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom. By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields. In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed
20385-446: The way, although a couple of days crossing a 30–40-mile (48–64 km) dry lake bed would be necessary. Reed was very impressed with this information and advocated for the Hastings Cutoff. None of the party received Bryant's letters; in his diary account, Bryant states his conviction that Bridger deliberately concealed the letters, a view shared by Reed in his later testimony. At Fort Laramie, Reed met an old friend named James Clyman who
20536-529: The western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra. At this time, the Sierra Nevada formed the western ramp of a high plateau to the east, the Nevadaplano . During this period, rivers cut deep canyons into the range, generating topographic relief similar to the modern Sierra Nevada. This period of incision was halted approximately 30 million years ago by vast outpourings of pyroclastic flows from Nevada which filled
20687-509: The western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tübatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads . The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in
20838-511: The western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow , and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year. While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in
20989-579: The workload. Pioneers in the East often had to clear the land, owing to lush forests there. In the Midwest, the task was to bring agricultural fertility to the Great Plains . Some pioneers moved westward with the intent of claiming land for their families. Others, such as trappers , moved west for commercial reasons, and then remained there when their businesses proved to be profitable. The figure of
21140-531: Was "gloomy, sad, and dispirited" at the thought of turning off the main trail on the advice of Hastings, whom she considered "a selfish adventurer". On July 31, 1846, the Donner Party left Blacks Fork after four days of rest and wagon repairs, eleven days behind the leading Harlan–Young group. Donner hired a replacement driver, and the company was joined by the McCutchen family, consisting of William (30), his wife Amanda (24), their two-year-old daughter Harriet and
21291-470: Was a major center for logging, with operations supplying lumber for the construction of mine structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and buildings, as well as fuel for the mines. Dan DeQuille observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected.” In
21442-598: Was accompanied on the journey by his wife Margret (32), stepdaughter Virginia (13), daughter Martha Jane ("Patty", 8), sons James and Thomas (5 and 3) and Sarah Keyes, Margret's mother. Keyes was in the advanced stages of tuberculosis and died at a campsite they named Alcove Springs . She was buried nearby, off to the side of the trail, with a gray rock inscribed, "Mrs. Sarah Keyes, Died May 29, 1846; Aged 70". In addition to leaving financial worries behind, Reed hoped that California's climate would help Margret, who had long suffered from ill health. The Reeds hired three men to drive
21593-475: Was born on the trail. Two young single men named Spitzer and Reinhardt traveled with another German couple, the Wolfingers, who were rumored to be wealthy; they also had a hired driver, "Dutch Charley" Burger. An older man named Hardkoop rode with them. Luke Halloran, a young man with tuberculosis, could no longer ride horseback; the families he had been traveling with no longer had resources to care for him. He
21744-431: Was coming from California. Clyman warned Reed not to take the Hastings Cutoff, telling him that wagons would not be able to make it and that Hastings' information was inaccurate. Fellow pioneer Jesse Quinn Thornton traveled part of the way with Donner and Reed, and in his book From Oregon and California in 1848 declared Hastings the " Baron Munchausen of travelers in these countries". Tamsen Donner, according to Thornton,
21895-421: Was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims. Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert
22046-468: Was exceedingly generous to wayward pioneers and could assist them with extra provisions. Charles Stanton and William McCutchen volunteered to undertake the dangerous trip. The remaining serviceable wagons were pulled by mongrel teams of cows, oxen and mules. It was the middle of September, and two young men who went in search of missing oxen reported that another 40 miles (64 km) of desert lay ahead. Their cattle and oxen were now exhausted and lean, but
22197-440: Was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park. John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of giant sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to
22348-407: Was not yet frozen, but the pioneers were unfamiliar with catching lake trout. Eddy, the most experienced hunter, killed a bear, but had little luck after that. The Reed and Eddy families had lost almost everything. Margret Reed promised to pay double when they got to California for the use of three oxen from the Graves and Breen families. Graves charged Eddy $ 25—normally the cost of two healthy oxen—for
22499-496: Was taken in by George Donner at Little Sandy River and rode in their wagon. To promote his new route (the " Hastings Cutoff "), Lansford Hastings sent riders to deliver letters to traveling migrants. On July 12, the Reeds and Donners were given one. Hastings warned the migrants they could expect opposition from the Mexican authorities in California and advised them to band together in large groups. He also claimed to have "worked out
22650-524: Was the first official action by the federal government in deciding how political organization of new territories would be handled. Then in 1787 the Northwest Ordinance declared that states could not individually claim new lands, and that westward expansion would be handled by the federal government. In implementing the Land Act of 1804 , the government took its first steps towards legislating
22801-475: Was the first to die; Franklin Graves was the next casualty. As the blizzard progressed, Dolan began to rant deliriously , stripped off his clothes and ran into the woods. He returned shortly afterwards and died a few hours later. Not long after, possibly because Murphy was near death, some of the group began to eat flesh from Dolan's body. Lemuel's sister tried to feed him some, but he died shortly afterwards. Eddy, Salvador and Luis refused to eat. The next morning,
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