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93-619: The Williamsburg Houses , originally called the Ten Eyck Houses (pronounced TEN - IKE ), is a public housing complex built and operated by the New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA), in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn . It consists of 20 buildings on a site bordered by Scholes, Maujer, and Leonard Streets and Bushwick Avenue. The Williamsburg Houses were built in 1936–1938 under

186-632: A New York City Landmark in 2003. They were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2021. Since December 28th, 2021, NYCHA converted the housing development into Section 8 RAD PACT management in Public–private partnership leases with private real estate developers and companies named RDC Development and Wavecrest Management Group LLC as well as adding social service provider programs named St. Nicks Alliance Corp and Grand Street Settlement . The project's chief architect

279-578: A broader scale, and the NHA dissolved in 1936. The City of Milwaukee , under mayor Daniel Hoan , implemented the country's first public housing project, known as Garden Homes , in 1923. This experiment with a municipally-sponsored housing cooperative saw initial success, but was plagued by development and land acquisition problems, and the board overseeing the project dissolved the Gardens Home Corporation just two years after construction on

372-455: A cabinet-level agency to lead with housing. This act also introduced rent subsidies for the first time, the beginning of a shift towards encouraging privately constructed low-income housing. With this legislation, the FHA would insure mortgages for non-profits which would then construct homes for low-income families. HUD could then provide subsidies to bridge the gap between the cost of these units and

465-601: A cause of the American apartheid residential pattern in the city. Martin Luther King Jr. made housing integration a key part of his civil rights campaign and one month after the publication of the Kerner Commission was published, King was assassinated. His murder instigated another wave of riots and in response, and no later than a week after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. , Congress passed

558-449: A characterization is a simplification of a much more complex set of social phenomena. According to Crump (2002), the term "concentrated poverty" was originally a spatial concept that was part of a much broader and complex sociological description of poverty, but the spatial component then became the overarching metaphor for concentrated poverty and the cause of social pathologies surrounding it. Instead of spatial concentration simply being

651-418: A community, leading to several negative externalities . Crime, drug usage, and educational under-performance are all widely associated with housing projects, particularly in urban areas. As a result of their various problems and diminished political support, many of the traditional low-income public housing properties constructed in the earlier years of the program have been demolished. Beginning primarily in

744-554: A disincentive to high-paying businesses to locate themselves in the area. He further argues that the pathologies caused by a concentration of poverty are likely to spread to surrounding neighborhoods, forcing local residents and businesses to relocate. Freeman and Botein (2002) are more skeptical of a reduction of property values following the building of public housing units. In a meta-analysis of empirical studies, they expected to find that when public housing lacks obtrusive architecture and its residents are similar to those already in

837-704: A home ownership model for Section 8, and expanded the HOPE VI program to replace traditional public housing units. The act also effectively capped the number of public housing units by creating the Faircloth Limit as an amendment to the Housing Act of 1937, which limited funding for the construction or operation of all units to the total number of units as of October 1, 1999 and repealed a rule that required one for one replacement of demolished housing units. According to HUD's Residential Characteristic Report,

930-573: A materials subsidy for housing construction. However, in the wake of the 1946 elections, President Truman believed there was insufficient public support to continue such materials restrictions and subsidies. The Veterans' Emergency Housing Program ended in January 1947 by an executive order from President Truman. With the Office of Housing Expediter ended, housing efforts moved to look at new, comprehensive approaches to address housing issues. The result

1023-538: A need to house those displaced by the clearance (Massey and Kanaiaupuni 1993). However, those in city governments, political organizations, and suburban communities resisted the creation of public housing units in middle and working-class neighborhoods, leading to the construction of such units around ghetto neighborhoods which already exhibited signs of poverty. Massey and Kanaiaupuni (1993) describe three sources of concentrated poverty in relation to public housing: income-requirements structurally creating areas of poverty,

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1116-831: A new program called the Rental Assistance Demonstration (RAD) program. Under the demonstration program, eligible public housing properties are redeveloped in conjunction with private developers and investors. The federal government, through its Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program (which in 2012 paid for construction of 90% of all subsidized rental housing in the US), spends $ 6 billion per year to finance 50,000 low-income rental units annually, with median costs per unit for new construction (2011–2015) ranging from $ 126,000 in Texas to $ 326,000 in California . In

1209-513: A package of across the board cuts. Additionally, emergency shelters for the homeless were expanded, and home ownership by low-income families was promoted to a greater degree. In 1990, President George H. W. Bush signed the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (NAHA), which furthered the use of HOME funds for rental assistance. In his address upon its passage, Bush said, "Although

1302-576: A part of the broad description of social pathologies, Crump (2002) argues that the concept replaced the broad description, mistakenly narrowing the focus to the physical concentration of poverty. The HUD's 2013 The Location and Racial Composition of Public Housing in the United States report found that the racial distribution of residents within individual public housing units tends to be rather homogeneous, with African Americans and white residents stratified to separate neighborhoods. One trend that

1395-421: A set percentage of a household's income. The 1961 Housing Act quietly introduced a program under Section 23 which allowed local housing authorities to house individuals on their waiting lists in privately leased units through the mechanism of a voucher which covered the gap between household ability to pay and the market rent. This mechanism was repeatedly expanded in later legislation. In response to many of

1488-477: A significant public housing program. Title II of the legislation stated the goal of a "decent home in a decent environment for every American," and the legislation authorized $ 13 billion mortgage guarantees, $ 1.5 billion for slum redevelopment, and set a construction goal of 810,000 units of public housing. Upon its passage, Truman told the press: "[This legislation] opens up the prospect of decent homes in wholesome surroundings for low-income families now living in

1581-403: A strong bent towards local efforts in locating and constructing housing and would place caps on how much could be spent per housing unit. The cap of $ 5,000 was a hotly contested feature of the bill as it would be a considerable reduction of the money spent on PWA housing and was far less than advocates of the bill had lobbied to get. Construction of housing projects dramatically accelerated under

1674-501: Is an example of how stigma and judgement around public housing and affordable housing resulted in a significant change in the racial demographics of urban housing. White flight is a sociological response to perceptions that racially diverse neighborhoods will decrease their home value and increase crime rates. McNulty and Holloway (2000) studied the intersection of public housing geography, race, and crime in order to determine if racial differences existed in crime rates when controlled for

1767-431: Is doubled for blacks compared to whites. The study further found that public housing tends to concentrate those who struggle the most economically into a specific area, further raising poverty levels. A different study, conducted by Freeman (2003) on a national level, cast doubt onto the theory that public housing units have an independent effect on the concentration of poverty. The study found that while out-migration of

1860-511: Is not the rebuilding of cities. This is the sacking of cities." Several additional housing acts were passed after 1949, altering the program in small ways, such as shifting ratios for elderly housing, but no major legislation changed the mechanisms of public housing until the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 . This act created the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD),

1953-523: Is observed is that black neighborhoods tend to reflect a lower socioeconomic status and that white neighborhoods represent a more affluent demographic. More than 40% of public housing occupants live in predominantly black neighborhoods, according to the HUD report. Even though changes have been made to address unconstitutional housing segregation , stigma and prejudice around public housing projects are still prevalent. Segregation in public housing has roots in

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2046-629: The Académie de la Grande Chaumière . Soon after his return to New York in 1933, he realized that his true interest was painting. He started "to work for the Emily Francis Contemporary Gallery, a non-profit organization that showed particular interest in American artists and had exhibited the work of Bradley Walker Tomlin and Mark Tobey ." In 1935 he became the first president of the Artists Union and in 1936

2139-565: The Fair Housing Act which prohibited discrimination in housing. However, since the Fair Housing Act was passed, housing policies restricting minority housing to segregated neighborhoods are still heavily debated because of the vague language used in the Fair Housing Act. In the 2015 Supreme Court case Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. The Inclusive Communities Project , Justice Kennedy clarified that

2232-734: The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), which used only a small capital investment from the federal government to insure mortgages. Construction of public housing projects were therefore only one portion of the federal housing efforts during the Great Depression. In 1937, the Wagner-Steagall Housing Act replaced the temporary PWA Housing Division with a permanent, quasi-autonomous agency to administer housing. The new United States Housing Authority Housing Act of 1937 would operate with

2325-467: The Section 8 Housing Program to encourage the private sector to construct affordable homes. This kind of housing assistance assists poor tenants by giving a monthly subsidy to their landlords. This assistance can be 'project based,' which applies to specific properties, or 'tenant based,' which provides tenants with a voucher they can use anywhere vouchers are accepted. Tenant based housing vouchers covered

2418-476: The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 2020, there were one million public housing units. In 2022, about 5.2 million American households received some form of federal rental assistance. Subsidized apartment buildings, often referred to as housing projects (or simply "the projects"), have a complicated and often notorious history in the United States. While

2511-514: The site plan , and two curving pedestrian pathways cut through the grounds. The buildings have one of three shapes, viewed from overhead: a capital "H," lowercase "h," and a "T" shape. The T-shaped buildings are in the middle of the complex, with both H-shaped buildings surrounding them. The houses are oriented towards the sun at a 15-degree angle. Each building has a light tan brick facade, and building entrances are marked by blue tiles and stainless steel canopies. Commercial storefronts run parallel to

2604-496: The ' towers in the park ' style of Le Corbusier . Jane Jacobs would famously describe the new products as, "Low-income projects that become worse centers of delinquency, vandalism, and general social hopelessness than the slums they were supposed to replace. Middle-income housing projects which are truly marvels of dullness and regimentation, sealed against any buoyancy or vitality of city life. Luxury housing projects that mitigate their inanity, or try to, with vapid vulgarity ... This

2697-543: The 1960s, across the nation, housing authorities became key partners in urban renewal efforts, constructing new homes for those displaced by highway, hospital and other public efforts. When US entry to World War II ended the era of New Deal reforms, the call for public housing from the NAACP , women's groups and labor unions was quieted. As part of the war mobilization, entire communities sprang up around factories manufacturing military goods. In 1940, Congress therefore authorized

2790-658: The 1970s the federal government turned to other approaches including the Project-Based Section 8 program, Section 8 certificates, and the Housing Choice Voucher Program. In the 1990s the federal government accelerated the transformation of traditional public housing through HUD's HOPE VI Program. Hope VI funds are used to tear down distressed public housing projects and replace them with mixed communities constructed in cooperation with private partners. In 2012, Congress and HUD initiated

2883-475: The 19th and early 20th centuries, government involvement in housing for the poor was chiefly in the area of building code enforcement, requiring new buildings to meet certain standards for decent livability (e.g. proper ventilation), and forcing landlords to make some modifications to existing building stock. Photojournalist Jacob Riis' How the Other Half Lives (1890) brought considerable attention

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2976-1079: The Adele Bednarz Galleries, in Los Angeles from 1966 to 1969 and also in 1971. 1972 and 1974. From 1967 to 1969 Balcomb Greene had solo shows at the Brenson Galleries, in Bal Harbour, Florida . From 1974 to 1977 he had solo exhibitions at the Harmon Gallery in Naples, Florida and in 1977 also had a solo exhibition at the ACA Galleries, in New York City. Balcomb Greene in 1976 was given the Altman First Prize in Figure Painting and

3069-514: The Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. However, according to Gotham (2000), Section 235 of the Housing Act of 1968 encouraged white flight from the inner city, selling suburban properties to whites and inner-city properties to blacks, creating neighborhoods that were racially isolated from others. White flight - white people moving out of neighborhoods that have become more racially or ethnoculturally heterogeneous -

3162-412: The Fair Housing Act was intended to promote equity, not just eliminate explicit acts of discrimination. Changes in both public policy and social narrative are equally necessary for establishing equitable housing opportunities for all Americans. Balcomb Greene Balcomb Greene contributed to modernist cause through his writings: "It is actually the artist, and only he, who is equipped for approaching

3255-832: The Federal Government currently serves about 4.3 million low-income families, there are about 4 million additional families, most of them very low income, whose housing needs have not been met. We should not divert assistance from those who need it most." The next new era in public housing began in 1992 with the launch of the HOPE VI program by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development . HOPE VI funds were devoted to demolishing poor-quality public housing projects and replacing them with lower-density developments, often of mixed-income. Funds included construction and demolition costs, tenant relocation costs, and subsidies for newly constructed units. HOPE VI has become

3348-530: The Finco Dye and Print Works Inc. The initial tenancy rents were set by WPA Secretary Ickes in August 1937, four months before the first tenants moved in. The building's commercial rents were also set, though, within six months, they were decreased by 50% to compete with cheaper rents in nearby tenements. The federal government conveyed the housing developments to NYCHA in 1957. A $ 70-million-dollar renovation

3441-606: The Housing Division of the PWA and headed by architect Robert Kohn , the initial, Limited-Dividend Program aimed to provide low-interest loans to public or private groups to fund the construction of low-income housing. Too few qualified applicants stepped forward, and the Limited-Dividend Program funded only seven housing projects nationally. In the spring of 1934, PWA Administrator Harold Ickes directed

3534-412: The Housing Division to undertake the direct construction of public housing, a decisive step that would serve as a precedent for the 1937 Wagner-Steagall Housing Act , and the permanent public housing program in the United States. Kohn stepped down during the reorganization, and between 1934 and 1937 the Housing Division, now headed by Colonel Horatio B. Hackett, constructed fifty-two housing projects across

3627-560: The Indiana University Art Museum. Francis Criss completed a 1938 oil-on-canvas mural called Sixth Avenue El , a realist abstraction of a Sixth Avenue El platform. The subject was timely, given that the elevated line was closed in late 1938 and razed in 1939. However, Criss's mural was never installed and now forms part of the Whitney Museum of American Art collection. According to Time magazine, it

3720-528: The National Housing Association (NHA) was created to improve housing conditions in urban and suburban neighborhoods through the enactment of better regulation and increased awareness. The NHA was founded by Lawrence Veiller , author of Model Tenement House Law (1910), and consisted of delegates from dozens of cities. Over time, the focus of the housing movement shifted from a focus on proper building typology to community development on

3813-841: The Saidenberg Gallery in New York from 1962 to 1968. He had several other solo exhibitions: Feingarten Gallery, Los Angeles, in 1963 and 1964. He had solo exhibitions in 1965 at the University Gallery, University of Florida . Gainesville and at the Tampa Art Institute, Tampa, Florida . He had solo shows in 1966 at the Phoenix Art Museum , Phoenix, Arizona and at the Main Street Galleries, Chicago. He had solo exhibitions at

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3906-637: The Seventies was instrumental in crafting new housing legislation the following year. In keeping with Nixon's market-based approach, as demonstrated by EHAP, Nixon also lifted the moratorium on the Section 23 voucher program late in September, allowing for 200,000 new households to be funded. The full moratorium was lifted in the summer of 1974, as Nixon faced impeachment in the wake of Watergate . The Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 created

3999-589: The US Housing Authority to build twenty public housing developments around these private companies to sustain the war effort. There was considerable debate over whether these should be permanent dwellings, furthering reformer goals of establishing a broader public housing effort, or temporary dwellings in keeping with the timeliness of the need. The Defense Housing Division was founded in 1941 and would ultimately construct eight developments of temporary housing, though many ended up as long-term housing after

4092-892: The United States, as well as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Atlanta's Techwood Homes opened on 1 September 1936 and was the first of the fifty-two opened. Based on the residential planning concepts of Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, these fifty-two projects are architecturally cohesive, with composed on one to four story row house and apartment buildings, arranged around open spaces, creating traffic-free play spaces that defined community life. Many of these projects were built on slum land, but land acquisition proved difficult, so abandoned industrial sites and vacant land were also purchased. Lexington's two early projects were constructed on an abandoned horse racing track. At Ickes' direction, many of these projects were also segregated, designed and built for either whites or African-Americans. Race

4185-634: The United States, the federal government provides funding for public housing from two different sources: the Capital Fund and the Operating Fund. According to the HUD, the Capital Fund subsidizes housing authorities to renovate and refurbish public housing developments; meanwhile, the Operating Fund provides funds to housing authorities in order to assist in maintenance and operating costs of public housing. Furthermore, housing projects have also been seen to greatly increase concentrated poverty in

4278-604: The Williamsburg murals were installed at the Brooklyn Museum in 1990, where they remain on long-term loan from NYCHA. Other artists received commissions for the project, but their murals were ultimately not used. Stuart Davis painted a large semi-abstract mural entitled Swing Landscape for the project, but the work was instead sold by the Federal Art Gallery in New York, eventually landing up at

4371-402: The amount of which was determined by a formula focusing on population, given to state and local governments for housing and community development work. The sum could be used as determined by the community, though the legislation also required the development of Housing Assistance Plans (HAP) which required local communities to survey and catalog their available housing stock as well as determine

4464-668: The auspices of the Housing Division of the Public Works Administration (PWA). Richmond Shreve was the chief architect of the project; the design team of nine other architects was led by the Swiss-American modernist William Lescaze . The construction contract was awarded to Starrett Brothers & Eken. The designs called for the inclusion of modern art commissioned through the Federal Arts Project . The Williamsburg Houses were designated

4557-476: The auspices of the Housing Division of the Public Works Administration (PWA). The project was originally segregated and allowed only white residents. It was one of the first and, at the time, the most expensive New York City housing project, costing $ 12.5 million. New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia was a strong supporter of the project; he even poured the first shovel of concrete when ground broke. The site formerly contained Williamsburg Continuation School and

4650-498: The average annual income in 2013 for a resident of a public housing unit is $ 13,730. The same report classifies 68% of residents as Extremely Low Income, with the largest annual income bracket being $ 5,000 to $ 10,000, containing 32% of public housing residents. Trends showing an increase in geographic concentration of poverty became evident by the 1970s as upper and middle-class residents vacated property in U.S. cities. Urban renewal programs led to widespread slum clearance, creating

4743-465: The city in search of lower rents. In most federally-funded rental assistance programs, the tenants' monthly rent is set at 30% of their household income. Now increasingly provided in a variety of settings and formats, originally public housing in the U.S. consisted primarily of one or more concentrated blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise apartment buildings. These complexes are operated by state and local housing authorities which are authorized and funded by

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4836-563: The concentration of poverty, some contended these developments were declared unsuitable for families. One of the most notorious of these developments was the Pruitt-Igoe development in St. Louis, Missouri , constructed in 1955 and 1956. This development posted 2,870 units in thirty-three high rises buildings. By the late 1960s, vacancy rates reached as high as 65%, and the project was demolished between 1972 and 1975. More recent scholarship about

4929-730: The conditions of the slums in New York City, sparking new attention to housing conditions around the country. Early tenement reform was primarily a philanthropic venture, with Model Tenements built as early as the 1870s which attempted to use new architectural and management models to address the physical and social problems of the slums. These attempts were limited by available resources, and early efforts were soon redirected towards building code reform. The New York Tenement Act of 1895 and Tenement Law of 1901 were early attempts to address building codes in New York City, which were then copied in Chicago, Philadelphia, and other American cities. In 1910,

5022-583: The couple shared a studio on Montauk, Long Island, during summer breaks. Greene worked alone to pursue his solitary style but at the same time, he was familiar with the Abstract Expressionist movement. He wrote in Art News , "The Fourth Illusions, or Hunger for Genius" "A picture is painted of modern art that arranges all participants into movements, like well-behaved Englishmen in clubs." In spite of his conviction, he agreed to participate in

5115-461: The demand side of the housing market rather than the supply side by supplementing a household's rent allowance until they were able to afford market rates. EHAP was designed to test three aspects of the impact of vouchers: Ultimately, new legislation on housing vouchers did not wait for the conclusion of the experiment. When the program concluded over a decade later, it was discovered that the program had minimal impact on surrounding rents, but did have

5208-620: The early developments and activities of the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), created by the Housing Act of 1934 . The FHA institutionalized a practice by which it would seek to maintain racially homogenous neighborhoods through racially restrictive covenants - an explicitly discriminatory policy written into the deed of a house. This practice was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1948 in Shelley v. Kraemer because it violates

5301-505: The emerging concerns regarding new public housing developments, the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 attempt to shift the style of housing developments, looking to the Garden Cities model of Ebenezer Howard . The act prohibited the construction of high-rise developments for families with children. The role of high-rises had always been contentious, but with rising rates of vandalism and vacancy and considerable concerns about

5394-703: The first chairman of the American Abstract Artists (AAA). In the late 1930s he was employed by the New York mural division of the Federal Art Project ( WPA ), and completed abstract murals for the Williamsburg Houses ( Brooklyn Museum , on long-term loan from the New York City Housing Authority ) and the Public Health Building of the 1939 New York World's Fair (destroyed). Also in 1939 and 1941 he

5487-417: The first decades of projects were built with higher construction standards and a broader range of incomes and same applicants, over time, public housing increasingly became the housing of last resort in many cities. Several reasons have been cited for this negative trend including the failure of Congress to provide sufficient funding, a lowering of standards for occupancy, and mismanagement at the local level. In

5580-550: The funding resources of the G.I. Bill to start a new mortgage. However, there was not enough housing stock to accommodate the demand. As a result, President Truman created the office of Housing Expediter by executive order on January 26, 1946, to be headed by Wilson Wyatt. Through this office, government intervened in the housing market largely through price controls and supply chain restrictions, despite political pressure from some factions to directly construct housing. Efforts moved to focus exclusively on veterans housing, specifically

5673-550: The gap between 25% of a household's income and established fair market rent . Virtually no new project based Section 8 housing has been produced since 1983, but tenant based vouchers are now the primary mechanism of assisted housing. The other main feature of the Act was the creation of the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG). While not directly tied to public housing, CDBGs were lump sums of money,

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5766-614: The heels of the passage of Title I and the Housing Act of 1949. Urban renewal had become, for many cities, a way to eliminate blight, but not a solid vehicle for constructing new housing. For example, in the ten years after the bill was passed, 425,000 units of housing were razed under its auspices, but only 125,000 units were constructed. Between Title I and the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , entire communities in poorer, urban neighborhoods were demolished to make way for modern developments and transportation needs, often in

5859-434: The home ownership market through the expansion of the FHA. Ginnie Mae was initially established to purchase risky public housing projects and resell them at market rates. In addition, Section 235 originated mortgage subsidies by reducing the interest rate on mortgages for low-income families to a rate more comparable to that of the FHA mortgages. The program suffered from high foreclosure rates and administrative scandal, and

5952-683: The homes was completed. Permanent, federally funded housing came into being in the United States as a part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. Title II, Section 202 of the National Industrial Recovery Act , passed June 16, 1933, directed the Public Works Administration (PWA) to develop a program for the "construction, reconstruction, alteration, or repair under public regulation or control of low-cost housing and slum clearance projects ...". Led by

6045-473: The housing developments in Parkchester , Stuyvesant Town , and Peter Cooper Village . The development is approximately 25 acres between Maujer, Scholes, Leonard Streets, and Bushwick Avenue. Its 20 four-story residential buildings occupy twelve city blocks. The buildings are positioned to allow a sequence of courtyards, playgrounds, and ball courts between them; a school and community building are part of

6138-573: The housing project designs called for the inclusion of modern art. Working with Lescaze, the NYC Federal Arts Project mural division, headed by abstract artist Burgoyne Diller , handled the commissions. Five abstract murals by Ilya Bolotowsky , Balcomb Greene , Paul Kelpe , and Albert Swinden were installed in basement meeting rooms in the late 1930s. These murals were rediscovered in the late 1980s after having been painted over for some time. After careful removal and restoration,

6231-423: The housing projects constructed in the prior two decades. HUD Secretary George Romney declared that the moratorium would encompass all money for Urban Renewal and Model Cities programs, all subsidized housing, and Section 235 and 236 funding. An intensive report was commissioned from the National Housing Policy Review to analyze and assess the federal government's role in housing. This report, entitled Housing in

6324-590: The individual directly. The abstract artist can approach man through the most immediate of aesthetic experiences, touching below consciousness and the veneer of attitudes, contacting the whole ego rather than the ego on the defensive." Balcomb (John Wesley) Greene was born on May 22, 1904, Millville, New York . He studied from 1922 to 1926 at Syracuse University , where he received his BA degree. In 1927 he studied English literature at Columbia University . Greene taught English literature at Dartmouth College from 1928 to 1931. In 1931 he went to Paris and studied art at

6417-669: The invitational New York Painting and Sculpture Annuals organized by the New York School artists in 1954, 1955 and 1957. In 1972 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member. Greene granted interviews to Jacqueline Moss , who was researching his wife for her master's thesis, published in 1980. Balcomb Greene died November 12, 1990, in Montauk Point, New York . His first solo shows were in Paris in 1937, and at J. B. Newmann's New Art Circle, in New York, in 1947. From 1950 to 1961 he exhibited annually at Bertha Schaefer Gallery, New York, where his 1950, 1955, and 1956 exhibitions were nominated by Art News as among

6510-417: The late 1970s and 1980s. Since that time, cities across the country have implemented such programs with varying levels of success. Changes to public housing programs were minor during the 1980s. Under the Reagan administration, household contribution towards Section 8 rents was increased to 30% of household income and fair market rents were lowered. Public assistance for housing efforts was reduced as part of

6603-720: The narrative of racially segregated housing in the 20th Century. The rebellion in Detroit in 1967 was a symptom of racial tension that was in part due to unfair housing policies. In July 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued a commission, led by Illinois Governor Otto Kerner to determine the causes of the riots. The Kerner Commission clearly articulated that housing inequality was solely determined by explicitly discriminatory policies. It stated that " White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it ". The Kerner Commission blatantly condemned white institutions for creating unequal housing opportunities, specifically highlighting restrictive covenants as

6696-414: The neighborhood, property values are not likely to fluctuate. However, a review of the literature yielded no definitive conclusions on the impact of public housing on property values, with only two studies lacking methodological flaws that had either mixed results or showed no impact. Others are skeptical of concentrated poverty from public housing being the cause of social pathologies, arguing that such

6789-531: The new structure. In 1939 alone, 50,000 housing units were constructed—more than twice as many as were built during the entire tenure of the PWA Housing Division. Building on the Housing Division's organizational and architectural precedent, the USHA built housing in the build-up to World War II, supported war-production efforts and battled the housing shortage that occurred after the end of the war. In

6882-634: The non-poor and in-migration of the poor were associated with the creation of public housing, such associations disappeared with the introduction of statistical controls, suggesting that migration levels were caused by characteristics of the neighborhood itself rather than the public housing unit. Concentrated poverty from public housing units has effects on the economy of the surrounding area, competing for space with middle class housing. Because of social pathologies incubated by public housing, Husock (2003) states that unit prices in surrounding buildings fall, reducing city revenue from property taxes and giving

6975-528: The populations most in need of assistance. These were submitted as part of the CDBG application. Again in response to the growing discontent with public housing, urban developers began looking for alternate forms of affordable, low-income housing. From this concern sprang the creation of scattered-site housing programs designed to place smaller-scale, better-integrated public housing units in diverse neighborhoods. Scattered-site housing programs became popularized in

7068-416: The potential to tighten the market for low-income housing, and communities were in need of an infusion of additional units. Some therefore argued that public housing was the appropriate model for cost and supply-chain reasons, though vouchers did not appear to overly distort local housing markets. In 1973, President Richard Nixon halted funding for numerous housing projects in the wake of concerns regarding

7161-514: The primary vehicle for the construction of new federally subsidized units, but it suffered considerable funding cuts in 2004 under President George W. Bush who called for the abolition of the program. In 1998, the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act (QHWRA) was passed and signed by President Bill Clinton . Following the frame of welfare reform , QHWRA developed new programs to transition families out of public housing, developed

7254-529: The projects continue to operate as mutual housing corporations owned by their residents. These projects are among the very few definitive success stories in the history of the US public housing effort. During World War II, construction of homes dramatically decreased as all efforts were directed towards the War. When the veterans returned from overseas, they came ready to start a new life, often with families, and did so with

7347-591: The proximity of public housing units. The study found that "the race-crime relationship is geographically contingent, varying as a function of the distribution of public housing". This suggests that a focus on institutional causes of crime in relation to race is more appropriate than a focus on cultural differences between races being the cause of differing crime rates . Public housing units were often built in predominantly poor and black areas, reinforcing racial and economic differences between neighborhoods. These social patterns are influenced by policies that constructed

7440-499: The reinforcement of patterns of poverty via the location of the public housing units, and the migration of impoverished individuals towards the public housing, although this effect is relatively small in comparison to the other sources. A study of public housing in Columbus, Ohio , found that public housing has differing effects on the concentration of black poverty versus white poverty. Public housing's effect on concentrated poverty

7533-421: The squalor of the slums. It equips the Federal Government, for the first time, with effective means for aiding cities in the vital task of clearing slums and rebuilding blighted areas. This legislation permits us to take a long step toward increasing the well-being and happiness of millions of our fellow citizens. Let us not delay in fulfilling that high purpose. Discontent with Urban Renewal came fairly swiftly on

7626-455: The story of Pruitt-Igoe, which has often been used as a parable for the failures of large-scale public housing in the United States, has elucidated that the unraveling of the complex had more to do with structural racism, disinvestment in the urban core, white flight, and the diminishing post-industrial incomes of the buildings' residents than with high rise architecture or the nature of publicly owned and -operated housing. The Act also impacted

7719-646: The streets and accompany apartment buildings throughout many locations. Although the materials are not historically accurate, the new elevations are similar to the originals. Between Maujer Street and Ten Eyck Walk, on either side of Graham Avenue, are the largest storefronts. Graham Avenue (near Scholes Street), Leonard Street (near Maujer Street), and Bushwick Avenue (between Maujer and Stagg Walk) all have smaller retail spaces. Graham Avenue near Scholes Street, Leonard Street near Maujer Street, and Bushwick Avenue between Maujer and Stagg Walk all have smaller retail spaces. Because of its innovative International Style design,

7812-651: The war. One of the most unusual US public housing initiatives was the development of subsidized middle-class housing during the late New Deal (1940–42) under the auspices of the Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division of the Federal Works Agency under the direction of Colonel Lawrence Westbrook . These eight projects were purchased by the residents after the Second World War and as of 2009 seven of

7905-892: The year's ten best. He exhibited at the American University , Washington, D.C. In 1961 Balcomb Greene had a retrospective exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art , New York City in 1961. The same year had solo exhibitions at the Everhart Museum , Scranton, Pennsylvania ; at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; at Mount Holyoke College , South Hadley, Massachusetts ; Bowdoin College , Brunswick, Minnesota ; University of Massachusetts, Amherst ; Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute Utica, New York . He continued to have one man shows at

7998-471: Was Richmond Shreve , and the design team of nine other architects was led by the Swiss-American modernist William Lescaze , whose PSFS Building of 1928–1932 was one of the first major International Style buildings in the United States. The construction contract was awarded to Starrett Brothers & Eken, which had worked closely with Shreve on the Empire State Building and later built

8091-486: Was divided equally between those born in the United States, those born in Italy, and others. Most were semi-skilled manufacturing workers, such as clerks, truck drivers, or construction workers. As the foundations were nearing completion, the PWA solicited construction bids. In October 1936, Starrett Brothers & Eken won a $ 7.5 million contract for the first 18 buildings. The Williamsburg Houses were built in 1936–1938 under

8184-469: Was done in 1999 by NYCHA architect David J. Burney. Public housing in the United States In the United States, subsidized housing is administered by federal, state and local agencies to provide subsidized rental assistance for low-income households. Public housing is priced much below the market rate, allowing people to live in more convenient locations rather than move away from

8277-541: Was dramatically scaled down in 1974. The Section 236 program subsidized the debt service on private developments which would then be offered at a reduced rates to households below a certain income ceiling. The Housing Act of 1970 established the Experimental Housing Allowance Program (EHAP), a lengthy investigation in the potential market effects of housing vouchers. Vouchers, initially introduced in 1965, were an attempt to subsidize

8370-514: Was largely determined by the neighborhood surrounding the site, as American residential patterns, in both the North and South, were highly segregated. Coming out of the housing movement at the turn of the century, the 1930s also saw the creation of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC), which refinanced loans in order to keep the housing market afloat. The National Housing Act of 1934 created

8463-414: Was re-elected as chairman of American Abstract Artists, but resigned from that organization in 1942, when he began a career as a professor of art history and aesthetics. After receiving his master's degree in art history (New York University, 1943), Greene taught at Carnegie Institute of Technology , Pittsburgh , while also continuing to pursue a career as an artist. Gertrude Greene stayed in New York, and

8556-638: Was rejected because the color scheme did not match the prescribed colors for the project. Other artists engaged for the mural commissions were Jan Matulka , Byron Browne , George McNeil , Willem de Kooning , Harry Bowden , and Eugene Morley. Abstract sculptures, including work by Martin Craig and Jose de Rivera , were also part of the initial plans. The uncompleted murals and sculptures status has not been fully established. In 1935, 568 buildings were demolished on 349 lots to make space for construction, and approximately 5,400 residents were relocated. The population

8649-504: Was the Housing Act of 1949 , which dramatically expanded the role of the federal government in both public and private housing. Part of Truman's Fair Deal , the Act covered three primary areas: (1) It expanded the Federal Housing Administration and federal involvement in mortgage insurance, (2) under Title I, it provided authority and funds for slum clearance and urban renewal , and (3) initiated construction of

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