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145-546: A toilet is a piece of sanitary hardware that collects human waste such as urine and feces , and sometimes toilet paper , usually for disposal. Flush toilets use water, while dry or non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for a sitting position popular in Europe and North America with a toilet seat , with additional considerations for those with disabilities , or for a squatting posture more popular in Asia , known as

290-598: A bidet shower may be plumbed in. The left hand is used for cleansing, for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many Asian countries. The use of water in many Christian countries is due in part to the biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing , and in some traditionally Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common. There are toilets on

435-405: A sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse . Diseases, including Cholera , which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways , groundwater , and drinking water supplies. The fourth millennium BC would witness

580-698: A squat toilet . In urban areas, flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system ; in isolated areas, to a septic tank . The waste is known as blackwater and the combined effluent, including other sources, is sewage . Dry toilets are connected to a pit , removable container , composting chamber , or other storage and treatment device, including urine diversion with a urine-diverting toilet . The technology used for modern toilets varies. Toilets are commonly made of ceramic ( porcelain ), concrete, plastic, or wood. Newer toilet technologies include dual flushing , low flushing , toilet seat warming , self-cleaning, female urinals and waterless urinals . Japan

725-422: A combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically, disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities are not binary and can be present in unique characteristics depending on the individual. A disability may be readily visible, or invisible in nature. The United Nations Convention on

870-628: A commonly used indicator. With helminth egg analysis, eggs are extracted from the sample after which a viability test is done to distinguish between viable and non viable eggs. The viable fraction of the helminth eggs in the sample is then counted. In the year 2016, the Sustainable Development Goals replaced the Millennium Development Goals. Sanitation is a global development priority and included Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). The target

1015-629: A cubicle over the drain. Around the 18th century BC, toilets started to appear in Minoan Crete , Pharaonic Egypt , and ancient Persia . In 2012, archaeologists found what is believed to be Southeast Asia's earliest latrine during the excavation of a neolithic village in the Rạch Núi archaeological site , southern Vietnam. The toilet, dating back 1500 BC, yielded important clues about early Southeast Asian society. More than 30 coprolites , containing fish and shattered animal bones, provided information on

1160-429: A disability can impact people's identities. Which style of language used varies between different countries, groups and individuals. Identity-first language describes the person as "disabled". Some people prefer this and argue that this fits the social model of disability better than people-first language, as it emphasizes that the person is disabled not by their body, but by a world that does not accommodate them. This

1305-561: A disability community—such as with art, social media, and sports. Contemporary understandings of disability derive from concepts that arose during the scientific Enlightenment in the west; prior to the Enlightenment, physical differences were viewed through a different lens. There is evidence of humans during prehistory that looked after people with disabilities. At the Windover Archeological Site , one of

1450-628: A disability". This style is reflected in major legislation on disability rights, including the Americans with Disabilities Act and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities . "Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the University of Delaware describes people-first language: The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a person with

1595-426: A disability, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the disability should be used so that the disability is identified, but is not modifying the person. Acceptable examples included "a woman with Down syndrome " or "a man who has schizophrenia ". It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits

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1740-405: A feature that creates an impairment, restriction, or limitation from reaching the social definition of health, the individual is labeled as disabled. Under this idea, disability is not defined by the physical features of the body but by a deviance from the social convention of health. The social construction of disability would argue that the medical model of disability 's view that a disability

1885-480: A gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits , the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned. Other very early toilets that used flowing water to remove the waste are found at Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, which was occupied from about 3100 BC until 2500 BC. Some of the houses there have a drain running directly beneath them, and some of these had

2030-514: A healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural resources (such as surface water , groundwater , soil ), and to provide safety, security and dignity for people when they defecate or urinate . The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. It has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties , declarations and other standards. It

2175-400: A matter of the full integration of individuals into society . In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, created by the social environment. The management of the problem requires social action and it is the collective responsibility of society to create a society in which limitations for disabled people are minimal. Disability

2320-506: A negative connotation that they are considered to be slurs. A current point of contention is whether it is appropriate to use person-first language (i.e. a person who is disabled) or identity-first language (i.e. a disabled person) when referring to disability and an individual. Due to the marginalization of disabled people, there have been several activist causes that push for equitable treatment and access in society. Disability activists have fought to receive equal and equitable rights under

2465-435: A new term: "basic sanitation service". This is defined as the use of improved sanitation facilities that are not shared with other households. A lower level of service is now called "limited sanitation service" which refers to use of improved sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households. Community-based sanitation is related to decentralized wastewater treatment (DEWATS). The term "dry sanitation"

2610-433: A person's capability to perform the activities of daily life. As Marta Russell and Ravi Malhotra argue, "The ' medicalization ' of disablement and the tools of classification clearly played an important role in establishing divisions between the 'disabled' and the 'able-bodied. ' " This positions disability as a problem to be solved via medical intervention, which hinders our understanding about what disability can mean. For

2755-413: A person's efforts to go to school, work, socialize, and more. Some examples of invisible disabilities include intellectual disabilities , autism spectrum disorder , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , fibromyalgia , mental disorders , asthma , epilepsy , allergies , migraines , arthritis , and chronic fatigue syndrome . Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in

2900-614: A person, for example, "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair". People-first terminology is used in the UK in the form "people with impairments" (such as "people with visual impairments"). However, in the UK, identity-first language is generally preferred over people-first language. The use of people-first terminology has given rise to the use of the acronym PWD to refer to person(s) (or people) with disabilities (or disability). However other individuals and groups prefer identity-first language to emphasize how

3045-492: A political construction is also widely used by international organizations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples' International . Using the identity-first language also parallels how people talk about other aspects of identity and diversity. For example: In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology such as 'Autistic,' 'Autistic person,' or 'Autistic individual' because we understand autism as an inherent part of an individual's identity –

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3190-451: A problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health conditions which therefore requires sustained medical care in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure", or the individual's adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. The individual, in this case, must overcome their disability by medical care. In

3335-519: A quarter of a liter per flush) or none, (as in waterless urinals ). Some flush with coloured disinfectant solution rather than with water. They may be used to separate blackwater and greywater , and process them separately (for instance, the fairly dry blackwater can be used for biogas production, or in a composting toilet ). Passenger train toilets , aircraft lavatories , bus toilets, and ships with plumbing often use vacuum toilets. The lower water usage saves weight, and avoids water slopping out of

3480-521: A sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain are called " sanitation workers ". Several sanitation "levels" are being used to compare sanitation service levels within countries or across countries. The sanitation ladder defined by the Joint Monitoring Programme in 2016 starts at open defecation and moves upwards using the terms "unimproved", "limited", "basic", with the highest level being " safely managed ". This

3625-552: A society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a prosthesis dates to at least 1800 BC. The wheelchair dates from the 17th century. The curb cut is a related structural innovation. Other examples are standing frames , text telephones , accessible keyboards , large print , braille , and speech recognition software . Disabled people often develop adaptations which can be personal (e.g. strategies to suppress tics in public) or community (e.g. sign language in d/Deaf communities). As

3770-559: A toilet at all; they must openly defecate and urinate. These issues can lead to the spread of diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route , or the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery . Therefore, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 wants to "achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation". The number of different types of toilets used worldwide

3915-522: A toilet linked to a pigsty by a chute, is still in use to a limited extent. It was common in rural China, and was known in Japan, Korea, and India. The "fish pond toilet" depends on the same principle, of livestock (often carp ) eating human excreta directly. There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia,

4060-434: A vent pipe attached to the sewer line. The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. One type of dual flush system allows

4205-401: A wheelchair, multiple sclerosis , muscular dystrophy , obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), spina bifida , and schizophrenia . This is not an exhaustive list and many injuries and medical problems cause disability. Some causes of disability, such as injuries, may resolve over time and are considered temporary disabilities . An acquired disability

4350-402: Is a ceramic bowl (pan) connected on the "up" side to a cistern (tank) that enables rapid filling with water, and on the "down" side to a drain pipe that removes the effluent. When a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a sewage treatment plant . However, in many developing countries , this treatment step does not take place. The water in

4495-498: Is about "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030. It is estimated that 660 million people still lacked access to safe drinking water as of 2015. Since the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the fight for clean water and sanitation is more important than ever. Handwashing is one of the most common prevention methods for Coronavirus, yet two out of five people do not have access to a hand-washing station. The United Nations , during

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4640-670: Is also referred to as water reclamation . Sanitation systems in urban areas of developed countries usually consist of the collection of wastewater in gravity driven sewers, its treatment in wastewater treatment plants for reuse or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea. In developing countries most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. Alternatives to centralized sewer systems include onsite sanitation , decentralized wastewater systems , dry toilets connected to fecal sludge management . Sewers are either combined with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary sewers . Combined sewers are usually found in

4785-432: Is an impairment, restriction, or limitation is wrong. Instead what is seen as a disability is just a difference in the individual from what is considered "normal" in society. People-first language is one way to talk about disability which some people prefer. Using people-first language is said to put the person before the disability. Those individuals who prefer people-first language would prefer to be called, "a person with

4930-407: Is both cultural and ideological in creation. According to the social model, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights concern. The social model of disability has come under criticism. While recognizing the importance played by the social model in stressing the responsibility of society, scholars, including Tom Shakespeare , point out the limits of the model and urge

5075-403: Is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush to pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank. Flush toilets on ships are typically flushed with seawater . Twin pit latrines use two pits used alternatively, when one pit gets full over a few months or years. The pits are of an adequate size to accommodate a volume of waste generated over one or two years. This allows

5220-458: Is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists nine broad domains of functioning which can be affected: In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models have been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following: The medical model views disability as

5365-929: Is derived from the human right to an adequate standard of living . Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the disease transmission cycle (for example in the case of fecal-borne diseases). This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all major routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F: feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food. Sanitation infrastructure has to be adapted to several specific contexts including consumers' expectations and local resources available. Sanitation technologies may involve centralized civil engineering structures like sewer systems , sewage treatment , surface runoff treatment and solid waste landfills . These structures are designed to treat wastewater and municipal solid waste . Sanitation technologies may also take

5510-407: Is distinguished from a pit latrine because the waste accumulates in the vault instead of seeping into the underlying soil. A chemical toilet collects human excreta in a holding tank and uses chemicals to minimize odors. They do not require a connection to a water supply and are used in a variety of situations. These toilets are usually, but not always, self-contained and movable. A chemical toilet

5655-439: Is especially true in the UK, where it is argued under the social model that while someone's impairment (for example, having a spinal cord injury ) is an individual property, "disability" is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of accessibility. This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the social model . The term "disabled people" as

5800-417: Is experienced differently based on the other multi-faceted identities of the individual is one often pointed out by disabled self-advocates. The ostracization of disability from mainstream society has created the opportunity for a disability culture to emerge. While disabled activists still promote the integration of disabled people into mainstream society, several disabled-only spaces have been created to foster

5945-418: Is known for its toilet technology . Airplane toilets are specially designed to operate in the air. The need to maintain anal hygiene post- defecation is universally recognized and toilet paper (often held by a toilet roll holder ), which may also be used to wipe the vulva after urination, is widely used (as well as bidets ). In private homes, depending on the region and style, the toilet may exist in

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6090-419: Is large, but can be grouped by: Toilets can be designed to be used either in a standing (urinatiing), sitting or in a squatting posture (defecating). Each type has its benefits. The " sitting toilet ", however, is essential for those who are movement impaired. Sitting toilets are often referred to as "western-style toilets". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and

6235-476: Is made from Stainless Steel 316L, (an alloy containing small amounts of molybdenum ). The surface is usually electropolished to an effective surface roughness of less than 0.5 micrometre to reduce the possibility of bacterial adhesion. In many settings, provision of sanitation facilities alone does not guarantee good health of the population. Studies have suggested that the impact of hygiene practices have as great an impact on sanitation related diseases as

6380-582: Is most commonly conducted in landfills , but incineration, recycling , composting and conversion to biofuels are also avenues. In the case of landfills, advanced countries typically have rigid protocols for daily cover with topsoil, where underdeveloped countries customarily rely upon less stringent protocols. The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of pathogens . Daily cover also minimizes odor emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of

6525-616: Is not in widespread use and is not very well defined. It usually refers to a system that uses a type of dry toilet and no sewers to transport excreta. Often when people speak of "dry sanitation" they mean a sanitation system that uses urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDTs). Environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission . Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise pollution control. According to World health organization (WHO) Environmental sanitation

6670-592: Is not shared with other households, and where the excreta produced is either treated and disposed in situ, stored temporarily and then emptied and transported to treatment off-site, or transported through a sewer with wastewater and then treated off-site. In other words, safely managed sanitation is a basic sanitation service where in addition excreta are safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated offsite. Wastewater management consists of collection, wastewater treatment (be it municipal or industrial wastewater ), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. The latter

6815-531: Is particularly applicable to developing countries . The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. Sanitation is a global development priority and the subject of Sustainable Development Goal 6 . The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation . Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on public health but also on human dignity and personal safety. There are some variations on

6960-406: Is structured around a relatively small tank, which requires frequent emptying. It is not connected to a hole in the ground (like a pit latrine ), nor to a septic tank , nor is it plumbed into a municipal system leading to a sewage treatment plant . When the tank is emptied, the contents are usually pumped into a sanitary sewer or directly to a treatment plant. The pig toilet , which consists of

7105-492: Is the idea that disability is constructed by social expectations and institutions rather than biological differences. Highlighting the ways society and institutions construct disability is one of the main focuses of this idea. In the same way that race and gender are not biologically fixed, neither is disability. Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that labeling theory and social deviance could be applied to disability studies. This led to

7250-403: Is the result of impairments that occur suddenly or chronically during the lifespan, as opposed to being born with the impairment. Invisible disabilities may not be obviously noticeable. The medical model focuses heavily on finding treatments, cures, or rehabilitative practices for disabled people. Assistive technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within

7395-442: Is usually open defecation (and open urination but this is of less concern) with associated serious public health issues. It is estimated that 2.4 billion people still lacked improved sanitation facilities including 660 million people who lack access to safe drinking water as of 2015. Onsite sanitation (or on-site sanitation) is defined as "a sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored or treated on

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7540-507: The International Space Station use a space toilet with urine diversion which can recover potable water . Sanitary A range of sanitation technologies and approaches exists. Some examples are community-led total sanitation , container-based sanitation , ecological sanitation , emergency sanitation , environmental sanitation, onsite sanitation and sustainable sanitation . A sanitation system includes

7685-506: The Middle Ages , disabled people were still able to play significant roles in the rural production based economy, allowing them to make genuine contributions to daily economic life. The Industrial Revolution and the advent of capitalism made it so that people were no longer tied to the land and were then forced to find work that would pay a wage in order to survive. The wage system, in combination with industrialized production, transformed

7830-753: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Report in 2006 has shown, progress meeting the MDG sanitation target is slow, with a large gap between the target coverage and the current reality. In December 2006, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2008 "The International Year of Sanitation ", in recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target. The year aimed to develop awareness and more actions to meet

7975-562: The WASH sector only include excreta management in their definition of sanitation. Another example of what is included in sanitation is found in the handbook by Sphere on "Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response" which describes minimum standards in four "key response sectors" in humanitarian response situations. One of them is "Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion" ( WASH ) and it includes

8120-493: The World Health Organization , distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, such as vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, such as the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity

8265-445: The medical model and the social model . The medical model serves as a theoretical framework that considers disability as an undesirable medical condition that requires specialized treatment. Those who ascribe to the medical model tend to focus on finding the root causes of disabilities, as well as any cures—such as assistive technology. The social model centers disability as a societally-created limitation on individuals who do not have

8410-616: The personal computer has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to develop software and hardware to make computers more accessible for disabled people. Some software and hardware, such as Voice Finger , Freedom Scientific 's JAWS , the Free and Open Source alternative Orca etc. have been specifically designed for disabled people while other software and hardware, such as Nuance 's Dragon NaturallySpeaking , were not developed specifically for disabled people, but can be used to increase accessibility. The LOMAK keyboard

8555-410: The toilet seat , including enough room for a caregiver if necessary. In prisons , inmates may utilize toilets and the associated plumbing to communicate messages and pass products. The acoustic properties of communicating through the toilet bowl, known as toilet talk, potty talk, toilet telephone is influenced by flush patterns and bowl water volumes. Prisoners may also send binary signals by ringing

8700-690: The "bedroom ware" or "chamber utensils". Once running water and flush toilets were plumbed into British houses, servants were sometimes given their own lavatory downstairs, separate from the family lavatory. The practice of emptying one's own chamber pot, known as slopping out , continued in British prisons until as recently as 2014 and was still in use in 85 cells in Ireland in July 2017. With rare exceptions, chamber pots are no longer used. Modern related implements are bedpans and commodes , used in hospitals and

8845-503: The "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene". When analyzing environmental samples, various types of indicator organisms are used to check for fecal pollution of the sample. Commonly used indicators for bacteriological water analysis include the bacterium Escherichia coli (abbreviated as E. coli) and non-specific fecal coliforms . With regards to samples of soil , sewage sludge , biosolids or fecal matter from dry toilets , helminth eggs are

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8990-477: The 'software' (regulation, hygiene promotion) needed to reduce faecal-oral disease transmission. It encompasses too the re-use and ultimate disposal of human excreta. The term environmental sanitation is used to cover the wider concept of controlling all the factors in the physical environment which may have deleterious impacts on human health and well-being. In developing countries, it normally includes drainage, solid waste management, and vector control, in addition to

9135-484: The 1830s of l'homme moyen – the average man. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all people's attributes in a given population (such as their height or weight) and find their average and that this figure should serve as a statistical norm toward which all should aspire. This idea of the statistical norm threads through the rapid take-up of statistics gathering by Britain, the United States, and

9280-609: The 18th century. By the 16th century, cesspits and cesspools were increasingly dug into the ground near houses in Europe as a means of collecting waste, as urban populations grew and street gutters became blocked with the larger volume of human waste. Rain was no longer sufficient to wash away waste from the gutters. A pipe connected the latrine to the cesspool, and sometimes a small amount of water washed waste through. Cesspools were cleaned out by tradesmen, known in English as gong farmers , who pumped out liquid waste, then shovelled out

9425-549: The Ancient Greeks may not have viewed persons with disability all that differently from more able-bodied individuals as terms describing them in their records appear to be very vague. As long as the disabled person in question could still contribute to society, the Greeks appeared to tolerate them. During the Middle Ages , madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons. They were also thought to be part of

9570-726: The Millennium Summit in New York in 2000 and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, developed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at poverty eradication and sustainable development. The specific sanitation goal for the year 2015 was to reduce by half the number of people who had no access to potable water and sanitation in the baseline year of 1990. As the JMP and

9715-476: The Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as including: long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through a variety of different theoretical lenses. There are two main models that attempt to explain disability in our society:

9860-487: The Sustainable Development Goal 6.2, Indicator 6.2.1, as the "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water". The current value in the 2017 baseline estimate by JMP is that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. Safely managed sanitation is defined as an improved sanitation facility which

10005-466: The Western European states during this time period, and it is tied to the rise of eugenics . Disability, as well as the concepts of abnormal, non-normal, and normalcy, came from this. The circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show , where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the latter part of

10150-656: The activities covered by the definition of sanitation." Sanitation can include personal sanitation and public hygiene. Personal sanitation work can include handling menstrual waste , cleaning household toilets , and managing household garbage . Public sanitation work can involve garbage collection, transfer and treatment ( municipal solid waste management ), cleaning drains, streets, schools, trains, public spaces , community toilets and public toilets , sewers , operating sewage treatment plants , etc. Workers who provide these services for other people are called sanitation workers . The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide

10295-620: The actual provision of sanitation facilities. Hygiene promotion is therefore an important part of sanitation and is usually key in maintaining good health. Hygiene promotion is a planned approach of enabling people to act and change their behavior in an order to reduce and/or prevent incidences of water, sanitation and hygiene ( WASH ) related diseases. It usually involves a participatory approach of engaging people to take responsibility of WASH services and infrastructure including its operation and maintenance. The three key elements of promoting hygiene are; mutual sharing of information and knowledge,

10440-404: The back door of the kitchen for use by gardeners and other outside staff such as those working with the horses. The speed of introduction was varied, so that in 1906 the predominantly working-class town of Rochdale had 750 water closets for a population of 10,000. The working-class home had transitioned from the rural cottage, to the urban back-to-back terraces with external rows of privies, to

10585-399: The capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta and wastewater . Reuse activities within the sanitation system may focus on the nutrients , water, energy or organic matter contained in excreta and wastewater. This is referred to as the "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy". The people responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying

10730-408: The central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or sanitary sewer overflows , i.e., more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges. Disposal of solid waste

10875-433: The checking of blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar. Some toilets have automatic lid operation, heated seats, deodorizing fans, or automated replacement of paper toilet-seat-covers. Interactive urinals have been developed in several countries, allowing users to play video games. The "Toylet", produced by Sega , uses pressure sensors to detect the flow of urine and translates that into on-screen action. Astronauts on

11020-443: The contents of the full pit enough time to transform into a partially sanitized, soil -like material that can be manually excavated. There is a risk of groundwater pollution when pits are located in areas with a high or variable water table, and/or fissures or cracks in the bedrock. A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that is connected to a vacuum sewer system , and removes waste by suction. They may use very little water (less than

11165-430: The creation of the social construction of disability theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an individual has

11310-721: The diet of humans and dogs, and on the types of parasites each had to contend with. In Sri Lanka , the techniques of the construction of toilets and lavatories developed over several stages. A highly developed stage in this process is discernible in the constructions at the Abhayagiri complex in Anuradhapura where toilets and baths dating back to 2nd century BC to 3rd century CE are known, later forms of toilets from 5th century CE to 13th century CE in Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura had elaborate decorative motifs carved around

11455-516: The dramatic growth in the sewage system , especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons. Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of

11600-494: The economic costs of inadequate sanitation is a huge concern. For example, according to a World Bank study, economic losses due to inadequate sanitation to The Indian economy are equivalent to 6.4% of its GDP. Most of these are due to premature mortality, time lost in accessing, loss of productivity, additional costs for healthcare among others. Inadequate sanitation also leads to loss from potential tourism revenue. This study also found that impacts are disproportionately higher for

11745-437: The elderly. People use different toilet types based on the country that they are in. In developing countries , access to toilets is also related to people's socio-economic status . Poor people in low-income countries often have no toilets at all and resort to open defecation instead. This is part of the sanitation crisis which international initiatives (such as World Toilet Day ) draw attention to. A typical flush toilet

11890-412: The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transporting and treatment of waste, and reuse or disposal. All need to be thoroughly considered. The benefits to society of managing human excreta are considerable, for public health as well as for the environment. As a rough estimate: For every US$ 1 spent on sanitation, the return to society is US$ 5.50. For developing countries,

12035-490: The fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often used side by side as "sanitation and wastewater management". Another definition is in the DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes from 1998: "For the purposes of this manual, the word 'sanitation' alone is taken to mean the safe management of human excreta. It therefore includes both the 'hardware' (e.g. latrines and sewers) and

12180-457: The fecal sludge that is generated onsite is treated at an offsite location. Wastewater ( sewage ) is only generated when piped water supply is available within the buildings or close to them. A related term is a decentralized wastewater system which refers in particular to the wastewater part of on-site sanitation. Similarly, an onsite sewage facility can treat the wastewater generated locally. The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020

12325-412: The field include Marta Russell , Robert McRuer , Johanna Hedva , Laura Hershey , Irving Zola , and many more. Prominent disability scholar Lennard J. Davis notes that disability studies should not be considered a niche or specialized discipline, but instead is applicable to a wide range of fields and topics. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), produced by

12470-442: The flush handle to be pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other, whereas another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defecation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (water that was previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize

12615-493: The following areas: Hygiene promotion, water supply , excreta management, vector control , solid waste management and WASH in disease outbreaks and healthcare settings. Hygiene promotion is seen by many as an integral part of sanitation. The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council defines sanitation as "The collection, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta , domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated hygiene promotion." Despite

12760-454: The food and biopharmaceutical industries, the term "sanitary equipment" means equipment that is fully cleanable using clean-in-place (CIP) and sterilization-in-place (SIP) procedures: that is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other liquids . The design should have a minimum amount of deadleg, or areas where the turbulence during cleaning is insufficient to remove product deposits. In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment

12905-415: The form of relatively simple onsite sanitation systems. This can in some cases consist of a simple pit latrine or other type of non-flush toilet for the excreta management part. Providing sanitation to people requires attention to the entire system, not just focusing on technical aspects such as the toilet , fecal sludge management or the wastewater treatment plant. The "sanitation chain" involves

13050-720: The gods. In Ancient Egypt , staffs were frequently used in society. A common usage for them was for older persons with disabilities to help them walk. Provisions that enabled individuals with impaired mobility to access temples and healing sanctuaries were made in ancient Greece. Specifically, by 370 B.C., at the most important healing sanctuary in the wider area, the Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus , there were at least 11 permanent stone ramps that provided access to mobility-impaired visitors to nine different structures; evidence that people with disabilities were acknowledged and cared for, at least partly, in ancient Greece. In fact,

13195-690: The groups targeted by the Nazi regime in Germany, resulting in approximately 250,000 disabled people being killed during the Holocaust . At the end of the Second World War , with the example of Nazi eugenics , eugenics faded from public discourse , and increasingly disability cohered into a set of attributes to which medicine could attend – whether through augmentation, rehabilitation, or treatment. In both contemporary and modern history, disability

13340-500: The home. Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era , British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber pots and carried them to a room known as the housemaids' cupboard. This room contained a "slop sink", made of wood with a lead lining to prevent chipping china chamber pots, for washing

13485-400: The home. In pre-modern Denmark, people generally defecated on farmland or other places where the human waste could be collected as fertilizer . The Old Norse language had several terms for referring to outhouses , including garðhús (yard house), náð-/náða-hús (house of rest), and annat hús (the other house). In general, toilets were functionally non-existent in rural Denmark until

13630-613: The homes of invalids. Long-established sanitary wear manufacturers in the United Kingdom include Adamsez, founded in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1880, by M.J. and S.H. Adams, and Twyfords , founded in Hanley , Stoke-on-Trent in 1849, by Thomas Twyford and his son Thomas William Twyford . Before the widespread adoption of the flush toilet , there were inventors, scientists, and public health officials who supported

13775-460: The invention of clay pipes, sewers, and toilets, in Mesopotamia , with the city of Uruk today exhibiting the earliest known internal pit toilet, from c.  3200 BC . The Neolithic village of Skara Brae contains examples, c.  3000 BC , of internal small rooms over a communal drain, rather than pit. The Indus Valley Civilisation in northwestern India and Pakistan was home to

13920-516: The landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of leachate that could contaminate groundwater (and hence jeopardize some drinking water supplies). For incineration options, the release of air pollutants , including certain toxic components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the sustainable options that generally have superior lifecycle costs, particularly when total ecological consequences are considered. Composting value will ultimately be limited by

14065-508: The law—though there are still political issues that enable or advance the oppression of disabled people. Although disability activism serves to dismantle ableist systems, social norms relating to the perception of disabilities are often reinforced by tropes used by the media. Since negative perceptions of disability are pervasive in modern society, disabled people have turned to self-advocacy in an attempt to push back against their marginalization. The recognition of disability as an identity that

14210-741: The market demand for compost product. Sanitation within the food industry means the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of microorganisms of public health significance, and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the food or its safety for the consumer ( U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Code of Federal Regulations , 21CFR110, USA). Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures are mandatory for food industries in United States . Similarly, in Japan, food hygiene has to be achieved through compliance with food sanitation law. In

14355-477: The market with seats having integrated spray mechanisms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan ). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities. An accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities , such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from

14500-408: The medical approach to disability. Due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the social model of disability emerged. Coined by Mike Oliver in 1983, this phrase distinguishes between the medical model of disability – under which an impairment needs to be fixed – and the social model of disability – under which

14645-562: The medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy. The medical model focuses on finding causes and cures for disabilities. There are many causes of disability that often affect basic activities of daily living , such as eating, dressing, transferring, and maintaining personal hygiene ; or advanced activities of daily living such as shopping, food preparation, driving, or working. However, causes of disability are usually determined by

14790-557: The mobilization of affected communities and the provision of essential material and facilities. The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on the following four health outcomes: diarrhea , acute respiratory infections , malnutrition , and soil-transmitted Helminthiasis (STHs). These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 ("Good Health and Well-being"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on

14935-556: The natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Black Death , which wrought impairments throughout the general population. In the early modern period there was a shift to seeking biological causes for physical and mental differences, as well as heightened interest in demarcating categories: for example, Ambroise Pare, in the sixteenth century, wrote of "monsters", "prodigies", and "the maimed". The European Enlightenment 's emphases on knowledge derived from reason and on

15080-457: The need for a new model that will overcome the "medical vs. social" dichotomy. The limitations of this model mean that often the vital services and information persons with disabilities face are simply not available, often due to limited economic returns in supporting them. Some say medical humanities is a fruitful field where the gap between the medical and the social model of disability might be bridged. The social construction of disability

15225-493: The nineteenth century, such deviations were viewed as dangerous to the health of entire populations. With disability viewed as part of a person's biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, scientists turned their attention to notions of weeding such as "deviations" out of the gene pool. Various metrics for assessing a person's genetic fitness were determined and were then used to deport , sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. People with disabilities were one of

15370-431: The ones pictured here, are commonly thought to have been used in the sitting position. The Roman toilets were probably elevated to raise them above open sewers which were periodically "flushed" with flowing water, rather than elevated for sitting. Romans and Greeks also used chamber pots , which they brought to meals and drinking sessions. Johan J. Mattelaer said, " Plinius has described how there were large receptacles in

15515-434: The other, with one or more holes to sit on. These were above chutes or pipes that discharged outside the castle or Manor house . Garderobes would be placed in areas away from bedrooms because of the smell and also near kitchens or fireplaces to keep their enclosures warm. The other main way of handling toilet needs was the chamber pot , a receptacle, usually of ceramic or metal, into which one would excrete waste. This method

15660-561: The plot where they are generated". Another term that is used for the same system is non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), which are prevalent in many countries. NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge, accounting for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. The degree of treatment may be variable, from none to advanced. Examples are pit latrines (no treatment) and septic tanks ( primary treatment of wastewater). On-site sanitation systems are often connected to fecal sludge management (FSM) systems where

15805-530: The poor, women and children. Availability of toilet at home on the other hand, positively contributes to economic well-being of women as it leads to an increase in literacy and participation in labor force. The term sanitation is connected with various descriptors or adjectives to signify certain types of sanitation systems (which may deal only with human excreta management or with the entire sanitation system, i.e. also greywater, stormwater and solid waste management) – in alphabetical order: In 2017, JMP defined

15950-578: The purposes of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 , the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities: amputation , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism , bipolar disorder , blindness , cancer , cerebral palsy , deafness , diabetes , epilepsy , HIV/AIDS , intellectual disability , major depressive disorder , mobility impairments requiring

16095-447: The same ability as the majority of the population. Although the medical model and social model are the most common frames for disability, there are a multitude of other models that theorize disability. There are many terms that explain aspects of disability. While some terms solely exist to describe phenomena pertaining to disability, others have been centered around stigmatizing and ostracizing those with disabilities. Some terms have such

16240-437: The same bathroom as the sink, bathtub , and shower. Another option is to have one room for body washing (also called "bathroom") and a separate one for the toilet and handwashing sink ( toilet room ). Public toilets ( restrooms ) consist of one or more toilets (and commonly single urinals or trough urinals) which are available for use by the general public. Products like urinal blocks and toilet blocks help maintain

16385-655: The same way one refers to 'Muslims,' 'African-Americans,' 'Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,' 'Chinese,' 'gifted,' 'athletic,' or 'Jewish.' Similarly, Deaf communities in the US reject people-first language in favor of identity-first language. In 2021, the US Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) announced their decision to use identity-first language in their materials, explaining: "Identity-first language challenges negative connotations by claiming disability directly. Identity-first language references

16530-447: The sewage or water pipes. Toilet talk enables communication for those in solitary confinement. Toilets have been subject to wiretaps. To this day, 1 billion people in developing countries have no toilets in their homes and are resorting to open defecation instead. Therefore, it is one of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 to provide toilets (sanitation services) to everyone by 2030. Toilets are one important element of

16675-486: The skeletons was a male about 15 years old who had spina bifida . The condition meant that the boy, probably paralyzed below the waist, was taken care of in a hunter-gatherer community. Disability was not viewed as a means of divine punishment and therefore disabled individuals were neither exterminated nor discriminated against for their impairments. Many were instead employed in different levels of Mesopotamian society including working in religious temples as servants of

16820-438: The smell and cleanliness of toilets. Toilet seat covers are sometimes used. Portable toilets (frequently chemical "porta johns" ) may be brought in for large and temporary gatherings. Historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements . However, many poor households in developing countries use very basic, and often unhygienic, toilets – and nearly one billion people have no access to

16965-461: The society that limits a person needs to be fixed. Like many social categories, the concept of "disability" is under heavy discussion amongst academia, the medical and legal worlds, and the disability community. The academic discipline focused on theorizing disability is disability studies , which has been expanding since the late twentieth century. The field investigates the past, present, and future constructions of disability, along with advancing

17110-444: The solid waste and collected it during the night. This solid waste, euphemistically known as nightsoil , was sold as fertilizer for agricultural production (similarly to the closing-the-loop approach of ecological sanitation ). In the early 19th century, public officials and public hygiene experts studied and debated sanitation for several decades. The construction of an underground network of pipes to carry away solid and liquid waste

17255-466: The squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting position are more common. In the Western world, the most common method of cleaning the anal area after defecation is by toilet paper or sometimes by using a bidet . In many Muslim countries , the facilities are designed to enable people to follow Islamic toilet etiquette Qaḍāʼ al-Ḥājah . For example,

17400-571: The streets of cities such as Rome and Pompeii into which chamber pots of urine were emptied. The urine was then collected by fullers." ( Fulling was a vital step in textile manufacture .) The Han dynasty in China two thousand years ago used pig toilets . Garderobes were toilets used in the Post-classical history , most commonly found in upper-class dwellings. Essentially, they were flat pieces of wood or stone spanning from one wall to

17545-481: The target. There are numerous reasons for this gap. A major one is that sanitation is rarely given political attention received by other topics despite its key importance. Sanitation is not high on the international development agenda, and projects such as those relating to water supply projects are emphasised. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF (JMP) has been publishing reports of updated estimates every two years on

17690-486: The through terraced houses of the 1880 with their sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite became more prominent in

17835-478: The toilet bowl in motion. Aboard vehicles, a portable collection chamber is used; if it is filled by positive pressure from an intermediate vacuum chamber, it need not be kept under vacuum. A floating toilet is essentially a toilet on a platform built above or floating on the water. Instead of excreta going into the ground they are collected in a tank or barrel. To reduce the amount of excreta that needs to hauled to shore, many use urine diversion . The floating toilet

17980-413: The toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through

18125-507: The toilets. Several types of toilets were developed; these include lavatories with ring-well pits, underground terracotta pipes that lead to septic pits, urinary pits with large bottomless clay pots of decreasing size placed one above the other. These pots under urinals contained "sand, lime and charcoal" through which urine filtered down to the earth in a somewhat purified form. In Roman civilization, latrines using flowing water were sometimes part of public bath houses . Roman latrines, like

18270-541: The use of "dry earth closets" – nowadays known either as dry toilets or composting toilets . Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington , such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing,

18415-729: The use of the term "sanitation" between countries and organizations. The World Health Organization defines the term "sanitation" as follows: "Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal." Sanitation includes all four of these technical and non-technical systems: Excreta management systems, wastewater management systems (included here are wastewater treatment plants ), solid waste management systems as well as drainage systems for rainwater, also called stormwater drainage . However, many in

18560-465: The use of various types of drinking-water sources and sanitation facilities at the national, regional and global levels. The JMP report for 2015 stated that: People with disabilities Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive , developmental , intellectual , mental , physical , sensory , or

18705-416: The value of natural science to human progress helped spawn the birth of institutions and associated knowledge systems that observed and categorized human beings; among these, the ones significant to the development of today's concepts of disability were asylums , clinics , and prisons . Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments. Foremost among these

18850-511: The variety that exists in how our bodies and brains work with a myriad of conditions that exist, and the role of inaccessible or oppressive systems, structures, or environments in making someone disabled." Invisible disabilities, also known as Hidden Disabilities or Non-visible Disabilities (NVD), are disabilities that are not immediately apparent, or seeable. They are often chronic illnesses and conditions that significantly impair normal activities of daily living. Invisible disabilities can hinder

18995-439: The viewpoint that disability is a complex social identity from which we can all gain insight. As disabilities scholar Claire Mullaney puts it, "At its broadest, disability studies encourages scholars to value disability as a form of cultural difference". Scholars of the field focus on a range of disability-related topics, such as ethics, policy and legislation, history, art of the disability community, and more. Notable scholars from

19140-447: The water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage. Another variant is the pour-flush toilet. This type of flush toilet has no cistern but is flushed manually with a few liters of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres (0.44–0.66 imp gal; 0.53–0.79 US gal). This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it

19285-528: The way bodies were viewed as people were increasingly valued for their ability to produce like machines. Capitalism and the industrial revolution effectively solidified this class of "disabled" people who could not conform to the standard worker 's body or level of work power. As a result, disabled people came to be regarded as a problem, to be solved or erased. In the early 1970s, the disability rights movement became established, when disability activists began to challenge how society treated disabled people and

19430-549: The wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. "High-tech" toilets, which can be found in countries like Japan, include features such as automatic-flushing mechanisms; water jets or "bottom washers"; blow dryers, or artificial flush sounds to mask noises. Others include medical monitoring features such as urine and stool analysis and

19575-487: The world's first known urban sanitation systems. In Mohenjo-Daro ( c.  2800 BC ), toilets were built into the outer walls of homes. These toilets had vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains. In the Indus city of Lothal ( c.  2350 BC ), houses belonging to the upper class had private toilets connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with

19720-473: Was defined as the control of all those factors in the physical environment which exercise a harmful effect on human being physical development, health and survival . One of the primary function of environmental sanitation is to protect public health . Lack of sanitation refers to the absence of sanitation. In practical terms it usually means lack of toilets or lack of hygienic toilets that anybody would want to use voluntarily. The result of lack of sanitation

19865-570: Was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities. The World Wide Web consortium recognized a need for International Standards for Web Accessibility for persons with disabilities and created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). As at Dec 2012 the standard is WCAG 2.0 (WCAG = Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). The social model of disability sees "disability" as a socially created problem and

20010-420: Was developed for residents without quick access to land or connection to a sewer systems. It is also used in areas subjected to prolonged flooding. The need for this type of toilet is high in areas like Cambodia . A vault toilet is a non-flush toilet with a sealed container (or vault) buried in the ground to receive the excreta, all of which is contained underground until it is removed by pumping. A vault toilet

20155-603: Was estimated to as 377 Mt CO2e per year or 4.7% of global anthropogenic methane emissions, which are comparable to the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants. This means that the GHG emissions from the NSSS as a non-negligible source. Safely managed sanitation is the highest level of household sanitation envisioned by the Sustainable Development Goal Number 6 . It is measured under

20300-404: Was often viewed as a by-product of incest between first-degree relatives or second-degree relatives . Disability scholars have also pointed to the Industrial Revolution , along with the economic shift from feudalism to capitalism , as prominent historical moments in the understanding of disability. Although there was a certain amount of religious superstition surrounding disability during

20445-595: Was only begun in the mid 19th-century, gradually replacing the cesspool system, although cesspools were still in use in some parts of Paris into the 20th century. Even London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War . The water closet , with its origins in Tudor times, started to assume its currently known form, with an overhead cistern, s-bends, soil pipes and valves around 1770. This

20590-525: Was the S-trap , invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with

20735-538: Was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization . The concept of the "norm" developed in this time period, and is signaled in the work of the Belgian statistician , sociologist , mathematician , and astronomer Adolphe Quetelet , who wrote in

20880-406: Was the work of Alexander Cumming and Joseph Bramah . Water closets only started to be moved from outside to inside of the home around 1850. The integral water closet started to be built into middle-class homes in the 1860s and 1870s, firstly on the principal bedroom floor and in larger houses in the maids' accommodation, and by 1900 a further one in the hallway. A toilet would also be placed outside

21025-466: Was used for hundreds of years; shapes, sizes, and decorative variations changed throughout the centuries. Chamber pots were in common use in Europe from ancient times, even being taken to the Middle East by medieval pilgrims. By the Early Modern era, chamber pots were frequently made of china or copper and could include elaborate decoration. They were emptied into the gutter of the street nearest to

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