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94-428: The capital city of this empire was Tollan-Xicocotitlan , while other important cities included Tulancingo and Huapalcalco . Oral traditions about the origin of Toltecs were collected by historians like Mariano de Veytia and Carlos María de Bustamante in the early 19th century. According to said accounts, there was a city named Tlachicatzin in a country ruled by the city of Huehuetlapallan, whose inhabitants called

188-417: A "medicine" that would make him younger. This medicine was just a bowl of pulque , and after tasting it, the king invited his sister, the priestess Quetzalpetlatl, to drink with him, with both getting drunk soon after. Because of their drunkenness, both siblings forgot their sacred duties and acted disgracefully, damaging their reputations. After this humiliation, Quetzalcoatl left Tollan in 947, and traveled to

282-517: A bowl of the fermented syrup, today known as pulque , as a gift for the Tlatoani of the Toltecs (in some versions Papantzin would go along with Xochitl). Tecpancaltzin fell in love with the messenger, who kept coming with more bowls of pulque from time to time. After some more visits, the tlatoani granted lands and nobility status to Papantzin, and eventually married Xochitl, who would give birth to

376-541: A boy named Meconetzin ( Child of the Maguey in nahuatl ), who became prince of Tollan. Between 900 and 950, Tollan underwent a major urban redevelopment as the original urban center, today known as Tula Chico (Little Tula), was largely abandoned in favor of a new district, where most of the main religious and political buildings, like the Palacio Quemado (Burnt Palace), were eventually located. This new district

470-645: A change from rituals performed by only a few people in closed spaces to large ceremonies to be viewed by many. These ceremonies were dominated by warriors. The major attraction of the site is Pyramid B also called the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl or of the Morning Star. It is a five-tiered structure similar to the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza . At the top of Pyramid B are four massive columns each carved in

564-802: A downfall. In these the last ruler, Quetzalcoatl, is a legendary being with archetypical qualities. Much of Toltec history was lost when Izcoatl burned the history books after founding the Aztec Empire. The planning of Tula was adopted by some Aztec city-state rulers for their urban centers. The archeological site was made a national park in 1981 by the Mexican government. The park covers an area of 1 km . Ce Acatl Topiltzin Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcōātl [seː ˈaːkat͡ɬ toˈpilt͡sin ket͡salˈkoːʷaːt͡ɬ] ( Our Prince One-Reed Precious Serpent ) (c. 895–947)

658-471: A formidable weapon against inhabitants of regions coveted by the Toltec and against enemies. Because of their skill and their bravery in battle, the Toltec were able to instill enough awe and respect among their neighbors that cities such as Tula could be built without heavy defenses incorporated into their design. Coyote, Jaguar, and eagle were some of the higher ranks of the Toltec military. The upper ranks of

752-400: A large plaza. The main ceremonial area has a number of architectural innovations that indicate societal changes. The large central plaza has space for 100,000 people. On three sides, there are long meeting halls with ceilings supported by columns all facing the plaza with over 1000 meters of benches, which have stone reliefs depicting warriors and others in procession. The architecture indicates

846-487: A legendary ruler of Tula, Ce Acatl Quetzacoatl, who was often simply referred to as Quetzalcoatl. Mythological accounts surrounding the fall of Tula have this ruler succumbing to temptation by a dark deity named Tezcatlipoca , causing the destruction of the city. The fallen ruler then wanders to the Gulf Coast, immolates himself, becoming the morning star ( Venus ). The history of the city remained important up through

940-504: A man named Huemac was the leader of the Toltecs when they arrived at Tula, while others begin the list of Toltec rulers, or tlatoani , with Chalchiutlanetzin, Mixcoamatzatzin, or even Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl . Historians like Alfredo Chavero investigated the numerous proposed lists of Toltec rulers presented in the works of authors like Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl and Juan de Torquemada , and in anonymous sources like

1034-424: A multiethnic population. The city rose to prominence after the fall of Teotihuacan and reached its height between 900 and 1150. Although Tula Grande (Big Tula) grew to be larger than anything contemporary with it, it never grew to the size of Teotihuacan. The city at its height probably covered 14 km with a population of about 60,000 with another 20,000 to 25,000 in the surrounding 1000 km , dominated by

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1128-475: A number of archeological pieces as well as posters and more explaining the site's importance and relation to the rest of Mesoamerica. The city is aligned at 17 degrees east of true north, similar to structures at Teotihuacan although the first village was aligned with true north between 700-900CE. The ceremonial center of the city is located on a limestone outcropping, with steep banks on three sides, making it defensible. War and sacrifice are prominent themes at

1222-410: A regional state. Long range contacts are indicated by the appearance of ceramics from eastern Mesoamerica, grey-green plumbate from southern Guatemala and polychrome ceramics from Costa Rica . Tula probably traded obsidian in return. The socioeconomics of Tula society is thought to have consisted of a ruling elite class, a craftsmen class, a merchant class and a large number of farm workers. Most of

1316-670: A space filled with broken columns. Building C is better known as the Burnt Palace named after evidence that it was burned. This pyramid is also surrounded by the Coatepantli or serpent wall, which was later the inspiration for a similar structure in Tenochtitlan. The earliest well-defined settlements in the Tula area appear around 400 BCE. Tula was probably settled by people of various ethnic backgrounds which may have included

1410-423: A structure. Tula did not last as long as other Mesoamerican dominions. Around 1000, there were problems created by the leaching of soil and the drying of the climate. This moved Chichimecas south from their drying homelands creating ethnic strife which eventually resulted in the city's collapse. Many of the living quarters appear to have been abandoned by 1150. It is not known when the ceremonial center fell but it

1504-462: A temple for his father, Topiltzin gets his revenge. The migration to Tollan and later to Tlapallan is involved, but this time he is told to go by Tezcatlipoca. The reason for this is because the King would not allow what Tezcatlipoca wanted, human sacrifice. So he leaves, as in the previous version, with his Toltec in tow. This third translation, which is written by French cosmographer André de Thevet ,

1598-609: Is a mythologised figure appearing in 16th-century accounts of Nahua historical traditions, where he is identified as a ruler in the 10th century of the Toltecs — by Aztec tradition their predecessors who had political control of the Valley of Mexico and surrounding region several centuries before the Aztecs themselves settled there. In later generations, he was a culture hero and figure of legend often confused or conflated with

1692-650: Is in the Tula River Valley, at the south end of the Mesquite Valley in a region that indigenous records called Teotlapan (land of the gods). This area has an elevation of between 2000 and 2200 meters above sea level, with a semi-arid climate. It has only three continuously flowing rivers and streams, the largest of which is the Tula River . There are also a number of arroyos that flow during the rainy season. The modern archeological site consists of

1786-407: Is jealous of the Toltecs' adoration for their god, and so drives out the lesser god from Tollan. During this time Quetzalcoatl and a few of his people visit many of the villages mentioned as well as others. In many of these villages he remained the chief god for centuries. Two endings exist: in one, Tezcatlipoca follows him into the desert and the smoke that rises from his dead body creates Venus. In

1880-464: Is known, however, that the Huastec and others were carried weeping into Tula, possibly as victims for sacrificial ceremonies or as doomed chattel. Most of Tula was set up in a grid plan. The buildings were made of stone with an adobe finish. The Atlantes of Tula are representations of the god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire which were used as columns to hold up the roof of the great room in

1974-488: Is not well understood, especially in its relation to its predecessor of Teotihuacan and little has been published. No detailed archeological map of the city exists. Most studies have Tula remaining after the Epiclassic cities such as Teotihuacan collapsed, becoming the major power in the early post classic, but some archeologists dispute this, putting its height earlier with the other cities. Several misconceptions about

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2068-589: Is supernatural and godlike. This final major translation was done by a Franciscan friar who compiled from native informants an extensive set of texts—collectively known as the Florentine Codex —involving the Mesoamerican pantheon. The lengthy Spanish-language version, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún , gives a unique look at Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and his subjects' lifestyle. The core structure of

2162-404: Is the most accepted. There exist few accounts of Ce Acatl's early childhood. However, all information agrees that he proved his worth first as a warrior and then as a priest to the people of Tollan . He assumed lordship over the Toltecs and migrated his people to Tollan. Reigning in peace and prosperity he contributed much to the lifestyle of the Toltecs with basic ideas such as civilization. He

2256-547: Is today known as Tula Grande (Great Tula). Also by this time, Tollan had become a magnet for migrants from the surrounding areas, giving the city a large and ethnically diverse population, with the Nonoalca and Chichimeca being the most important groups in the city. According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan , the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan was ruled by the priest-king Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl from 923 to 947. This ruler

2350-481: The Codex Chimalpopoca . According to Chavero, his research led him to conclude that most of the traditional recounts of the Toltec royalty are not reliable because they were recorded in a style similar to the medieval Chansons de geste , something that became evident once he realised that most of the reigns of the Toltec monarchs lasted 52 years, which is exactly the duration of the 52 year-long cycle of

2444-519: The Anónimo's names, while using an alternative name for the final ruler: According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan , these would be the Toltec rulers, though alternative periods may be attained by adding a calendar cycle of 52 years to each date: The Memorial Breve mentions only two Toltec rulers, and makes little note of the first one: The status of slaves in the Toltec world is not documented. It

2538-632: The Aztec Empire and is reported in the codices written after the Spanish conquest. However, most of these stories are heavy in myth. These tend to start with the Toltecs and the city of Tula, followed by the migration of the Mexica to the Valley of Mexico. The stories either portray Tula as a kind of paradise in which the inhabitants master the sciences and arts or a city filled with strife headed for

2632-557: The Bajío . Much of this is done by comparison of ceramics but this can indicate political or economic influence. At that time, Tula was a fertile region near obsidian mines and on an important trade route. Its economic base was agriculture and the mining and crafting of obsidian. It appears the craft was practiced by about half of the occupants, along with the working of travertine and ceramics, taking over this function from Teotihuacan. Tula probably did not rule an empire but may have ruled

2726-526: The Mesoamerican calendars , known in nahuatl as Xiuhmolpilli . Therefore, Chavero concluded, that most of the traditional Toltec royal accounts and exploits must be legendary in nature. According to one of those legends, during the reign of Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin , a Toltec man named Papantzin invented a type of fermented syrup made from the maguey plant. He sent his daughter Xochitl with

2820-703: The Nonoalcas and the Chichimecas from the south and north respectively. The area probably was under the political control of Teotihuacan in the Epiclassic period , according to Teotihuacan designs found on Tula pottery. The area's lime deposits were probably an important source for the plaster used in construction. At this time Tula was a small urban settlement with modest public architecture concentrated at Tula Chico (Small Tula). The constructions at Tula Chico are smaller than those in other Epiclassic sites, and

2914-516: The Yucatan Peninsula , where they would mainly settle at the city of Uxmal . Regardless of the exact date of Quetzalcoatl's death, traditional accounts indicate that at the end of the tenth century, a religious war broke between members of the cult of Tezcatlipoca and supporters of Quetzalcoatl. The adherents of Quetzalcoatl didn't favour large-scale human sacrifices, which were largely suppressed by Ce Acatl Topiltzin during his reign, while

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3008-508: The Yucatán Peninsula , and had adopted the religious teachings of the Toltecs. As they traveled southwards, some followers of Ce Acatl Topiltzin seem to have followed his example and adopted the name "Quetzalcoatl" and its Maya equivalents, " Kukulkan " and " Q'uq'umatz ", for themselves. According to Mexican historian Miguel León-Portilla , these new "Quetzalcoatl" leaders often led their own followers into military actions against

3102-576: The central highlands of Mexico , but it is generally overshadowed by its predecessor Teotihuacan and one of its successors, Tenochtitlan. The name Tula is derived from the Nahuatl phrase Tollan Xicocotitlan, which means 'near the cattails '. However, the Aztecs applied the term Tollan to mean 'urban center', and it was also used to indicate other sites such as Teotihuacan, Cholula and Tenochtitlan. The inhabitants of Tula were called Toltecs, but that term

3196-512: The Aztecs' rulers still lost their status and the Aztec people were not freed from oppression. As the Spanish conquered Mesoamerica they destroyed countless works concerning and pre-dating the Aztecs, and the story of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was almost lost. Only relatively recently have accurate translations of much of the information about Topiltzin been made available. Unfortunately, even

3290-643: The Itza people had already embraced Toltec teachings before moving to Yucatan; also, according to Mexican historian Miguel León-Portilla , many of the references to leaders with the name "Quetzalcoatl", "Kukulkan" or "Q'uq'umatz" in the Maya sources may not even refer to Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl himself, but to some of his followers and their disciples who also took the name of the Feathered Serpent deity for themselves. Chichen Itza would eventually become

3384-542: The Mayan peoples. The exploits of these personages had become source of misunderstandings and confusion for researchers over centuries, as they are often confused with Ce Acatl Topiltzin himself. The ethno-religious conflicts between the Nonoalca and the Chichimeca , along with the great famine that affected Tollan between 1070 and 1077, led to a series of important migrations from Tollan to other parts of Mesoamerica in

3478-481: The Spaniards. The Aztec may have truly believed that they were seeing the return of the famous priest when the white-skinned Hernán Cortés landed on their shores in 1519. He came from across the sea to the east, wearing brilliant armor (like that which the deity Quetzalcoatl is often shown wearing), accompanied by four men (possibly believed to be the other four progenitors of the Mesoamerican people that survived

3572-526: The Toltec army wore cotton armor, heavily padded to deflect enemy, arrows and spears, with breastplates, in the form of coyotes, jaguars or eagles if the warrior belonged to the order of one of these animal totems. A round shield was carried into battle, and the swords were fastened with belts. A short kilt protected the lower half of the torso, and the legs and ankles were covered with sandals and straps. Quetzal plumes decorated warriors' helmets, and skins, plumage and other materials probably were used as emblems of

3666-901: The Toltec nobility. Toltec heritage became the standard of the nobility in most of Mesoamerica. Because of this, many rulers of later kingdoms and empires would claim Toltec lineage as a way to legitimize their power, including the Aztec emperors, the Mixtec kings in Oaxaca, and the K'iche' and Kakchiquel rulers in Guatemala. Pre-Columbian and Colonial documents describe the Toltec rulers, but most of those accounts are legendary in nature, and therefore not historically reliable. Some lists include figures such as Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and queen Xochitl as rulers, but most of them omit them. According to Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl , these would be

3760-477: The Toltec rulers: According to the author of the Anónimo Mexicano , all but one of the rulers of Tollan ruled for 52 years, and the only exception had instead produced a council interregnum after her short rule. Thus, the author names the following Toltec rulers: Francisco Javier Clavijero provides a very similar list, modifying only the starting and ending years and using Ixtlilxochitl's version of

3854-408: The Toltecs have been disputed by archaeologists and historians like Manuel Gamio , Enrique Florescano and Laurette Séjourné ; who had identified the Toltec city of Tollan with Teotihuacan , although this hypothesis has been criticized by many scholars, most notably historian Miguel León-Portilla . According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan , the Toltec people came to be in the year 1-rabbit (674),

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3948-599: The Toltecs were defeated in 1116. After this defeat, Huemac , the priest-king of Tollan, abandoned the city along with other Toltecs and headed south, to the city of Xaltocan , in the Valley of Mexico . Soon, the king would be abandoned by his closest followers, who chose a man called Nauhyotl as their leader; while the majority of the Toltecs would split in smaller groups and begin their diaspora across Mesoamerica. In 1122, shortly after being betrayed by his followers, Huemac hanged himself in Chapultepec , and by 1150, Tula

4042-685: The Yucatan peninsula at the time were: The Chupícuaro culture was important due to the influence it had in the area. It is possible it spread to southern United States around 500 BCE. There are theories that the first Guanajuato inhabitants belonged to this culture. The city of Chupícuaro was inhabited between 800 BCE and 1200 CE. Chupícuaro developed in a vast territory in, Guanajuato , Michoacán , Guerrero , Mexico State , Hidalgo , Colima , Nayarit , Querétaro and Zacatecas . The Toltec were skilled in battle, ferocious and highly trained. A standing army, garrisons, forts and reserve units comprised

4136-424: The adherents of Tezcatlipoca regarded them as an essential part of their religion. Also, the supporters of Quetzalcoatl and his reforms were mostly of Nonoalca background while the supporters of the cult of Tezcatlipoca were mostly of Chichimeca background. According to Diego Durán , the conflict was brief, but eventually a second war between the two groups broke out. This war lasted from 1046 to 1110, and ended with

4230-403: The ancient standards of the gods; he had the Toltec offer them snakes, birds and other animals, but not humans, as sacrifices. To prove his penance, to atone for the earlier sins of his people, and to appease the debt owed to the gods (created by lack of tribute of human blood) he also created the cult of the serpent. This cult insisted that the practitioners bleed themselves to satiate the needs of

4324-422: The briefest translation. In this version, the deeds of Quetzalcoatl's (here named Ce Acatl) father, the war god Mixcoatl (here named Camaxtli ), are highlighted. It explains how Mixcoatl meets the unknown mother, who dies after giving birth to Ce Acatl. Once Ce Acatl emerges from manhood, he spends seven years upon the mountains offering penance (for his sins) to the gods and performs ritual bloodletting asking

4418-548: The ceremonial center of Tula Grande, an area called Tula Chico, the Jorge R. Acosta site museum and the Guadalupe Mastache Orientation center. The museum is at the entrance to the site and is named after one of the archeologists who worked on the site for years. The interior is organized into various sections and contains sculpted stone works as well as human remains. The Orientation center also contains

4512-541: The ceremonial center of Tula Grande. Urban and rural house units indicated the importance of extended family groups but the scale of these seemed to have become smaller over time. Tula had defensive fortification at Las Ranas and Toluquilla against the Chichimecas. Its political sphere is thought to include most of the present state of Hidalgo, into the Valley of Mexico and possibly into the Toluca Valley and

4606-484: The city of Tula de Allende in the Tula Valley, in what is now the southwest of the Mexican state of Hidalgo , northwest of Mexico City . The archeological site consists of a museum, remains of an earlier settlement called Tula Chico as well as the main ceremonial site called Tula Grande. The main attraction is the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl , which is topped by four 4-metre-high (13 ft) basalt columns carved in

4700-410: The city's political sphere is in dispute. There are no written records and the archeological evidence is scant. There is evidence of Tula influence in other parts of Mesoamerica, mostly seen in pottery in Tula and in other areas. One of the most debated questions is what, if any, relationship there might be between Tula and Chichén Itzá far to the south in the Yucatán Peninsula . The idea comes from

4794-464: The comparatively complete accounts are but a portion of the story. Much of the information varies from region to region and has changed through the course of time (as myths are apt to do). Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is usually seen with a plumed headpiece, a curved baton (the chicoacolli ) and a feather rimmed shield with the ehecacozcatl (wind jewel) emblem on it. Five major sources discuss the mythical history and origin of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl. While

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4888-418: The decline of Teotihuacan, there was a power vacuum with city states dominating small regions. Tula ceramics change during this period, as styles and techniques come under new influences. At the same time, settlement patterns of the area significantly changed with occupation mostly on hilltops and high hillsides. Architecture and pottery show influence from the west and north, with some from the east, suggesting

4982-607: The defeat of the followers of Quetzalcoatl. Because of the violence, many of those who supported Ce Acatl Topiltzin fled Tollan, with a sizeable portion of these exiles heading towards the Maya cultural area. According to Mexican archaeologist Román Piña Chan , the cult of Quetzalcoatl (known as Kukulkan in Yucatan) was introduced in the region by the Itza around 987 AD. The Itza were a group of mixed Putún Maya and Toltec descent, which had welcomed immigrants from Tollan time moving into

5076-522: The direct descendants of the Priest-King, they had the right and duty to hold his place until the day Topiltzin would return. The myths would prove to have a lasting effect on the Aztec empire. They rationalized the mass sacrifices that were already destabilizing the empire when the first Spaniards arrived. The stories of Topiltzin further expedited the collapse of the Aztec nation by sheer coincidence; they described him as having an incredible likeness to

5170-572: The east, to the mythical land of Tlapallan , which according to tradition was located on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . There, Quetzalcoatl took a canoe and immolated himself. Some authors, like Mexican historian Vicente Riva Palacio , argue that Quetzalcoatl died earlier, in 931; and that said event would trigger political instability in Tollan, eventually leading to an important migration of Toltecs to other parts of Mesoamerica around 981, especially to

5264-403: The fact that there are similarities in various art and architectural styles. It is certain that neither could have conquered the other, but there is evidence that they may have been connected through trade networks. By the time of the Spanish conquest, Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent deity was widely worshipped from what is now central Mexico down into Central America . The god is linked to

5358-489: The farm workers were outside Tula proper with most of the other classes in the city. Excavations in the area have found evidence of the cultivation of chili peppers, amaranth, squash and maguey along with corn and beans. A number of wild plants were harvested including mesquite beans and cactus fruit. There is evidence of domesticated turkey and dog. Irrigated corn was the most important crop with anywhere from 3000 to 10000 hectares cultivated. It may not have been enough to feed

5452-461: The god's temple. Some of the most famous Toltec sculptures are the Atlanteans of Tula. These monoliths measure just over 4.5 meters high. They are carved in stone basalt, and are representations of the Toltec god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire. They are clothed in butterfly breastplates. Their weapons are atlatls , darts , knives of flint, and curved weapon that are characteristic of

5546-577: The gods to make him a great warrior—ritual bloodletting by rulers was long a feature of Mesoamerican religions. Once this time passes, he begins to wage war and becomes the leader of Tollan and the Toltecs. His reign is peaceful and productive, lasting 42 years. Within the last four years, the known archenemy of Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca (although it is not specified in this version), tells him he must leave in four years to Tlapallan to die. Thus, in four years, Quetzacoatl leaves, but takes his adoring Toltecs with him. Stopping at many different villages along

5640-655: The idea that the Native Americans believed the conquerors to be gods: most notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Geronimo Mendieta (Martínez 1980). Some Franciscans at this time held millennarian beliefs (Phelan 1956), and the natives taking the Spanish conquerors for gods was an idea that went well with this theology. Some scholars still hold the view that the fall of the Aztec empire can in part be attributed to Moctezuma's belief in Cortés as

5734-665: The important Mesoamerican deity Quetzalcoatl . According to legend in El Salvador , the city of Cuzcatlán (the capital city of the Pipil/Cuzcatlecs) was founded by the exiled Toltec Ce Acatl Topiltzin. Topiltzin Cē Ācatl Quetzalcōatl was the Lord of the Toltecs and their major city Tōllan . One version of the story is that he was born in the 10th century, during the year and day-sign "1 Acatl," correlated to date May 13 of

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5828-452: The lack of interest in relaying the story in its entirety. The second translations were written by a group of Franciscan friars in 1532 and translated from original text. They are known collectively as the Libro de oro y tesoro indico . In the friars' translation Topiltzin is the son of Totepeuh , who is the leader of Teocolhuacan . His brother-in-law kills his father but after building

5922-481: The large population. There is an unoccupied area varying from one to three km wide which was probably agricultural. It has been proposed that the area received more rainfall during the Classic period than now which may have allowed for more large scale agricultural production without irrigation. It is probable that they had a form of hieroglyphic writing system, but no evidence exists except for an occasional glyph on

6016-635: The largest city in Yucatan with a population of at least 50,000 people. Almost as many people as lived in Coba during the classic period. In the mid-eighth century, the Classic Maya civilization began to collapse . Around 925, about the same the time in which the Toltecs began to migrate to the Maya area, most of the major Maya cities in the Yucatán Peninsula had already been abandoned due to food shortages and peasant revolts Some Maya cities in

6110-461: The late 11th century and early 12th century. One of these groups of Toltec exiles eventually took over the city of Cholula , in the present-day Mexican state of Puebla , around 1200 According to Durán , in 1115, tribes from the north (probably Chichimecas , Otomi or Huastecs ) attacked the domains of Tollan. After a series of brutal battles at the villages of Nextalpan and Texcalapan , in which both sides took and sacrificed numerous prisoners,

6204-399: The likeness of Toltec warriors which once supported the roof of the temple on top of the pyramid. Each warrior figure is of basalt, four meters high, with an atlatl or spear thrower, incense, a butterfly shaped chest plate and a back plate in the shape of a solar disk. A large vestibule fronts the pyramid and connects it to nearby buildings. Today this vestibule and building (Building C) are

6298-415: The massacre before coming to earth as Topiltzin’s messengers). The Spanish arrival terrified the ruling class. They feared they would be exposed as frauds and, at the very least, lose their ruling status to Topiltzin. Conversely the oppressed Aztec people, taxed and forced to wage war for sacrifices, hoped that these arrivals would bring a new era of peace and enlightenment (Carrasco 2000:145-152). Ultimately

6392-511: The name was used by other elite figures to keep a line of succession and was also used by the Mexica to more easily rule over the Toltecs. According to the Florentine Codex , which was written under the direction of the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún , the Aztecs had a legend that Quetzalcoatl would one day return, and Emperor Moctezuma II mistook Hernán Cortés for Quetzalcoatl. Other parties have also propagated

6486-529: The netherworld. It also demanded that all priests remain celibate and did not allow intoxication of any kind (representing the two major sins to which the original 400 Mixcohua succumbed). These edicts and his personal purity of spirit caused Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl to be beloved by his vassals and revered for generations. The representation of the priestly ruler became so important that subsequent rulers would claim direct descent from Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl in order to legitimize their monarchies. Once he left Tollan,

6580-497: The other, he simply flees to Tlapallan once again. This translation is probably the most comprehensive version, because of the slight variations that are not seen in the others. A Nahua native wrote the fourth translation, the Leyenda de los soles . It's very similar to the first translation, but it gives an in-depth account of Mixcoatl's adventures especially his meeting with Quetzalcoatl's mother. It also states that Quetzalcoatl

6674-412: The particular god or order that they served. The fact that the warriors depicted wore nose ornaments indicates that they were of noble rank. Some of the warriors wore beards. Tula (Mesoamerican site) 20°3′50.96″N 99°20′26.89″W  /  20.0641556°N 99.3408028°W  / 20.0641556; -99.3408028 Tula ( Otomi : Mämeni ) is a Mesoamerican archeological site, which

6768-524: The people of Tlachicatzin " Toltecah ", for their fame as dexterous artisans. In 583, led by two notables named Chalcaltzin and Tlacamihtzin, the Toltecah rebelled against their overlords in Huehuetlapallan and after thirteen years of resistance they ended up fleeing Tlachicatzin. Some of the Toltecah later founded a new settlement called Tlapallanconco in 604. These narrations about the origin of

6862-408: The rest of the Mesoamerican period and on into the colonial period. According to Bernardino de Sahagún , craftspeople were still found in Tula at the time of the conquest including scribes, stonecutters, masons, feather workers, potters and more. The site was determined to be that of Tollan and the Toltecs after ethnographic studies and archeological work from the 1950s to the 1970s. However, Tula

6956-427: The returning Quetzalcoatl, but most modern scholars see the "Quetzalcoatl/Cortés myth" as one of many myths about the Spanish conquest which originated in the early post-conquest period. The tales end with Topiltzin traveling across Mesoamerica founding small communities and giving all the features their respective names. The Aztecs believed that Topiltzin's search for his holy resting place eventually led him across

7050-468: The sea to the east, from whence he vowed to return one day and reclaim Cholula (Chimalpahin, Motolinia, Ixtlilxochitl, Codice Rios). Other sources insist that Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl would not return but that he would send representatives to warn or possibly pass judgment on those inhabiting the land (Las Casas, Mendieta, Veytia). Aztec rulers used the myth of the great founder of Tollan to help legitimize their claims to seats of power. They claimed that, as

7144-403: The shape of Toltec warriors. Tula fell around 1150, but it had significant influence in the following Aztec Empire , with its history written about heavily in myth. The feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl is linked to this city, whose worship was widespread from central Mexico to Central America at the time the Spanish arrived. The Tula site is important to the history of Mesoamerica, especially

7238-473: The site include that it has no system of avenues, was relatively poor, had no walled residential complexes and had only small mound clusters. It did have a grid system but it had several major reorientations. Large residential complexes have been unearthed just outside the ceremonial center. The elite also had access to much of the finest handcrafted items then available in Mesoamerica. The size and nature of

7332-406: The site with images representing warriors such as jaguars and coyotes as well as eagles eating human hearts. There are also images of serpents eating skeletal figures and skulls in various areas. The main structures of the ceremonial center include two pyramids, including with the atlas figures , two main Mesoamerican ballcourts and several large buildings, one with a series of columns which faced

7426-466: The stories provided by these sources may conflict somewhat, they provide insight into the different uses of the name Quetzalcoatl. The first source was produced by an unknown Spaniard which was later named the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas . This version was copied from a pre-Hispanic text around 1531 and could possibly be the oldest recreation of the codices . It is also considered to be

7520-491: The two cities has raised several hypotheses about the nature of the links between the two, although none of them have the full support of the specialists in the field. In the 19th century, French archaeologist Désiré Charnay was the first person who pointed out that the main plazas of Tula and Chichen Itza were similar, a fact that led him to postulate that the city could have been conquered by Toltecs led by Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who Charnay referred as Kukulkan . This hypothesis

7614-568: The warrior representations in the Toltec culture. The monumental Atlanteans are at the top of the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecutli (also called "Morning Star"), wherefrom which all the main plaza can be seen; these sculptures are characterized by their large size and detail. The Toltecs founded colonies in Veracruz. One of the most controversial topics involving the Toltecs is what their relationship with Chichen Itza was. The similarities between

7708-420: The way, he leaves some of his people behind at each one until he arrives at Tlapallan where he dies the next day. Somewhat unusual to this version is the epilogue of how Tollan does not find a leader for some years after. Tollan is later conquered and all the Toltecs are sacrificed. As mentioned before, this version is brief, most probably due to the Spaniards' inability to fully translate the text, or alternatively

7802-418: The year 895, allegedly in what is now the town of Tepoztlán . According to various sources, he had four different possible fathers, the most popular of which is Mixcōatl ("Cloud Serpent"), the god of war, fire, and the hunt, and presumably also an earlier Toltec king—Mesoamerican leaders and high-priests sometimes took the names of the deity who was their patron. His mother is at times unnamed, but Chimalman

7896-499: The year they set up a theocracy to govern themselves, which was later reformed into a monarchy around the year 700 with the enthronement of Mimixcoamazatzin. (Some authors such as John Bierhorst have translated the Anales de Cuauhtitlan as stating that the Toltecs arrived in Tula in 726 and created their monarchy in 752). The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several pre-Columbian and Colonial sources, although there are contradictions in most of them. Some sources say that

7990-470: Was an important regional center which reached its height as the capital of the Toltec Empire between the fall of Teotihuacan and the rise of Tenochtitlan . It has not been well studied in comparison to these other two sites, and disputes remain as to its political system, area of influence and its relations with contemporary Mesoamerican cities, especially with Chichen Itza . The site is located in

8084-457: Was born in the year 895 at Michatlauhco, a place which according to Mexican archaeologist Wigberto Jiménez Moreno could be located near the present-day town of Tepoztlán , in the Mexican state of Morelos . Quetzalcoatl was regarded as a wise and benevolent ruler, who made Tollan a "prosperous city in which their inhabitants -the Toltecs- were endowed with great qualities". At the same time he

8178-428: Was burned and the pyramids destroyed. There is evidence of the ceremonial center being burned in the 12th century. Ethnohistoric sources mention other rulers and a king list was developed from them. The chronology dates the destruction of Tula around 1179 while under the rule of Ce Acatl Topilitzin. However this story has been disputed. After the end of Tula, the site was looted, but it continued to be occupied through

8272-460: Was defended in the 20th century by Herbert Joseph Spinden, an art historian who became obsessed with the idea and often used pseudo-historical sources to back his claim about a conquest of the Itza Maya by Quetzalcoatl. The conquest hypothesis of Charnay and Spinden has been largely abandoned in modern archaeology as more evidence suggests that instead of a conquest of Chichen Itza by the Toltecs,

8366-541: Was generally considered a god upon earth by his followers with similar powers to those of his namesake. According to legend, the most accepted fate of the man-god was that during the year "1 Acatl" or 947, and at the age of 53 he migrated to the Gulf coast Tlapallan where he took a canoe and burned himself. He dispelled the traditions of the past and ended all human sacrifice during his reign. The translations claim that he loved his people so much he insisted that they only meet

8460-453: Was later broadened to mean an urban person, artisan or skilled worker. This was due to the high respect in which the indigenous peoples in the Valley of Mexico held the ancient civilization before the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire . What remains of the ancient city is located in the southwest of what is now the state of Hidalgo, 75 km north of Mexico City. Geographically, it

8554-415: Was probably a minor player in the political and economic activity of the time. Tula Chico's occupation is from 650 to 900. From 650 to 750, Tula Chico developed, and at its height spanned five to six km , parts of which may be buried under Tula Grande. The population was somewhere between 19,000 and 27,000 at its height. Tula Chico was abandoned between 850 and 900CE, and Tula Grande began to develop. After

8648-426: Was regarded as a holy and pious man, who engaged regularly in acts of penance. Cē Ācatl Topiltzin preached against the practice of human sacrifices , arguing that the supreme deity whose name he took for himself wasn't pleased with the practice of ritual killings. According to Bernardino de Sahagún , one day, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was visited by an elderly man (said to be Tezcatlipoca in disguise) who offered him

8742-479: Was translated from a lost Spanish version in the sixteenth century. In this version, Quetzalcoatl is son to Camaxtli and Chimalman ; his mother still died after birth. This time, he has brothers who are bent on killing him, but he eludes them twice. After they kill their father, he kills them in a series of side stories. He becomes the ruler, migrates to Tollan, and is believed to be a sorcerer god ruling for 160 years. Later, he encounters Tezcatlipoca once again, who

8836-427: Was virtually abandoned. Some Toltecs would remain around the ruins of their former capital, where they would be under the rule of Culhuacán , a nearby city-state. After the fall and abandonment of Tollan in the 12th century, the former Toltec dominions would be ruled by numerous smaller city-states, which are known as altepetl in nahuatl , most of which would be ruled by descendants (both real and self-proclaimed) of

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