109-737: Tantrasamgraha , or Tantrasangraha , (literally, A Compilation of the System ) is an important astronomical treatise written by Nilakantha Somayaji , an astronomer / mathematician belonging to the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics . The treatise was completed in 1501 CE. It consists of 432 verses in Sanskrit divided into eight chapters. Tantrasamgraha had spawned a few commentaries: Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya of anonymous authorship and Yuktibhāṣā authored by Jyeshtadeva in about 1550 CE. Tantrasangraha, together with its commentaries, bring forth
218-448: A binary black hole . A second gravitational wave was detected on 26 December 2015 and additional observations should continue but gravitational waves require extremely sensitive instruments. The combination of observations made using electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos or gravitational waves and other complementary information, is known as multi-messenger astronomy . One of the oldest fields in astronomy, and in all of science,
327-462: A table of sines . The Arya-siddhanta , a lost work on astronomical computations, is known through the writings of Aryabhata's contemporary, Varahamihira , and later mathematicians and commentators, including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I . This work appears to be based on the older Surya Siddhanta and uses the midnight-day reckoning, as opposed to sunrise in Aryabhatiya . It also contained
436-654: A commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya , Nilakantha developed a computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars , Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun , which in turn orbits the Earth , similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted this planetary model. A Conference to celebrate
545-423: A description of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon ( shanku-yantra ), a shadow instrument ( chhAyA-yantra ), possibly angle-measuring devices, semicircular and circular ( dhanur-yantra / chakra-yantra ), a cylindrical stick yasti-yantra , an umbrella-shaped device called the chhatra-yantra , and water clocks of at least two types, bow-shaped and cylindrical. A third text, which may have survived in
654-562: A few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10% of gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars, neutron stars , and black hole candidates such as active galactic nuclei. In addition to electromagnetic radiation, a few other events originating from great distances may be observed from the Earth. In neutrino astronomy , astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE , GALLEX , and Kamioka II/III for
763-552: A model allows astronomers to select between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists also modify existing models to take into account new observations. In some cases, a large amount of observational data that is inconsistent with a model may lead to abandoning it largely or completely, as for geocentric theory , the existence of luminiferous aether , and the steady-state model of cosmic evolution. Phenomena modeled by theoretical astronomers include: Modern theoretical astronomy reflects dramatic advances in observation since
872-491: A name. His disciple Bhaskara I calls it Ashmakatantra (or the treatise from the Ashmaka). It is also occasionally referred to as Arya-shatas-aShTa (literally, Aryabhata's 108), because there are 108 verses in the text. It is written in the very terse style typical of sutra literature, in which each line is an aid to memory for a complex system. Thus, the explication of meaning is due to commentators. The text consists of
981-671: A number of important astronomers. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336) made major contributions to astronomy and horology , including the invention of the first astronomical clock, the Rectangulus which allowed for the measurement of angles between planets and other astronomical bodies, as well as an equatorium called the Albion which could be used for astronomical calculations such as lunar , solar and planetary longitudes and could predict eclipses . Nicole Oresme (1320–1382) and Jean Buridan (1300–1361) first discussed evidence for
1090-578: A repeating cycle known as a saros . Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos estimated the size and distance of the Moon and Sun , and he proposed a model of
1199-450: A sign of an underlying heliocentric model. Solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata. He states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by Rahu and Ketu (identified as the pseudo-planetary lunar nodes ), he explains eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. Thus,
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#17327761131631308-401: A smaller manda (slow) and a larger śīghra (fast). The order of the planets in terms of distance from earth is taken as: the Moon , Mercury , Venus , the Sun , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and the asterisms . The positions and periods of the planets was calculated relative to uniformly moving points. In the case of Mercury and Venus, they move around the Earth at the same mean speed as
1417-608: A substantial amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter , dark energy , and black holes ; whether or not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe . Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution ; stellar dynamics and evolution ; galaxy formation and evolution ; magnetohydrodynamics ; large-scale structure of matter in
1526-624: A symbol for zero , the French mathematician Georges Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was implicit in Aryabhata's place-value system as a place holder for the powers of ten with null coefficients . However, Aryabhata did not use the Brahmi numerals. Continuing the Sanskritic tradition from Vedic times , he used letters of the alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities, such as
1635-460: A visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752) were long by 68 seconds. Considered in modern English units of time, Aryabhata calculated the sidereal rotation (the rotation of the earth referencing the fixed stars) as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds;
1744-427: Is visible light , or more generally electromagnetic radiation . Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields
1853-590: Is a branch of astronomy that studies the universe as a whole. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made methodical observations of the night sky . These include the Egyptians , Babylonians , Greeks , Indians , Chinese , Maya , and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas . In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry , celestial navigation , observational astronomy , and
1962-584: Is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, requiring observations at these wavelengths to be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars ( OB stars ) that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae , supernova remnants , and active galactic nuclei. However, as ultraviolet light
2071-595: Is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may have housed astronomical observatories. In Post-classical West Africa , Astronomers studied the movement of stars and relation to seasons, crafting charts of the heavens as well as precise diagrams of orbits of the other planets based on complex mathematical calculations. Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583. Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in sub-Saharan Africa during
2180-437: Is also well-known for his description of relativity of motion. He expressed this relativity thus: "Just as a man in a boat moving forward sees the stationary objects (on the shore) as moving backward, just so are the stationary stars seen by the people on earth as moving exactly towards the west." The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd-century Bakhshali Manuscript , was clearly in place in his work. While he did not use
2289-583: Is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data , and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories . This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems , origins of organic compounds in space , rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary habitability , research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on
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#17327761131632398-472: Is called the kuṭṭaka (कुट्टक) method. Kuṭṭaka means "pulverizing" or "breaking into small pieces", and the method involves a recursive algorithm for writing the original factors in smaller numbers. This algorithm became the standard method for solving first-order diophantine equations in Indian mathematics, and initially the whole subject of algebra was called kuṭṭaka-gaṇita or simply kuṭṭaka . In Aryabhatiya , Aryabhata provided elegant results for
2507-427: Is easily absorbed by interstellar dust , an adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary. X-ray astronomy uses X-ray wavelengths . Typically, X-ray radiation is produced by synchrotron emission (the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines), thermal emission from thin gases above 10 (10 million) kelvins , and thermal emission from thick gases above 10 Kelvin. Since X-rays are absorbed by
2616-486: Is equal to the zenith distance of the Sun at noon on the equinoctial day . The effect of solar parallax on zenith distance was known to Indian astronomers right from Aryabhata . But it was Nilakantha Somayaji who first discussed the effect of solar parallax on the observer's latitude. Tantrasamgraha gives the magnitude of this correction and also a correction due to the finite size of the Sun. In his Aryabhatiyabhasya ,
2725-414: Is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation, wavelengths longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as planets, circumstellar disks or nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light, allowing
2834-464: Is from these clouds that solar systems form. Studies in this field contribute to the understanding of the formation of the Solar System , Earth's origin and geology, abiogenesis , and the origin of climate and oceans. Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the origins , early evolution , distribution, and future of life in the universe . Astrobiology considers
2943-416: Is given below. Radio astronomy uses radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one millimeter, outside the visible range. Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be treated as waves rather than as discrete photons . Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves, whereas this
3052-645: Is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths. Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission , most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation , which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields . Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas , notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths. A wide variety of other objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including supernovae , interstellar gas, pulsars , and active galactic nuclei . Infrared astronomy
3161-475: Is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an active role . This is especially true for the discovery and observation of transient events . Amateur astronomers have helped with many important discoveries, such as finding new comets. Astronomy (from the Greek ἀστρονομία from ἄστρον astron , "star" and -νομία -nomia from νόμος nomos , "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of
3270-456: Is speculated that Aryabhata used the word āsanna (approaching), to mean that not only is this an approximation but that the value is incommensurable (or irrational ). If this is correct, it is quite a sophisticated insight, because the irrationality of pi (π) was proved in Europe only in 1761 by Lambert . After Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic (c. 820 CE), this approximation
3379-488: Is the Sun's azimuth and the angle at the north pole which is the Sun's hour angle . The problem is to compute two of these elements when the other three elements are specified. There are precisely ten different possibilities and Tantrasamgraha contains discussions of all these possibilities with complete solutions one by one in one place . "The spherical triangle is handled as systematically here as in any modern textbook." The terrestrial latitude of an observer's position
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3488-431: Is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain the nature of the astronomical objects , rather than their positions or motions in space". Among the objects studied are the Sun , other stars , galaxies , extrasolar planets , the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background . Their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , and
3597-453: Is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects. Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars . Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational perturbations , and an ability to determine past and future positions of
3706-513: Is the only one which survives. Much of the research included subjects in astronomy, mathematics, physics, biology, medicine, and other fields. Aryabhatiya , a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The mathematical part of the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic , algebra , plane trigonometry , and spherical trigonometry . It also contains continued fractions , quadratic equations , sums-of- power series , and
3815-609: The Arabic translation, is Al ntf or Al-nanf . It claims that it is a translation by Aryabhata, but the Sanskrit name of this work is not known. Probably dating from the 9th century, it is mentioned by the Persian scholar and chronicler of India, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī . Direct details of Aryabhata's work are known only from the Aryabhatiya . The name "Aryabhatiya" is due to later commentators. Aryabhata himself may not have given it
3924-484: The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes . The Cherenkov telescopes do not detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Most gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts , objects which only produce gamma radiation for
4033-473: The Earth's atmosphere , all X-ray observations must be performed from high-altitude balloons , rockets , or X-ray astronomy satellites . Notable X-ray sources include X-ray binaries , pulsars , supernova remnants , elliptical galaxies , clusters of galaxies , and active galactic nuclei . Gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as
4142-469: The Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE), was particularly influential. Some of his results are cited by Al-Khwarizmi and in the 10th century Al-Biruni stated that Aryabhata's followers believed that the Earth rotated on its axis. His definitions of sine ( jya ), cosine ( kojya ), versine ( utkrama-jya ), and inverse sine ( otkram jya ) influenced the birth of trigonometry . He
4251-977: The Milky Way , as its own group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe . In 1919, when the Hooker Telescope was completed, the prevailing view was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid variables in several spiral nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum among others, were entire galaxies outside our own, thus proving that
4360-794: The Muslim world by the early 9th century. In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy , the largest galaxy in the Local Group , was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars . The SN 1006 supernova , the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers in 1006. Iranian scholar Al-Biruni observed that, contrary to Ptolemy ,
4469-454: The Narmada and Godavari rivers in central India. It has been claimed that the aśmaka (Sanskrit for "stone") where Aryabhata originated may be the present day Kodungallur which was the historical capital city of Thiruvanchikkulam of ancient Kerala. This is based on the belief that Koṭuṅṅallūr was earlier known as Koṭum-Kal-l-ūr ("city of hard stones"); however, old records show that
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4578-561: The Renaissance , Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system. His work was defended by Galileo Galilei and expanded upon by Johannes Kepler . Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was Isaac Newton , with his invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation , who finally explained
4687-561: The Solar System where the Earth and planets rotated around the Sun, now called the heliocentric model. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession , calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe . Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy. The Antikythera mechanism ( c. 150 –80 BC)
4796-799: The Tables of Toledo (12th century) and remained the most accurate ephemeris used in Europe for centuries. Calendric calculations devised by Aryabhata and his followers have been in continuous use in India for the practical purposes of fixing the Panchangam (the Hindu calendar ). In the Islamic world, they formed the basis of the Jalali calendar introduced in 1073 CE by a group of astronomers including Omar Khayyam , versions of which (modified in 1925) are
4905-427: The interstellar medium . The study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites , is also called cosmochemistry , while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it
5014-404: The zenith , the celestial north pole and the Sun is called the astronomical triangle . Its sides and two of its angles are important astronomical quantities. The sides are 90° – φ where φ is the observer's terrestrial latitude , 90° – δ where δ is the Sun's declination and 90° – a where a is the Sun's altitude above the horizon . The important angles are the angle at the zenith which
5123-459: The " bhatta " suffix, his name is properly spelled Aryabhata: every astronomical text spells his name thus, including Brahmagupta 's references to him "in more than a hundred places by name". Furthermore, in most instances "Aryabhatta" would not fit the metre either. Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that he was 23 years old 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga , but this is not to mean that
5232-442: The 108 verses and 13 introductory verses, and is divided into four pāda s or chapters: The Aryabhatiya presented a number of innovations in mathematics and astronomy in verse form, which were influential for many centuries. The extreme brevity of the text was elaborated in commentaries by his disciple Bhaskara I ( Bhashya , c. 600 CE) and by Nilakantha Somayaji in his Aryabhatiya Bhasya (1465 CE). Aryabhatiya
5341-442: The 1990s, including studies of the cosmic microwave background , distant supernovae and galaxy redshifts , which have led to the development of a standard model of cosmology . This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations. Astrophysics
5450-672: The 500th Anniversary of Tantrasangraha was organised by the Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Madras, in collaboration with the Inter-University Centre of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, during 11–13 March 2000, at Chennai. The Conference turned out to be an important occasion for highlighting and reviewing the recent work on the achievements in Mathematics and Astronomy of
5559-403: The Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties", while "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena". In some cases, as in the introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical Universe by Frank Shu , "astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of
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#17327761131635668-457: The Kerala school and the new perspectives in History of Science, which are emerging from these studies. A compilation of the important papers presented at this Conference has also been published. The following is a brief description of the other works by Nilakantha Somayaji. Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in
5777-527: The Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include Al-Battani , Thebit , Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi , Biruni , Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī , Al-Birjandi , and the astronomers of the Maragheh and Samarkand observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars . It
5886-584: The Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system , named after Ptolemy . A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians , who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in
5995-409: The Sun. In the case of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, they move around the Earth at specific speeds, representing each planet's motion through the zodiac. Most historians of astronomy consider that this two-epicycle model reflects elements of pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy . Another element in Aryabhata's model, the śīghrocca , the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun, is seen by some historians as
6104-535: The age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe. Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars , which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars , pulsars , blazars , and radio galaxies . Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century. In the early 1900s the model of the Big Bang theory
6213-409: The apparent motions of the heavens to the Earth's rotation . He may have believed that the planet's orbits are elliptical rather than circular. Aryabhata correctly insisted that the Earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth, contrary to the then-prevailing view, that the sky rotated. This is indicated in
6322-486: The atmosphere itself produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places on Earth or in space. Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This allows the study of the chemistry of space; more specifically it can detect water in comets. Historically, optical astronomy, which has been also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy. Images of observations were originally drawn by hand. In
6431-576: The author of Tantrasamgraha, was a Nambudiri belonging to the Gargya gotra and a resident of Trikkantiyur, near Tirur in central Kerala . The name of his Illam was Kelallur. He studied under Damodara , son of Paramesvara . The first and the last verses in Tantrasamgraha contain chronograms specifying the dates, in the form Kali days, of the commencement and of the completion of book. These work out to dates in 1500–01. A brief account of
6540-496: The basis of astronomical evidence. Aryabhata mentions "Lanka" on several occasions in the Aryabhatiya , but his "Lanka" is an abstraction, standing for a point on the equator at the same longitude as his Ujjayini . It is fairly certain that, at some point, he went to Kusumapura for advanced studies and lived there for some time. Both Hindu and Buddhist tradition, as well as Bhāskara I (CE 629), identify Kusumapura as Pāṭaliputra , modern Patna . A verse mentions that Aryabhata
6649-425: The circumference of a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached." This implies that for a circle whose diameter is 20000, the circumference will be 62832 i.e, π {\displaystyle \pi } = 62832 20000 {\displaystyle 62832 \over 20000} = 3.1416 {\displaystyle 3.1416} , which is accurate to two parts in one million. It
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#17327761131636758-528: The city was actually Koṭum-kol-ūr ("city of strict governance"). Similarly, the fact that several commentaries on the Aryabhatiya have come from Kerala has been used to suggest that it was Aryabhata's main place of life and activity; however, many commentaries have come from outside Kerala, and the Aryasiddhanta was completely unknown in Kerala. K. Chandra Hari has argued for the Kerala hypothesis on
6867-463: The classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy . His works include the Āryabhaṭīya (which mentions that in 3600 Kali Yuga , 499 CE, he was 23 years old) and the Arya- siddhanta . For his explicit mention of the relativity of motion, he also qualifies as a major early physicist. While there is a tendency to misspell his name as "Aryabhatta" by analogy with other names having
6976-578: The contents of Tantrasamgraha is presented below. A descriptive account of the contents is available in Bharatheeya Vijnana/Sastra Dhara. Full details of the contents are available in an edition of Tantrasamgraha published in the Indian Journal of History of Science . "A remarkable synthesis of Indian spherical astronomical knowledge occurs in a passage in Tantrasamgraha." In astronomy, the spherical triangle formed by
7085-496: The cosmos. It uses mathematics , physics , and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution . Objects of interest include planets , moons , stars , nebulae , galaxies , meteoroids , asteroids , and comets . Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts , quasars , blazars , pulsars , and cosmic microwave background radiation . More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere . Cosmology
7194-408: The department is historically affiliated with a physics department, and many professional astronomers have physics rather than astronomy degrees. Some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field include The Astronomical Journal , The Astrophysical Journal , and Astronomy & Astrophysics . In early historic times, astronomy only consisted of the observation and predictions of
7303-412: The depths of the mathematical accomplishments the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics , in particular the achievements of the remarkable mathematician of the school Sangamagrama Madhava . In his Tantrasangraha , Nilakantha revised Aryabhata 's model for the planets Mercury and Venus . According to George G Joseph his equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until
7412-474: The detection of neutrinos . The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun , but 24 neutrinos were also detected from supernova 1987A . Cosmic rays , which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary particles which can be detected by current observatories. Some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to
7521-542: The development and management of educational infrastructure related to technical, medical, management and allied professional education in his honour. The university is governed by Bihar State University Act 2008. India's first satellite Aryabhata and the lunar crater Aryabhata are both named in his honour, the Aryabhata satellite also featured on the reverse of the Indian 2-rupee note . An Institute for conducting research in astronomy, astrophysics and atmospheric sciences
7630-525: The evidence is scant. The general consensus is that a synodic anomaly (depending on the position of the Sun) does not imply a physically heliocentric orbit (such corrections being also present in late Babylonian astronomical texts ), and that Aryabhata's system was not explicitly heliocentric. Aryabhata's work was of great influence in the Indian astronomical tradition and influenced several neighbouring cultures through translations. The Arabic translation during
7739-407: The first chapter of the Aryabhatiya , where he gives the number of rotations of the Earth in a yuga , and made more explicit in his gola chapter: In the same way that someone in a boat going forward sees an unmoving [object] going backward, so [someone] on the equator sees the unmoving stars going uniformly westward. The cause of rising and setting [is that] the sphere of the stars together with
7848-655: The form ax + by = c. (This problem was also studied in ancient Chinese mathematics, and its solution is usually referred to as the Chinese remainder theorem .) This is an example from Bhāskara 's commentary on Aryabhatiya: That is, find N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. In general, diophantine equations, such as this, can be notoriously difficult. They were discussed extensively in ancient Vedic text Sulba Sutras , whose more ancient parts might date to 800 BCE. Aryabhata's method of solving such problems, elaborated by Bhaskara in 621 CE,
7957-414: The introduction of new technology, including the spectroscope and photography . Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures , masses , and sizes. The existence of the Earth's galaxy,
8066-579: The late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were made using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital detectors, particularly using charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and recorded on modern medium. Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400 nm to 700 nm), that same equipment can be used to observe some near-ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation. Ultraviolet astronomy employs ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm). Light at those wavelengths
8175-457: The lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon enters into the Earth's shadow (verse gola.37). He discusses at length the size and extent of the Earth's shadow (verses gola.38–48) and then provides the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse. Later Indian astronomers improved on the calculations, but Aryabhata's methods provided the core. His computational paradigm was so accurate that 18th-century scientist Guillaume Le Gentil , during
8284-576: The making of calendars . Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy
8393-401: The modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds (365.25858 days) is an error of 3 minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year (365.25636 days). As mentioned, Aryabhata advocated an astronomical model in which the Earth turns on its own axis. His model also gave corrections (the śīgra anomaly) for
8502-593: The motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that may have had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these observatories could be employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant crops and in understanding the length of the year. As civilizations developed, most notably in Egypt , Mesopotamia , Greece , Persia , India , China , and Central America , astronomical observatories were assembled and ideas on
8611-417: The motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting telescope . Improvements in the size and quality of the telescope led to further discoveries. The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars. More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille . The astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered
8720-632: The national calendars in use in Iran and Afghanistan today. The dates of the Jalali calendar are based on actual solar transit, as in Aryabhata and earlier Siddhanta calendars. This type of calendar requires an ephemeris for calculating dates. Although dates were difficult to compute, seasonal errors were less in the Jalali calendar than in the Gregorian calendar . Aryabhatta Knowledge University (AKU), Patna has been established by Government of Bihar for
8829-406: The nature of the Universe began to develop. Most early astronomy consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry . From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with
8938-494: The observation of young stars embedded in molecular clouds and the cores of galaxies. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters . With the exception of infrared wavelengths close to visible light, such radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, or masked, as
9047-553: The particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere. Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects. A few observatories have been constructed, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO . LIGO made its first detection on 14 September 2015, observing gravitational waves from
9156-497: The planet Uranus , the first new planet found. During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the three-body problem by Leonhard Euler , Alexis Claude Clairaut , and Jean le Rond d'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace , allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations. Significant advances in astronomy came about with
9265-466: The planets [apparently?] turns due west at the equator, constantly pushed by the cosmic wind . Aryabhata described a geocentric model of the Solar System, in which the Sun and Moon are each carried by epicycles . They in turn revolve around the Earth. In this model, which is also found in the Paitāmahasiddhānta (c. 425 CE), the motions of the planets are each governed by two epicycles,
9374-470: The planets with great accuracy, a field known as celestial mechanics . More recently the tracking of near-Earth objects will allow for predictions of close encounters or potential collisions of the Earth with those objects. The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe. Parallax measurements of nearby stars provide an absolute baseline for
9483-481: The potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space . Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος ( kosmos ) "world, universe" and λόγος ( logos ) "word, study" or literally "logic") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole. Aryabhata Aryabhata ( ISO : Āryabhaṭa ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE ) was the first of the major mathematician - astronomers from
9592-596: The pre-colonial Middle Ages, but modern discoveries show otherwise. For over six centuries (from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment), the Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy than probably all other institutions. Among the Church's motives was finding the date for Easter . Medieval Europe housed
9701-458: The properties examined include luminosity , density , temperature , and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics , electromagnetism , statistical mechanics , thermodynamics , quantum mechanics , relativity , nuclear and particle physics , and atomic and molecular physics . In practice, modern astronomical research often involves
9810-473: The properties of more distant stars, as their properties can be compared. Measurements of the radial velocity and proper motion of stars allow astronomers to plot the movement of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy. Astrometric results are the basis used to calculate the distribution of speculated dark matter in the galaxy. During the 1990s, the measurement of the stellar wobble of nearby stars
9919-459: The question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. The term exobiology is similar. Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology , biophysics , biochemistry , chemistry , astronomy, physical cosmology , exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth. The origin and early evolution of life
10028-425: The rotation of the Earth, furthermore, Buridan also developed the theory of impetus (predecessor of the modern scientific theory of inertia ) which was able to show planets were capable of motion without the intervention of angels. Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later. During
10137-454: The speeds of the planets in the sky in terms of the mean speed of the Sun. Thus, it has been suggested that Aryabhata's calculations were based on an underlying heliocentric model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, though this has been rebutted. It has also been suggested that aspects of Aryabhata's system may have been derived from an earlier, likely pre-Ptolemaic Greek , heliocentric model of which Indian astronomers were unaware, though
10246-436: The stars" depending on the translation). Astronomy should not be confused with astrology , the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. "Astronomy" and " astrophysics " are synonyms. Based on strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside
10355-477: The subject, whereas "astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject. However, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Some fields, such as astrometry , are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics. Various departments in which scientists carry out research on this subject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether
10464-499: The summation of series of squares and cubes: and Aryabhata's system of astronomy was called the audAyaka system , in which days are reckoned from uday , dawn at lanka or "equator". Some of his later writings on astronomy, which apparently proposed a second model (or ardha-rAtrikA , midnight) are lost but can be partly reconstructed from the discussion in Brahmagupta 's Khandakhadyaka . In some texts, he seems to ascribe
10573-480: The table of sines in a mnemonic form. Aryabhata worked on the approximation for pi (π), and may have come to the conclusion that π is irrational. In the second part of the Aryabhatiyam ( gaṇitapāda 10), he writes: caturadhikaṃ śatamaṣṭaguṇaṃ dvāṣaṣṭistathā sahasrāṇām ayutadvayaviṣkambhasyāsanno vṛttapariṇāhaḥ. "Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule
10682-548: The text was composed at that time. This mentioned year corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476. Aryabhata called himself a native of Kusumapura or Pataliputra (present day Patna , Bihar ). Bhāskara I describes Aryabhata as āśmakīya , "one belonging to the Aśmaka country." During the Buddha's time, a branch of the Aśmaka people settled in the region between
10791-432: The time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. It was C.M. Whish , a civil servant of East India Company , who brought to the attention of the western scholarship the existence of Tantrasamgraha through a paper published in 1835. The other books mentioned by C.M. Whish in his paper were Yuktibhāṣā of Jyeshtadeva , Karanapaddhati of Puthumana Somayaji and Sadratnamala of Sankara Varman . Nilakantha Somayaji ,
10900-548: The universe consists of a multitude of galaxies. With this Hubble formulated the Hubble constant , which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, which became increasingly precise with better meassurements, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years, until 2006 when data of the Hubble Space Telescope allowed a very accurate calculation of
11009-409: The universe; origin of cosmic rays ; general relativity and physical cosmology , including string cosmology and astroparticle physics . Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe , and their interaction with radiation . The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry . The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and
11118-640: Was used to detect large extrasolar planets orbiting those stars. Theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models and computational numerical simulations ; each has its particular advantages. Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models reveal the existence of phenomena and effects otherwise unobserved. Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models that are based on existing observations and known physics, and to predict observational consequences of those models. The observation of phenomena predicted by
11227-648: Was abbreviated as jb . Later writers substituted it with jaib , meaning "pocket" or "fold (in a garment)". (In Arabic, jiba is a meaningless word.) Later in the 12th century, when Gherardo of Cremona translated these writings from Arabic into Latin, he replaced the Arabic jaib with its Latin counterpart, sinus , which means "cove" or "bay"; thence comes the English word sine . A problem of great interest to Indian mathematicians since ancient times has been to find integer solutions to Diophantine equations that have
11336-475: Was also the first to specify sine and versine (1 − cos x ) tables, in 3.75° intervals from 0° to 90°, to an accuracy of 4 decimal places. In fact, the modern terms "sine" and "cosine" are mistranscriptions of the words jya and kojya as introduced by Aryabhata. As mentioned, they were translated as jiba and kojiba in Arabic and then misunderstood by Gerard of Cremona while translating an Arabic geometry text to Latin . He assumed that jiba
11445-412: Was an early analog computer designed to calculate the location of the Sun , Moon , and planets for a given date. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe. Astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in
11554-536: Was formulated, heavily evidenced by cosmic microwave background radiation , Hubble's law , and the cosmological abundances of elements . Space telescopes have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere. In February 2016, it was revealed that the LIGO project had detected evidence of gravitational waves in the previous September. The main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects
11663-604: Was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi 's book on algebra. In Ganitapada 6, Aryabhata gives the area of a triangle as that translates to: "for a triangle, the result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the area." Aryabhata discussed the concept of sine in his work by the name of ardha-jya , which literally means "half-chord". For simplicity, people started calling it jya . When Arabic writers translated his works from Sanskrit into Arabic, they referred it as jiba . However, in Arabic writings, vowels are omitted, and it
11772-508: Was the Arabic word jaib , which means "fold in a garment", L. sinus (c. 1150). Aryabhata's astronomical calculation methods were also very influential. Along with the trigonometric tables, they came to be widely used in the Islamic world and used to compute many Arabic astronomical tables ( zijes ). In particular, the astronomical tables in the work of the Arabic Spain scientist Al-Zarqali (11th century) were translated into Latin as
11881-596: Was the head of an institution ( kulapa ) at Kusumapura, and, because the university of Nalanda was in Pataliputra at the time, it is speculated that Aryabhata might have been the head of the Nalanda university as well. Aryabhata is also reputed to have set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana , Bihar. Aryabhata is the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy , though Aryabhatiya
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