Tenaya (died 1853) was a leader of the Ahwahnechee people in Yosemite Valley , California .
51-755: Tenaya's father was a leader of the Ahwahnechee people (or Awahnichi). The Ahwahneechee had become a tribe distinct from the other tribes in the area. Lafayette Bunnell , the doctor of the Mariposa Battalion, wrote that "Ten-ie-ya was recognized, by the Mono tribe , as one of their number, as he was born and lived among them until his ambition made him a leader and founder of the Paiute colony in Ah-wah-ne." The Ahwahneechee occupied Yosemite Valley until
102-425: A band of Miwok people , specifically Southern Sierra Miwok . The Awani people's heritage can be found all over Yosemite National Park . The name Awani was also the name of their primary village. The anglicizations of their name from the 19th century have included Ahwahnechee (by Hittell in 1868), Awalache (by Johnston in 1851), Awallache (by McKee in 1851), and Awanee (by Powers in 1874). They spoke
153-639: A fire and placed in the basket to cook the mixture, which was then consumed either as a mush or baked into a flatbread. National Park Service naturalist, Will Neely created a list of the plants commonly used by the Ahwahnechee. Black oak , sugar pine , western juniper , canyon live oak , interior live oak , foothill pine , buckeye , pinyon pine nuts provided acorns and seeds for food. Other plants provided smaller seeds. Mariposa tulip , golden brodiaea , common camas , squaw root , and Bolander's yampah provided edible bulbs and roots. Greens eaten by
204-427: A mortar and pestle. Once they had been sufficiently ground down to a fine powder, the acorn flour was put into a shallow depression at the edge of the river. This depression was lined with leaves to keep the acorn powder from being lost in the sand. The flour was then rinsed to remove toxins, making it palatable. Once rinsed and edible, the flour was placed into willow cooking baskets with fresh water. Rocks were heated in
255-458: A particular stem shape to precede it and if there is not a necessary vowel or consonant before the suffix, /Y/ or /ʔ/ is added. Furthermore, some nominal suffixes are productive while others are not. Nominal suffixes also tend to have fewer allomorphs than verbal suffixes. Lastly, nominal themes may occur either word-medially or in the prefinal position before case or Series 1 or 2 pronominal suffixes. However, many follow class 3 nominal themes. Below
306-481: A range of animals, particularly deer. Some Ahwahnechee tribal names for areas around Yosemite Valley include the following: Nine Ahwahnechee villages in Yosemite Valley housed 450 Indigenous residents when Euro-American settlers first arrived. These villages were Awani, Hokokwito, Kumaini, Lesamaiti, Macheto, Notomidula, Sakaya, and Wahak. The principal village, and by extension the whole Yosemite Valley,
357-436: A search was made but no more Indians were found there or in the valley at all. The soldiers returned to the meeting place but Chief Teneiya and the part of the tribe that was already in their custody escaped and returned to the mountains. That May, a second expedition of militia traveled north to capture the old chief and his band once and for all. Only a few warriors, among them two of Chief Teneiya's sons, were found. The chief
408-411: A settler named James D. Savage set up a mining camp down below the valley, and spent most of his time mining for gold and trading with the few other white men in the area. He took several Indian wives and developed influential relations with the nearby Native people. Later that year, Savage's camp and post were attacked by the Ahwahnechee. Savage had moved into the Ahwahnechee land and effectively disrupted
459-578: A sickness destroyed most of them. The few Ahwahneechee left Yosemite Valley and joined the Mono Lake Paiutes in the eastern Sierra Nevada . Tenaya's father married a Mono Paiute woman and Tenaya was born from that union. Tenaya grew up amongst his mother's people. An Ahwahneechee medicine man and friend of his father persuaded a young Tenaya to return. Tenaya took the few remnants of the Ah-wah-nee-chees that had been living with
510-464: A sturdy and durable shelter. An o-chum had two openings: an entrance at front and smokehole at its pinnacle A small fire was built in the colder months for warmth. A family of about six could live in an o-chum. Pelts of small animals made bedding. Hides of bear or deer were used as mattresses. The blanket was - like the bedding - made from the skins of the smaller animals, cut into strips, and woven together for extra warmth. Another sort of building that
561-501: A typical postfix: Southern Sierra Miwok also has a class of monomorphemic words called particles. These are the only words that can stand alone as roots without suffixes and usually follow the word that they modify. hane: "maybe", hy:ʔy: "yes" and jej "hey!" are a few examples of typical particles. Personal pronominal suffixes are separated into four series in the Southern Sierra Miwok language. As discussed in
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#1732766181892612-587: Is a Utian language spoken by the Native American people called the Southern Sierra Miwok of Northern California . Southern Sierra Miwok is a member of the Miwok language family . The Miwok languages are a part of the larger Utian family . The original territory of the Southern Sierra Miwok people is similar to modern day Mariposa County, California . The Southern Sierra Miwok language
663-452: Is a chart of allomorphs of common Southern Sierra Miwok irregular verbal bases. Verbal suffixes occur before the verbal theme and, along with the root, form the base of the word. Southern Sierra Miwok has many verbal suffixes, most of which are fully productive and can be applied to any stem of an appropriate shape, class and meaning. Verbal suffixes have derivational meanings . Furthermore, each verbal suffix has rules and requirements as to
714-413: Is an example of a typical nominal suffix: These affixes follow final suffixes such as pronominal suffixes and case, and are not obligatory. Furthermore, more than one postfix may occur in a Southern Sierra Miwok word. In these instances, the postfixes occur in a definite sequence. In addition, all postfixes are invariable in form and therefore do not contain more than one allomorph. Below is an example of
765-530: Is considered to be a separate (archi-)phoneme. There are two types of syllables in Southern Sierra Miwok: light , CV, and heavy, CV: or CVC. In each word, one of the first two syllables is always heavy, so therefore every Southern Sierra Miwok word contains at least one heavy syllable. Because of this preference towards heavy syllables, consonant clusters are usually separated to form codas of preceding syllables. Southern Sierra Miwok uses
816-532: Is hunting" and hika:hyj means "deer, accusative case" so each sentence given above regardless of the order means: "the man is hunting the deer". Southern Sierra Miwok contains three syntactic substitution classes, nominal expressions, verbal expressions and particles. Some members of each class can stand alone as a complete utterance. To form more complex sentences, members of the different classes are combined. Below are examples of possible complete utterances: Field recordings of Southern Sierra Miwok were made in
867-408: Is lowest before /ʔ/ , /k/ and /h/ , with /ɨ/ pronounced at approximately [ə] . Also, /ɨ/ is slightly backed before /w/ . /a/ acts the most differently compared to the other vowels as it is backed to [ɑ] when long and is slightly fronted before /w/ and /j/ and both fronted and raised before /ʔ/ and /k/ . Since vowel and consonant length is contrastive, length (represented as /ː/ )
918-570: Is nearly extinct with only a few speakers existing today. However, as of 2012, an active revitalization program is underway. The name Miwok comes from the Sierra Miwok word miwwik meaning "people" or "Indians". It was originally used in 1877 for the Plains and Sierra Miwok people, but was later reassigned to its current usage in 1908 to describe the set of Utian languages distinct from the western Coastanoan (Ohlone) languages . Below are
969-497: Is slightly postvelar when it occurs before /a/ or /o/ , and in these situations it is often written ⟨ḳ⟩ . When positioned intervocalically or after voiced consonants there is free variation between the velar and slightly postvelar variants of the following sounds: ( [ k̺ ] ~ [ ɣ ] ~ [ g ] ). Lastly, the following phonemes only occur in English loan words: /b, d, ɡ, f, dʒ, r/ . Below are
1020-526: The California wildrose , meadow goldenrod , mule ears , pearly everlasting , and the California laurel . The tribe used soap plant and meadow rue to make soap. They used fibers from Mountain dogbane , showy milkweed , wild grape , and soap plant for cordage. Baskets were woven from splints of American dogwood , big-leaf maple , buckbrush , deer brush , willow , and California hazelnut Additional bracken fern would add black colors to
1071-476: The Southern Sierra Miwok language . The Awani lived in Yosemite Valley for centuries. It is believed that they may have lived in the area for as long as 7,000 years. According to NPS historians , they were primarily Southern Miwok, with related Miwok tribes living North and South and West. They routinely traded with both Paiute and Mono tribes across the mountains to the east, and intermarried with those people. European-American contact began after 1833. In 1850
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#17327661818921122-488: The 15 consonants of the Southern Sierra Miwok written in IPA (the common orthography is noted within ⟨ ⟩ ): There is considerable variation within the phonemes listed in the chart above. For example, the following allophones are in free variation with each other intervocalically and proceeding voiced consonants: Also, [ s ] is in free variation with [ z ] only in intervocalic environments. /k/
1173-709: The Ahwahnechee included broad-leaved lupine , common monkey flower , nude buckwheat , California thistle , miner's lettuce , sorrel , clover , umbrella plant , crimson columbine , and alum root . Strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, thimbleberry , wild grape , gooseberry , currant, blue elderberry , western choke cherry , Sierra plum , and greenleaf manzanita provided berries and fruits. The Ahwahnechee brewed drinks from whiteleaf manzanita and western juniper . Commonly used medicine plants included Yerba santa , yarrow , giant hyssop , Brewer's angelica , sagebrush , showy milkweed , mountain dogbane , balsamroot , California barberry , fleabane , mint, knotweed ,
1224-508: The Awani often used was a sweat house. These structures were somewhat similar to the o-chum, only with a rounded roof, as opposed to a pointed roof, and covered with mud. Young hunters used sweat houses before they went on a trip, to rid their bodies of the human smell that could betray their presence to the prey. Sweats also provided the men with a way to relax and cleanse themselves for religious and health purposes. The Awani historically hunted
1275-600: The Mono Lake Paiute population. Another version of the story says that in the spring of 1852, a party of eight prospectors entered the Valley. One of the prospectors had lured his comrades there to kill them and take possession of a mine they held in partnership. He had incited the Yosemites to kill the intruders, arranging his escape and letting the blame fall on them. Late in the summer of 1853, Tenaya and some of
1326-680: The Monos and Paiutes and reestablished themselves in Yosemite Valley with him as their leader. Tenaya had four wives. The Ahwahneechee were feared by the surrounding Miwok tribes, who called them yohhe'meti , meaning "they are killers" By 1851, conflicts between the non-indigenous miners and the Native Americans in the Sierra started to increase. The state of California decided to send the Natives to reservations . The Mariposa Battalion
1377-554: The Native people to sign treaties. Six tribes made agreements with the government to accept reservation land further down into the foothills. One of the tribes that refused to meet was the Ahwahnechees. When the soldiers, led by Savage, moved towards their camp to force them out, their chief, Teneiya, finally appeared alone and attempted to conceal the location and number of his people. Major Savage told Teneiya that he would travel to
1428-470: The basket and redbud would provide red. The tribe made bows from incense-cedar , and Pacific dogwood . They built homes from Incense-cedar. The Awani people historically camped at the bottom of the valley, in small houses known as o-chum . These small homes were built with pine for the framing and supports, using the wood in a tipi -like structure with a diameter of about 12 feet. To insulate their homes, they covered pine poles with cedar bark to create
1479-692: The following federally recognized tribes : An unrecognized tribe , the Southern Sierra Miwuk Nation is actively petitioning the U.S. Department of the Interior for federal recognition . The Bureau of Indian Affairs submitted a preliminary finding against federal recognition for the group in 2018. The Mono Lake Kootzaduka'a Tribe are also unrecognized. Southern Sierra Miwok language Southern Sierra Miwok (also known as Meewoc, Mewoc, Me-Wuk, Miwoc, Miwokan, Mokélumne, Moquelumnan, San Raphael, Talatui, Talutui, and Yosemite)
1530-569: The following three stress levels: Every Southern Sierra Miwok word consists of a root and (usually) one to two suffixes. Below are definitions of common terms used to describe the basic structure of a Southern Sierra Miwok word: Below is a list of frequently occurring morphophonemic rules which Broadbent (1964) defines as "a rule of phonologically conditioned variation which applies to all morphemes, or allomorphs, of suitable morphophonemic shape.". Verbal Themes are morpheme sequences followed immediately by pronominal (final) suffixes. Below
1581-722: The lives of every Ahwahnechee. The Ahwahnechee raided his supplies, and killed two of his men. This, in turn, sparked the Mariposa Indian War of 1850 to 1851. In 1851, during the Mariposa War , California State Militia troops of the Mariposa Battalion burned Ahwahnechee villages and took their food stores. The state militia with Savage as their major and the Indian Commissioners from Washington were called out to either convince or force
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1632-438: The long and short variants of the 6 vowels of the Southern Sierra Miwok language written in IPA (the common orthography is noted within ⟨ ⟩ ): /i, u, e, o/ are highest when long, as shown in the chart above. However, /o/ is also high before /w/ and /j/ . /i/ is at its lowest before /k/ and /ʔ/ while /u/ is lowest only before /ʔ/ . /e/ is slightly lower before /j/ , but, along with /o/ and /ɨ/ ,
1683-427: The men of his band were playing a hand bone game with some Mono Indians. The gambling became tense and a fight broke out which ended with Tenaya being struck in the head with a rock crushing his skull along with several others of his band killed as well. As was their custom, they were cremated and wailing was heard for two weeks. After the death of their leader, the few remaining members dispersed between Mono Lake and to
1734-455: The morphology section, Series 1 and 2 pronominal suffixes follow nominal themes and precede case markings, whereas Series 3 and 4 pronominal suffixes follow verbal themes. Series 3 and 4 are also more complex as they distinguish first person inclusive (speaker + addressee) and exclusive (speaker only). Furthermore, pronominal suffixes can refer to both the subject and the object of the sentence; these are called double pronominal suffixes. However,
1785-596: The names given to each case suffix do not necessarily reflect the full range of their applications from the point of view of their Latin grammar counterparts. For example, the accusative case is mostly but not exclusively used for direct objects of a particular sentence. Due to the rich case system in Southern Sierra Miwok, the word order is of little to no importance to the syntax or semantics. For example, naŋŋaʔ halki: hika:hyj ; naŋŋaʔ hika:hyj halki: ; hika:hyj naŋŋaʔ halki: ; and halki: naŋŋaʔ hika:hyj in which, naŋŋaʔ means "the man, nominative case", halki: means "he
1836-583: The near west. Tenaya Lake was named after Tenaya. Tenaya Middle Schools in Fresno, California and Merced, California are named after him. An elementary school in Groveland, California is also named after Chief Tenaya. Ahwahnechee people The Ahwahnechee , Awani , or Awalache were an Indigenous people of California who historically lived in the Yosemite Valley . They were
1887-425: The negotiations. The Major took some men with him to the north through the mountains and came upon the valley. This was the first entry into Yosemite Valley by any white men. Camping that night the men debated what to call the valley they had just discovered. They agreed upon the name that the white men had already called the tribe, Yosemite. The date was March 25, 1851. Once they reached the village of Teneiya's people
1938-525: The park in 1851, 1906, 1929, and 1969. Jay Johnson of the Mariposa Indian Council identifies as an Ahwahnechee descendent. The Ahwahneechee burned undergrowth in the Valley to protect the oak trees. Acorns were a central staple of their diet, Black oak acorns providing almost 60% of it. The acorns were laid on a slab of rock in the sun to dry. Then they were ground up in small holes atop big granite slabs known as grinding rocks, like
1989-417: The purposes of discussion, Broadbent (1964) has separated the case suffixes into two categories, autonomous, which appear in the absolute final position of a word, and subordinate, which must be followed by an autonomous case suffix. Of these, four are considered autonomous, four are considered subordinate and one, the possessive (or genitive) case, can function as either autonomous or subordinate. Furthermore,
2040-408: The shape of the stem that it can follow e.g. the suffix /-cc-/ "static" must follow a stem that is shaped CV- or CVCV- or CVCVCV-. In the instance that a stem does not end in the appropriate form, either length /:/ or a glottal stop /ʔ/ will be added where a consonant is needed or /Y/ when a vowel is needed. Also, many suffixes display allomorphy depending on the following modal suffix. In these cases,
2091-456: The subject cannot be included in the object and vice versa i.e. "I am doing it for you" is an acceptable phrase to use a double pronominal suffix, but, "I am doing it for us" is not acceptable because "I" is included in "us/we". Below is a table that lists the various pronominal suffix morphemes for Southern Sierra Miwok organized by series number: Southern Sierra Miwok is unique among Native American languages as it has nine case suffixes . For
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2142-418: The suffix spoken before the present imperfect zero suffix /-Ø-/ is treated as the basic form. Lastly, two or more verbal suffixes often appear in the same word. Usually, the morphemes are ordered by immediate constituency, however, they can also be ordered depending on the stem-shape requirements of the last two suffixes of the base. In addition, some suffix combinations have separate stem requirements unlike if
2193-631: The suffixes were to appear alone. Below is an example of a typical verbal suffix: Nominal themes refer to theme suffixes that are followed directly by case markings or by Series 1 or 2 pronominal suffixes (see Syntax) before the case marker. These themes can be hard for native English speakers to learn as many of them do not translate to English nouns but can be translated as past or future tense English verbs or verbal phrases. However, most forms which translate to English nouns, adverbs and adjectives are included as nominal themes. The three categories of nominal themes are: Southern Sierra Miwok does not require
2244-517: The summer of 1851, Tenaya grew tired of the reservation. He gave his pledge that he would not disturb any non-indigenous people. However, in 1852, a group of prospectors were killed in the Valley. Tenaya and his band fled to join the Mono Paiutes. He returned to the Valley in 1853. He was stoned to death in a dispute with the Mono Paiutes over stolen horses. The remaining survivors who were not killed were taken back to Mono Lake and absorbed into
2295-505: The use of independent personal pronouns. Instead, they are used in the nominative and accusative cases for emphasis and clarification, their roots are as follows: The following three demonstrative roots are class 3 nominal themes and are among the shortest roots in the language. They can be followed by a number of different suffixes and usually change considerably in meaning according to the attached suffix, they are: Nominal suffixes are similar to verbal suffixes in that each suffix requires
2346-486: The valley to find his people. Chief Teneiya said that he would go back and return with his tribe. When the chief appeared again Savage noticed that there were very few of the Native people present. He asked the chief where the rest of his people were, and Teneiya denied having any more people than were there at the moment. Savage was convinced that if he found the rest of the tribe he could persuade them to come with him back to
2397-525: The year and then returned to their native valley taking with them horses stolen from the hospitable Monos who soon followed seeking revenge, killing Chief Teneiya and all but eight of the young braves and taking all the women and children captive. Chief Teneiya (d. 1853) was a leader in Yosemite Valley. His father was Ahwahnechee. He led his band away from Yosemite to settle with Paiutes in eastern California. Tenaya has descendants living today. The U.S. federal government evicted Yosemite Native people from
2448-709: Was Awani. The Ahwahnee Hotel and Ahwahneechee Village, a recreated 19th-century tribal village in Yosemite Valley, are both named for the tribe, as are the Ahwahnee Heritage Days, Ahwahnee, California , and Ahwahnee Estates, California . Contemporary groups connected to the Ahwahneechee include the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc. (or Southern Sierra Miwuk Nation), the Mono Lake Kootzaduka'a, and
2499-470: Was eventually brought in to find that his sons had been shot for trying to escape. Within a few days the chief also tried to escape by jumping into the river. With the recapture of Chief Teneiya the rest of the band was easily found and brought to the Fresno reservation in the foothills where they stayed long enough to regain their strength and petitioned for their freedom to return to their mountain home. This
2550-469: Was formed to carry out the relocation, marching Tenaya and his people to the Fresno Reservation . Many of Tenaya's band left Yosemite Valley instead of following Tenaya. As they approached the Fresno reservation, they fled back to the Yosemite Valley. The Brigade then re-entered the Valley, captured Tenaya's sons, and killed his youngest son. Tenaya then agreed to go back to the reservation. By
2601-459: Was granted and they returned to their secluded valley of "Ahwahnee". In 1852, a Mariposa expedition of US federal troops heard a report that Ahwahnechee Indians killed two European-American miners at Bridalveil Meadows. Soldiers were again dispatched and the troops executed five Ahwahnechee men. Later, the tribe fled over the mountains to shelter with a neighboring people, the Mono tribe. They stayed
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