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109-463: The name "Tepanecas" is a derivative term, corresponding to their original mythical city, Tepanohuayan (the passing by), also known as Tepano . Ideographically it is represented as a stone, for its etymology comes from Tepan (over the stones). Their conquered territories received the name Tepanecapan (land of the tepanecas) (lit. "over the tepanecas"). Reputedly welcomed to the Valley of Mexico by

218-452: A temāzcalli , similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures. When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether

327-595: A cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain . Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of the Mexican capital. The World Heritage Site of Xochimilco contains what remains of the geography (water, boats, floating gardens ) of the Mexica capital. Tenochtitlan was one of two Mexica āltepētl ( city-states or polities ) on the island, the other being Tlatelolco . Traditionally,

436-675: A canal in this area, calling it Nochistongo, leading waters to the Tula Valley, but the drainage was not sufficient to avoid the Great Flood of 1629 in the city. Another canal, which would be dubbed the "Grand Canal" was built parallel to the Nochistongo one ending in Tequixquiac . The Grand Canal consists of one main canal, which measures 6.5 meters (21 ft) in diameter and 50 km (30 mi) long. The drainage project

545-401: A growing population, increasing industry, and ecosystem degradation in the form of deforestation of the surrounding mountains, more water is leaving the system than is entering. It is estimated that 63 cubic meters per second (1,000,000 US gal/min) of water is needed to support the potable and agricultural irrigation needs of Mexico City's population. The main aquifer is being pumped at

654-688: A hunter-gatherer existence in favor of agriculture sometime between the end of the Pleistocene epoch and the beginning of the Holocene . The oldest known human settlement in the Valley of Mexico is located in Tlapacoya , located on what was the edge of Lake Chalco in the southeast corner of the valley in contemporary Mexico State. There is reliable archeological evidence to suggest that the site dates as far back as 12,000 BC. After 10,000 BC,

763-646: A major environmental impact on the Valley of Mexico. Historically, Mexico City's potable water supply came via aqueduct from the mountain springs on the valley sides like that in Chapultepec as most of the water in Lake Texcoco was saline. These were originally built by the Aztecs and were rebuilt by the Spaniards. In the mid-1850s, potable groundwater was found underneath the city itself, which motivated

872-543: A new 30-mile (50 km) drainage tunnel and repairs to the current 7,400-mile (11,900 km) system of pipes and tunnels to clear blockages and patch leaks. Over-pumping of groundwater in the 20th century has hastened the disappearance of the lakes. The old lake beds are almost all paved except for some canals preserved in Xochimilco, mostly for the benefit of visitors who tour them on brightly painted trajineras , boats similar to gondolas . Desiccation has had

981-441: A population of 212,500 living on 13.5 km (5.2 sq mi). It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods. When Cortés and his men invaded Tenochtitlan , Moctezuma II chose to welcome Cortés as an ambassador rather than risk

1090-399: A rate of 55.5 m /s (880,000 US gal/min), but is only being replaced at 28 m /s (440,000 US gal/min), or about half of the extraction rate, leaving a shortfall of 27.5 m /s (436,000 US gal/min). This over-extraction of groundwater from the old clay lake bed has been causing the land upon which the city rests to collapse and sink. This problem began in

1199-516: A war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people. As Cortés approached Tenochtitlan , the Tenochcah celebrated Toxcatl . At this event the most prominent warriors of each altepetl would dance in front of a huge statue of Huitzilopochtli . The Spanish leader, Pedro de Alvarado , who was left in charge, worried that the natives planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this

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1308-479: Is vulnerable to severe air pollution problems due to its altitude, its being surrounded by mountains and the winds patterns of the area. The altitude, with its low oxygen levels, makes for poor combustion of fossil fuels leading to unsafe levels of nitrogen oxides , hydrocarbons , and carbon monoxide . The valley is surrounded by mountain ranges with one small opening to the north. The surrounding mountains and climate patterns here make it difficult to clear out

1417-623: Is 4 meters (13 ft 1 in) in diameter and weighs over 18.1 metric tons (20 short tons; 17.9 long tons). It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl , the predecessor of Tizoc , and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future. In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five meters (16 ft 5 in) below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to

1526-476: Is a closed or endorheic basin which geologically divides into three hydrologic zones, the low plain, which is essentially the bed of now-extinct lakes, the piedmont area and the surrounding mountains. The old lakebeds correspond to the lowest elevations of the valley in the south are mostly clay with a high water content and are almost entirely covered by urban development. In the piedmont area, these clays become mixed with silts and sands, and in some areas close to

1635-450: Is also thought that the city was named after Tenoch . Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco . At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco . The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps , which by that time were gradually disappearing to

1744-470: Is concern that this tunnel will soon fail. It is continuously filled with water, making it impossible to inspect it for problems. If it fails, it would most likely be during the rainy season when it carries the most water, which would cause extensive flooding in the historic center, the airport and the boroughs on the east side. Because of this, another new drainage project is planned that will cost US$ 1.3 billion. The project includes new pumping stations,

1853-599: Is significantly less than what it could carry as late as 1975 because continued sinking of the city (as much as 7 metres or 23 feet) weakens the system of water collectors and pumps. As a result, another tunnel, called the Emisor Central , was built to carry wastewater. Although it is considered the most important pipe in the country, it has been damaged by overuse and wall corrosion of the 20 ft (6 m) diameter pipe. Because of lack of maintenance and gradual decrease in this tunnel's ability to carry water, there

1962-475: Is still common, especially in the summer rainy season, in lower-lying neighborhoods such as Iztapalapa , forcing residents to build miniature dikes in front of their houses to prevent heavily polluted rainwater from entering their homes. Subsidence also causes damage to water and sewer lines, leaving the water distribution system vulnerable to contamination which carries risks to public health. Measures other than drainage have been implemented to contain flooding in

2071-555: Is unclear, but the date 13 March 1325 was chosen in 1925 to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the city. The city was built on an island in what was then Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico . The city was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century until it was captured by the Tlaxcaltec and the Spanish in 1521 . At its peak, it was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas . It subsequently became

2180-643: The pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions. Status was displayed by the location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs. The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up

2289-459: The traza . Although many native residents died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, the indigenous still had a strong presence in the city, and were settled in two main areas of the island, designated San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco, each with a municipal council that functioned the entire colonial period. San Juan Tenochtitlan was a Spanish administrative creation, which amalgamated four indigenous sections, with each losing territory to

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2398-521: The tzompantli or rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to Tonatiuh ; the Eagle's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples. Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby

2507-656: The Teotihuacan (800 BC to 800 AD) the Toltec Empire (10th to 13th century) and the Aztec Empire (1325 to 1521). Although violence and disease significantly lowered the population of the valley after the Conquest, by 1900 it was again over one million people. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen an explosion of population in the valley along with the growth of industry. Since 1900,

2616-452: The saline water of the northern lakes from the fresh water of the southern ones. After the destruction of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the Spaniards rebuilt the Aztec dikes but found they did not offer enough flood protection. The arrival of the Spanish and subsequent efforts to drain the area for flood control was a major infrastructure project, called the desagüe , which was pursued throughout

2725-483: The 20th century, the Mexico City portion of the valley contained a series of lakes, with saline lakes to the north near the town of Texcoco and freshwater ones to the south. The five lakes, Zumpango, Xaltoca, Xochimilco, Chalco, and the largest, Texcoco used to cover about 1,500 km (580 sq mi) of the basin floor. Small mountains such as the Sierra de Guadalupe and Mount Chiconaultla partially separated

2834-662: The Federal District and the adjoining cities in the state of Mexico. While population growth has slowed and even declined in the city proper, the outer limits of the metropolitan area keep growing. Much of this growth has occurred on the mountainsides of the valley, in the form of illegal settlements in ecologically sensitive areas. Overall urban settlement in the valley has expanded from about 90 km (35 sq mi) in 1940 to 1,160 km (450 sq mi) in 1990. The metropolitan area has about 21 million residents and about 6 million cars. Mexico City

2943-500: The Federal District itself, particularly during the construction of the city's Metro lines and in the neighborhoods of Del Valle in the center, Lindavista to the center-north and Coyoacán in the south of the city. The symbol for Line 4's Talisman station of the Mexico City Metro is a mammoth, due to the fact that so many bones were uncovered during its construction. However, the richest site for mammoth remains in

3052-534: The Federal District to the surrounding jurisdictions, especially to the north into the State of Mexico making for the Mexico City Metropolitan area, which fills most of the valley. Today, this metropolitan area accounts for 45 per cent of the country's industrial activity, 38 percent of GNP, and 25 percent of the population. Much of its industry is concentrated in the northern part of

3161-526: The Grand Canal, which before had drained the valley purely with gravity. Along with the pumps, the Grand Canal was expanded with a new tunnel through the low mountains called the Xalpa to take the canal past Tequisquiac . Even so, the city still suffered floods in 1950 and 1951. Despite its age, the Grand Canal can still carry 2,400,000 US gallons per minute (150  m /s ) out of the valley, but this

3270-667: The Spaniard conquistadores arrived to the Valley of Mexico, the Tepaneca tribe was subject to the Triple Alliance, led by Tenochtitlan , not able to remain as an ethnic group. We know of their existence thanks to references in stories derived from the prehispanic codex traditions, which were compiled by novohispanic historians. Valley of Mexico The Valley of Mexico ( Spanish : Valle de México ; Nahuatl languages : Anahuac , lit.   'Land Between

3379-535: The Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it. Soon after arriving in Tenochtitlan , Cortés came up against problems. At Vera Cruz , the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca , the leader of Nueva Almería , asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach

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3488-436: The Spanish traza . The Spanish laid out the streets of the traza in a checker board pattern, with straight streets and plazas at intervals, whereas the indigenous portions of the city were irregular in layout and built of modest materials. In the colonial period both San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco retained jurisdiction over settlements on the mainland that they could draw on for labor and tribute demanded by

3597-407: The Spanish capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Despite the extensive damage to the built environment, the site retained symbolic power and legitimacy as the capital of the Aztec empire, which Cortés sought to appropriate. For a time this ciudad de españoles , the highest rank in the Spanish hierarchy of settlement designation, was called Mexico–Tenochtitlan. Charles Gibson devotes

3706-533: The Spanish during the colonial period. The largest and most dominant city at the time of the Spanish conquest was Tenochtitlan . It was founded by the Mexica ( Aztecs ) on a small island in the western part of Lake Texcoco in 1325, and was extended with the use of chinampas , human-made extensions of agricultural land into the southern lake system, to increase productive agricultural land, covering about 9,000 hectares (35 sq mi). The inhabitants controlled

3815-556: The Spanish, but increasingly those subordinate settlements ( sujetos ) were able to gain their autonomy with their own rulers and separate relationship with the Spanish rulers. Concern about the health of the indigenous population in early post-conquest Mexico–Tenochtitlan led to the founding of a royal hospital for indigenous residents. There are a number of colonial-era pictorial manuscripts dealing with Tenochtitlan–Tlatelolco, which shed light on litigation between Spaniards and indigenous over property. An account with information about

3924-522: The Toltecs. None of these cities was completely autonomous or self-sufficient, resulting in a conflictive political situation, and a complex system of agriculture in the valley. These city-states had similar governmental structures based on the need to control flooding and store water for irrigating crops. Many of the institutions created by these hydraulic societies, such as the building and maintenance of chinampas, aqueducts and dikes, were later co-opted by

4033-507: The Valley's one opening, where incidentally most of the region's industry is located. These factors diminish in the summer and the situation is helped by the arrival of the rainy season, but the valley's southern latitude and the abundance of sunlight allows for dangerous levels of ozone and other dangerous compounds. While still considered one of the most polluted places on the planet, the valley's air pollution problems are not as bad as they were several decades ago. One major problem that

4142-562: The Waters'; ), sometimes also called Basin of Mexico , is a highlands plateau in central Mexico. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes , the Valley of Mexico was a centre for several pre-Columbian civilizations including Teotihuacan , the Toltec , and the Aztec Empire . The valley used to contain five interconnected lakes called Lake Zumpango , Lake Xaltocan (Nahuatl languages: Xāltocān ), Lake Xochimilco , Lake Chalco and

4251-466: The age of over 100 and was legendary for his generalship and statesmanship. The death of Tezozomoc in 1426 brought his sons Tayatzin and Maxtla to the throne, with Maxtla most likely poisoning Tayatzin. In 1428, Maxtla was overthrown by the nascent Aztec Triple Alliance , which included the Mexicas of Tenochtitlan and the Acolhua of Texcoco , as well as Maxtla's fellow Tepanecs of Tlacopan . With

4360-639: The animals. There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium . The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco , Chapultepec , Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec ), and Texcotzingo . Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes . The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside

4469-572: The area so that the lakes’ waters were shallow at about five meters (16 feet) deep as early as the Tlapacoya culture, around 10,000 BC. During the Aztec Empire, the northern lakes were inaccessible by canoe during the dry season from October to May. For 2000 years, humans have been interfering with and altering the hydraulic conditions of the valley, especially in the lakes region. The Aztecs built dikes for flood control and to separate

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4578-411: The beginning of the empire. However, by the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, Tenochtitlan had become the dominant power of the three, causing grievances that the Spaniards were able to exploit. However, despite Tenochtitlan's power outside the valley, it never completely controlled all of the valley itself, with the altepetl of Tlaxcala the most prominent example. By 1520, the estimated population of

4687-441: The ceremonial pyramid was abandoned, the site remained a location to leave offerings up to AD 400, although lava from the nearby Xitle volcano completely covered it. Around 2,000 years ago, the Valley of Mexico became one of the world's most densely populated areas and has remained so since. After the decline of Cuicuilco, the population concentration shifted north, to the city of Teotihuacan and later to Tula , both outside

4796-462: The city and their waters now flow directly into the Grand Canal. No water from these rivers is allowed to sink into the ground to recharge the aquifer. While the rivers and streams that flow down from the mountain peaks still begin the way they always have, their passage through the shantytowns lacking city sanitation schemes that surround Mexico City turns them into open combined sewers . Therefore, their final stages are frequently culverted or added to

4905-399: The city could be visited either on foot or via canoe . Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin , Lake Texcoco was brackish . During the reign of Moctezuma I , the " levee of Nezahualcoyotl " was constructed, reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl . Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee

5014-552: The city itself. While reduced visibility in the valley was due to sulfur emissions in the past, it is now due to fine particles in the air. The effects on humans living in an enclosed, contaminated environment have been documented, especially by Nobel Prize winner Dr Mario J. Molina . He claims fine particle pollution is the greatest concern because of lung damage. According to him, the city's residents lose about 2.5 million working days every year due to health problems associated with fine particles . The Valley of Mexico

5123-628: The city were woodcuts published in Augsburg around 1522. Each calpulli had its own tiyanquiztli (marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco – Tenochtitlan 's sister city. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily. Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in

5232-689: The city. In 1950, dikes were built to confine storm runoff. Rivers that run through the city were encapsulated in 1950 and 1951. Rivers such as the Consulado River, Churubusco River and the Remedio River are encased in concrete tunnels which take their waters directly to the drainage system to leave the Valley. Two other rivers, the San Javier and the Tlalnepantla, which used to feed the old lake system, are diverted before they reach

5341-582: The city. The old settlement once extended far beyond the boundaries of the current site, but it is buried under lava from one of the volcanic eruptions that led to its demise, and much of the modern city is built over this lava. The settlement was located where an old river delta used to form in the valley with waters from Mount Zacatépetl located in what is now the Tlalpan Forest. Cuicuilco was believed to have reached city status by 1200 BC and began to decline around 100 BC - AD 150. However, even though

5450-480: The city; and began its rebuilding, despite opposition. The reconstruction involved the creation of a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza ). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan , continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before. The people of Tenochtitlan were soon exposed to diseases to which they had no immunity. Symptoms were often delayed for up to ten days, when

5559-546: The concept of a city-state based on the Toltec model. By the end of the 13th century, some fifty small urban units, semi-autonomous and with their own religious centers, had sprung up around the lakeshores of the valley. These remained intact with a population of about 10,000 each under Aztec rule and survived into the colonial period. All of these city-states, including the largest and most powerful, Tenochtitlan , with more than 150,000 inhabitants, claimed descent from

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5668-484: The early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui . The disc is 3.25 meters (10 ft 8 in) in diameter, and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum. The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of

5777-429: The early 20th century as a consequence of the drainage of the valley for flood control. Since the beginning of the 20th century, some areas of Mexico City have sunk nine meters (30 feet). In 1900, the bottom of the lake was three meters (9.8 feet) lower than the median level of the city center. By 1974, the lake bottom was two meters (6.6 feet) higher than the city. The first signs of dropping ground water levels

5886-585: The entire colonial period. The idea of opening drainage canals first came about after a flood of the colonial city in 1555. The first canal was begun in 1605 to drain the waters of Lake Zumpango north through Huehuetoca which would also divert waters from the Cuautitlán River away from the lakes and toward the Tula River . This project was undertaken by Enrico Martínez and he devoted 25 years of his life to it. He did succeed in building

5995-404: The existing major culverted rivers to keep this water from contaminating the aquifer. 19°40′N 98°52′W  /  19.667°N 98.867°W  / 19.667; -98.867 Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan , also known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan , was a large Mexican altepetl in what is now the historic center of Mexico City . The exact date of the founding of the city

6104-405: The fact that the federal government has favored development of the metropolitan area over other areas of the country. This has spurred investment in infrastructure for the city, such as electricity , other power sources, water supply and drainage . These have attracted businesses which in turn have attracted more population. Since the 1950s, urbanization has spread out from beyond the bounds of

6213-527: The fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire, and consequently brought an end to the Aztec empire Tenochtitlan's main temple complex, the Templo Mayor , was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in

6322-402: The final chapter of his classic work, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule , to what he called "The City", with later historians building on his work. The Spaniards established a cabildo or town council, which had jurisdiction over the Spanish residents. The Spanish established a Europeans-only zone in the center of the city, an area of 13 blocks in each direction of the central plaza, which was

6431-473: The grandest ever in Mesoamerica. Hernan Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on 8 November 1519. Although there are not precise numbers, the city's population has been estimated at between 200,000 and 400,000 inhabitants, placing Tenochtitlan among the largest cities in the world at that time. Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris , Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times

6540-550: The house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city. Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpōlli . Calpōlli is a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute. Tenochtitlan

6649-409: The infection would spread throughout the body, causing sores, pain, and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor obtain food and water. Burial of the dead became difficult to impossible, due to the pervasiveness of the people's illness. The people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days. Cortés founded

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6758-451: The island city of Tenochtitlan. The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island. Cuauhipiltin , or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles. Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king. Tlacohtin were slaves or indentured servants . Finally,

6867-510: The lake with a sophisticated system of dikes , canals and sluices . Much of the surrounding land in the valley was terraced and farmed as well, with a network of aqueducts channeling fresh water from springs in the mountainsides into the city itself. Despite being the dominant power, the need to rely on resources from other parts of the valley led to the Aztec Triple Alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan at

6976-411: The lake's region of the valley. Teotihuacan became an organized village around 800 BC but it was around 200 BC that it began to reach its height. When it did, the city had approximately 125,000 inhabitants and covered 20 square kilometers (8 sq mi) of territory. It was dedicated primarily to the obsidian trade and at its peak was an important religious center and pilgrimage for

7085-540: The lakes from each other. All the other lakes flowed toward the lower Lake Texcoco, which was saline due to evaporation. The lakes were fed by a number of rivers such as the San Joaquin, San Antonio Abad, Tacubaya, Becerra, Mixcoac and Magdalena Contreras, carrying runoff and snowmelt from the mountains. Long before the arrival of the Spanish, the lake system had been shrinking due to climate change. Warmer temperatures had increased evaporation and reduced rainfall in

7194-791: The lakes' waters to control flooding. The Valley of Mexico is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt . The valley contains most of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area , as well as parts of the State of Mexico , Hidalgo , Tlaxcala , and Puebla . The Basin of Mexico covers approximately 9,600 km (3,700 sq mi) in the NNE-SSW direction with length to width dimensions of approximately 125 km (78 miles) to 75 km (47 miles) The Valley of Mexico can be subdivided into four basins, but

7303-431: The large-scale drilling of wells. Today, 70% of Mexico City's water still comes from five principal aquifers in the valley. These aquifers are fed by water from natural springs and runoff from precipitation. It was only when the population reached about six million that Mexico City started to need to appropriate water from outside the valley. Today, Mexico City faces a serious water deficit. Because of increased demand from

7412-429: The largest and most-studied is the area that contains Mexico City . This section of the valley in particular is colloquially referred to as the "Valley of Mexico". The valley has a minimum elevation of 2,200 meters (7,200 ft) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters (16,000 ft). It is an enclosed valley with no natural outlet for water to flow to

7521-518: The largest, Lake Texcoco , covering about 1,500 square kilometers (580 sq mi) of the valley floor. When the Spaniards arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it had one of the highest population concentrations in the world with about one million people. After the conquest of the Aztec Empire , the Spaniards rebuilt the largest and most dominant city, Mēxihco Tenōchtitlan , renaming it Ciudad de México ( Mexico City ) and over time began to drain

7630-562: The middle of the 20th century, the general opinion was that La Quemada had to be the place, in the opinion of later investigators the city must've been north of the Valley of Mexico, or towards the ancient Tula, even in the Chiconauhtla hill, south of Teotihuacan). To the Tepaneca tribe belonged, by their military might, one of the best zones where they founded Azcapotzalco main Altepetl of their territory, known as Tepanecapan. When

7739-597: The modern-day town of the same name in the Mexican Federal District . It was one of the first significant population centers to arise in the valley, flourishing on the western shore of Lake Texcoco during the Middle Pre-Classic period , between 1200 BC and 200 BC. It was originally classified as a necropolis when it was first excavated, but it was determined that the many burials there were under houses of which nothing remains. It

7848-576: The most dangerous, exceed levels recommended by the World Health Organization . In the 1940s, before large-scale burning of fossil fuels in the area, the visibility of the valley was about 100 km (60 mi), allowing for daily viewing of the mountain ranges that surround the valley, including the snow-capped volcanoes of Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl. Since that time, the average visibility has come down to about 1.5 km (5,000 ft). Mountain peaks are now rarely visible from

7957-591: The mountains, the piedmont is largely composed of basalt from old lava flows. The valley is enclosed completely by mountain ranges, from which flow rain and melting snow into the valley's hydraulic system. This groundwater flow produces a number of springs in the foothills and upwellings in the valley floor. This underground flow is the source of the five aquifers that provide much of the drinking water to Mexico City located in Soltepec, Apan , Texcoco , Chalco - Amecameca and underneath Mexico City itself. Before

8066-788: The mountainsides that collect the precipitation that eventually flows to the lake area. These last two are found in all four of the sub-basins of the valley. Today, the Valley drains through a series of artificial canals to the Tula River , and eventually the Páruco River and the Gulf of Mexico . Seismic activity is frequent here, and the valley is an earthquake-prone zone. The valley has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years, attracting humans with its mild climate (average temperatures between 12 and 15 °C, or 54 and 59 °F), abundant game and ability to support large-scale agriculture. Civilizations that have arisen in this area include

8175-487: The name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl [ˈtetɬ] ("rock") and nōchtli [ˈnoːtʃtɬi] (" prickly pear ") and is often thought to mean, "Among the prickly pears [growing among] rocks." However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues" suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain. However, it

8284-408: The native peoples, but after that, the population grew all through the colonial period and in the century after independence . By the early 20th century, the population of Mexico City alone had risen to over one million people. A population explosion began early in the 20th century, with the population of the city itself doubling approximately every 15 years since 1900, partly attributed to

8393-538: The number of artifacts found increases significantly. There are also other early sites such as those in Tepexpan, Los Reyes Acozac, San Bartolo Atepehuacan , Chimalhuacán and Los Reyes La Paz but they remain undated. Human remains and artifacts such as obsidian blades have been found at the Tlapacoya site that has been dated as far back as 20,000 BC, when the valley was semi-arid and contained species like camels , bison and horses that could be hunted by man. However,

8502-506: The other central Mexican cities. In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters (1,600 ft) to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor , which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc ; the temple of Quetzalcoatl ; the tlachtli ( ball game court) with

8611-498: The population has doubled every fifteen years. Today, around 21 million people live in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area which extends throughout almost all of the valley into the states of Mexico and Hidalgo. The growth of a major urban industrial centre in an enclosed basin has created significant air and water quality issues for the valley. Wind patterns and thermal inversions trap contaminants in

8720-654: The precise dating of these artifacts has been disputed. Giant Columbian mammoths once populated the area, and the valley contains the most extensive mammoth kill sites in Mexico. Most of the sites are located on what were the shores of Lake Texcoco in the north of the Federal District and the adjacent municipalities of Mexico State such as in Santa Isabel Ixtapan , Los Reyes Acozac , Tepexpan and Tlanepantla . Mammoth bones are still occasionally found in farmland here. They have been discovered in many parts of

8829-399: The province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca. When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma

8938-518: The rise of the Aztec empire, Tlacopan became the predominant Tepanec city, although both Tenochtitlan and Texcoco eclipsed Tlacopan in size and prestige. According to the tradition recompiled by several historians, the Tepanec people constituted one of the seven tribes that started the migration from Chicomoztoc (in nahuatl, "The Seven Caves"); a place which has no certain location, and while, during

9047-427: The sea although there is a gap to the north where there is a high mesa but no high mountain peaks. Within this vulnerable watershed all the native fishes were extinct by the end of the 20th century. Hydrologically, the valley has three features. The first feature is the lakebeds of five now-extinct lakes, which are located in the southernmost and largest of the four sub-basins. The other two features are piedmont , and

9156-578: The semi-legendary Chichimec ruler Xolotl , the Tepanecs settled on the west shores of Lake Texcoco . Under their tlatoani , Acolnahuacatl, the Tepanec took over Azcapotzalco from the indigenous inhabitants. In the early 14th century, Tezozomoc brought the Tepanec to the height of their power; at that point they controlled nearly all of the Valley of Mexico as well as parts of the Toluca and Morelos valleys. Native sources say that Tezozomoc lived to

9265-533: The size of the London of Henry VIII . In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba . Cortés' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming. Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000 the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at

9374-444: The smog produced. The valley has internal wind patterns which circulate around the valley without a prevailing wind to push contaminants in a single direction. The most significant climatic phenomena here is "thermal inversion," which is prevalent in the winter months when the cooler air of the valley is trapped by relatively warmer air above. Adding to this is that prevailing winds outside the valley move from north to south, in through

9483-451: The structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally. Mexico City's Zócalo , the Plaza de la Constitución , is located at the site of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone

9592-418: The things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about. The city was divided into four zones, or camps ; each camp was divided into 20 districts ( calpullis , Nahuatl languages : calpōlli , pronounced [kaɬˈpoːlːi] , meaning "large house"); and each calpulli , or 'big house',

9701-621: The valley is at the Paleontological Museum in Tocuila , a 45-hectare (110-acre) site located near the town of Texcoco in Mexico State. Although there is some evidence around the old lakeshores that the first populations here survived by hunting, gathering, and possibly by scavenging, evidence from this time period is scarce. Tlatilco was a large pre-Columbian village and culture in the Valley of Mexico situated near

9810-458: The valley was over 1,000,000 people. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521, the Spanish rebuilt and renamed Tenochtitlan as Mexico City. They started with essentially the same size and layout as the Aztec city but as the centuries progressed, the city grew as the lakes shrank. Just after the conquest, disease and violence had decreased the population in the valley, especially of

9919-424: The valley. In the early 8th century, with the rise of the Toltec empire, Teotihuacan ceased to be a major urban centre and the population shifted to Tollan or Tula on the northern front of the Valley of Mexico. After the end of the Toltec empire in the 13th century and the decline of the city of Tula, the population shifted once again, this time to the lakes region of the valley. With this migration came

10028-524: The valley. Over-extraction of groundwater has caused new flooding problems for the city as it sinks below the historic lake floor. This causes stress on the valley's drainage system, requiring new tunnels and canals to be built. The Valley of Mexico attracted prehistoric humans because the region was rich in biodiversity and had the capacity of growing substantial crops. Generally speaking, humans in Mesoamerica , including central Mexico, began to leave

10137-483: The war of Tenochtitlan against its neighbor Tlatelolco in 1473 and the Spanish conquest in 1521 is the Anales de Mexico y Tlatelolco, 1473, 1521–22 . Anthropologist Susan Kellogg has studied colonial-era inheritance patterns of Nahuas in Mexico City, using Nahuatl - and Spanish-language testaments. On the 13th of August 1521, after over two months of fighting,Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés succeeded in bringing about

10246-441: The west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli . The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to protect the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals , so that all sections of

10355-466: Was brought under control was the lead contamination in the air with the introduction of unleaded gasoline . Two other contaminants that have been brought under control are carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide . The contamination problems that remain are primarily with ozone and fine particles ( soot ) (between 2.5  micrometers and 10 micrometers). Thirty to fifty percent of the time, Mexico City's levels of fine particles of ten micrometers,

10464-478: Was built in 1910, anchored by a foundation deep beneath what was the surface of the street at that time. However, because the street has sunk around it, steps have been added to allow access to the statue's base. Subsidence of the valley floor beneath has caused flooding problems as now much of the city has sunk below the natural lake floor. Currently, pumps need to work 24 hours a day all year round to keep control of runoff and wastewater. Despite this, flooding

10573-434: Was completed c.  1453 . The levee kept fresh spring -fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east. Two double aqueducts , each more than 4 km (2.5 mi) long and made of terracotta , provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec . This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs

10682-475: Was continued after independence, with three secondary canals, built between 1856 and 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911) drainage again became a priority. Díaz completed it officially in 1894, although work continued thereafter. Despite the Grand Canal's drainage capacity, it did not solve the problem of flooding in the city. From the beginning of the 20th century, Mexico City began to sink rapidly and pumps needed to be installed in

10791-564: Was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli . There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac , Iztapalapa , and Tlacopan . Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night. The earliest European images of

10900-451: Was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck. They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have. He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although

11009-450: Was indeed planned to happen. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan. Nobles lined each side of the city's main causeway, which extended about a league (4.83 km). Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa . Cortés dismounted and

11118-539: Was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica . Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico , the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire . After a flood of Lake Texcoco , the city was rebuilt during the rule of Ahuitzotl , which was between 1486 and 1502, in a style that made it one of

11227-428: Was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day; Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl ( Saponaria americana ), and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl ( Agave americana ). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in

11336-421: Was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed. Back in Tenochtitlan , Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him. Though no serious conclusions were reached, this negatively affected the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards. Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for over 90 days, causing a famine. Having gained control, he then directed the systematic destruction and leveling of

11445-403: Was the cuicalli , or house of the songs, and the calmecac . The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl , a functionary in charge of the city planning. The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos , one for birds of prey and another for other birds , reptiles , and mammals . About 300 people were dedicated to the care of

11554-434: Was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a cactus ( Opuntia ), which had grown from the heart of Copil . The Mexica saw this vision on what

11663-431: Was the drying up of natural springs in the 1930s, which coincides with the beginning of intensive exploitation of the aquifer system through wells between 100 and 200 meters (330 and 660 ft) deep. Today, Mexico City is sinking between five and forty centimeters (0.2 and 1.3 ft) per year, and its effects are visible. El Ángel de la Independencia ("The Angel of Independence") statue, located on Paseo de la Reforma

11772-629: Was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco , a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico's coat of arms and on the Mexican flag . Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as "floating gardens") for agriculture and to dry and expand the island. A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island

11881-544: Was then classified as a major chiefdom center. The Tlatilcans were an agricultural people growing beans, amaranth , squash and chili peppers , reaching their peak from 1000 to 700 BC. The next-oldest confirmed civilization is in the far south of the valley and is called Cuicuilco . This archaeological site is located where Avenida Insurgentes Sur crosses the Anillo Periférico in the Tlalpan borough of

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