177-452: Hunter Island (also Hunters Island or Hunter's Island ) is a 166-acre (67 ha) peninsula and former island in the Bronx , New York City , United States. It is situated on the western end of Long Island Sound , along the sound's northwestern shore, and is part of Pelham Bay Park in the northeastern part of the Bronx. Hunter Island initially covered 215 acres (87 ha) and was one of
354-528: A stockaded "castle" on Hunter Island in the late 17th century. The earliest building to be built on the island was the Old Stone House, a small outbuilding that was believed to have been built by an unknown Huguenot prior to 1700. What was later known as Hunter Island was originally part of the Pell estate, and Joshua Pell, a descendant of Thomas Pell, took ownership of the island in 1743. According to
531-704: A Bronx historian and head of the Bronx Historical Society , lobbied the city to create a wildlife preserve in Hunter Island, one of the sites where the landfill was proposed to be expanded. The preservation effort suffered setbacks in August 1967 when the New York City Board of Estimate voted against an initial effort to create the protected area in the proposed landfill expansion site. On October 11, 1967, Mayor John Lindsay signed
708-640: A Geographic Information Systems polygon shapefile. This estimate is at the relatively low end of previous estimates (2.2–40 Mha). A later study conservatively estimated global saltmarsh extent as 90,800 km (9,080,000 hectares). The most extensive saltmarshes worldwide are found outside the tropics, notably including the low-lying, ice-free coasts, bays and estuaries of the North Atlantic which are well represented in their global polygon dataset. The formation begins as tidal flats gain elevation relative to sea level by sediment accretion , and subsequently
885-526: A boom period during 1900–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression and post World War II years saw a slowing of growth leading into an eventual decline. The mid to late century were hard times, as the Bronx changed during 1950–1985 from a predominantly moderate-income to a predominantly lower-income area with high rates of violent crime and poverty in some areas. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in
1062-433: A canal for mosquito control as well as an intersection with the old Hunter Island causeway's cobblestone approach path. Going counterclockwise from the intersection with the two "loops", the trail passes through a grove of 100 Norway spruces planted in 1918; a black locust forest from the 1970s; and a thicket of shrubs and vines . At this point, the longer blue trail diverges to the northwest and then northeast, passing
1239-423: A coastal 'wasteland' has since changed, acknowledging that they are one of the most biologically productive habitats on earth, rivalling tropical rainforests . Salt marshes are ecologically important, providing habitats for native migratory fish and acting as sheltered feeding and nursery grounds. They are now protected by legislation in many countries to prevent the loss of these ecologically important habitats. In
1416-452: A coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh , is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs , grasses , or low shrubs . These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the salt marsh in trapping and binding sediments . Salt marshes play
1593-522: A favorable habitat for them due to the low oxygen content and high levels of light present, optimizing their photosynthesis. In anoxic environments, like salt marshes, many microbes have to use sulfate as an electron acceptor during cellular respiration instead of oxygen, producing lots of hydrogen sulfide as a byproduct. While hydrogen sulfide is toxic to most organisms, purple bacteria require it to grow and will metabolize it to either sulfate or sulfur, and by doing so allowing other organisms to inhabit
1770-799: A free bridge across the Harlem River. After the American Revolutionary War , the King's Bridge toll was abolished. The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of Westchester County , one of the 12 original counties of the English Province of New York . The present Bronx County was contained in the town of Westchester and parts of the towns in Yonkers , Eastchester , and Pelham . In 1846,
1947-465: A grove scorched by an uncontrolled fire; and remnants of the former estates' stone walls. Both trails merge and loop back to the east and south, passing through glacial-erratic boulders, New England bedrock, and the island's salt marsh. The Gray Mare glacial erratic can also be seen along this stretch. The Bronx The Bronx ( / b r ɒ ŋ k s / BRONKS ) is the northernmost borough of New York City , coextensive with Bronx County , in
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#17327876107072124-621: A lagoon located to the west of the island. The deteriorated Hunter Mansion was demolished in 1937 with the construction of the beach. The expanded Orchard Beach was opened on June 25, 1937. In the 1960s, there were plans to expand a landfill in Pelham Bay Park, which would have created the City's second-largest refuse disposal site next to Fresh Kills in Staten Island . A group of preservationists headed by Dr. Theodore Kazimiroff ,
2301-435: A large amount of organic matter and are full of decomposition, which feeds a broad food chain of organisms from bacteria to mammals. Many of the halophytic plants such as cordgrass are not grazed at all by higher animals but die off and decompose to become food for micro-organisms, which in turn become food for fish and birds. The factors and processes that influence the rate and spatial distribution of sediment accretion within
2478-426: A large role in the aquatic food web and the delivery of nutrients to coastal waters. They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection . Salt marshes have historically been endangered by poorly implemented coastal management practices, with land reclaimed for human uses or polluted by upstream agriculture or other industrial coastal uses. Additionally, sea level rise caused by climate change
2655-824: A law authorizing in the creation of two wildlife refuges in Pelham Bay Park: the Thomas Pell Wildlife Sanctuary on the western side of the park, and the Hunter Island Marine Zoology and Geology Sanctuary on the former Hunter Island. This was followed by the Kazimiroff Nature Trail and the Pelham Bay Park Environmental Center in 1986. The trail was named after the historian Kazimiroff, who had since died. In 1811,
2832-433: A likely response to the increased nutrient value of the leaves of fertilised Spartina densiflora plots, compared to non-fertilised plots. Regardless of whether the plots were fertilised or not, grazing by Neohelice granulata also reduced the length specific leaf growth rates of the leaves in summer, while increasing their length-specific senescence rates. This may have been assisted by the increased fungal effectiveness on
3009-671: A major role in the salt marsh area. Salt marshes can suffer from dieback in the high marsh and die-off in the low marsh. A study published in 2022 estimates that 22% of saltmarsh loss from 1999-2019 was due to direct human drivers, defined as observable activities occurring at the location of the detected change, such as conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, coastal development, or other physical structures. Additionally, 30% of saltmarsh gain over this same time period were also due to direct drivers, such as restoration activities or coastal modifications to promote tidal exchange. Reclamation of land for agriculture by converting marshland to upland
3186-407: A monoculture of the smooth cordgrass , Spartina alterniflora dominate, then heading landwards, zones of the salt hay, Spartina patens , black rush, Juncus gerardii and the shrub Iva frutescens are seen respectively. These species all have different tolerances that make the different zones along the marsh best suited for each individual. Plant species diversity is relatively low, since
3363-558: A mostly poor African American and Hispanic (largely Puerto Rican ) population in the West Bronx. One significant factor that shifted the racial and economic demographics was the construction of Co-op City , built to house middle-class residents in family-sized apartments. The high-rise complex played a significant role in draining middle-class residents from older tenement buildings in the borough's southern and western fringes. Most predominantly non-Hispanic White communities today are in
3540-543: A new Orchard Beach recreation area after he saw the popularity of the Hunter Island campsite. At the time, the beach was a narrow sand bar connecting Hunter Island and Rodman's Neck. Moses canceled 625 leases for the project, and after campers unsuccessfully sued the city, the site was cleared of campers in June. Moses decided to connect Hunter Island and the Twin Islands to Rodman's Neck by filling in most of LeRoy's Bay ,
3717-426: A new town was created by division of Westchester, called West Farms. The town of Morrisania was created, in turn, from West Farms in 1855. In 1873, the town of Kingsbridge was established within the former borders of the town of Yonkers, roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale , and Woodlawn Heights , and included Woodlawn Cemetery . Among the famous people who settled in
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#17327876107073894-583: A newspaper article from 1933, the Old Stone House was the Pells' residence. The island was subsequently owned by the Hunter and Henderson families. The island was briefly called Henderson's Island after Alexander Henderson, the third owner of the island. Upon Henderson's death in 1804, the island was offered for lease. John Hunter , a successful businessman and politician, purchased the property shortly afterward. Hunter, his wife Elizabeth, and his son Elias moved to
4071-421: A pinnacle point where accommodation space was necessary for continued survival. The presence of accommodation space allows for new mid/high habitats to form, and for marshes to escape complete inundation. Earlier in the 20th century, it was believed that draining salt marshes would help reduce mosquito populations, such as Aedes taeniorhynchus , the black salt marsh mosquito. In many locations, particularly in
4248-407: A place for "the vicious elements, bootleggers, gamblers and their friends in all walks of life" to cooperate and to "evade the law, escape punishment for their crimes, [and] to deter the police from doing their duty". Between 1930 and 1960, moderate and upper income Bronxites (predominantly non-Hispanic Whites) began to relocate from the borough's southwestern neighborhoods. This migration has left
4425-866: A promontory on the Hudson in Riverdale . Nearer the borough's center, and along the Bronx River , is Bronx Park ; its northern end houses the New York Botanical Gardens , which preserve the last patch of the original hemlock forest that once covered the county, and its southern end the Bronx Zoo , the largest urban zoological gardens in the United States. In 1904 the Chestnut Blight pathogen ( Cryphonectria parasitica )
4602-527: A refuge for animals. Many marine fish use salt marshes as nursery grounds for their young before they move to open waters. Birds may raise their young among the high grasses, because the marsh provides both sanctuary from predators and abundant food sources which include fish trapped in pools, insects, shellfish, and worms. Saltmarshes across 99 countries (essentially worldwide) were mapped by Mcowen et al. 2017. A total of 5,495,089 hectares of mapped saltmarsh across 43 countries and territories are represented in
4779-405: A result of the degradation of the coastal food web in the region. The bare areas left by the intense grazing of cordgrass by Sesarma reticulatum at Cape Cod are suitable for occupation by another burrowing crab, Uca pugnax , which are not known to consume live macrophytes. The intense bioturbation of salt marsh sediments from this crab's burrowing activity has been shown to dramatically reduce
4956-447: A result, there are microhabitats populated by different species of flora and fauna dependent on their physiological abilities. The flora of a salt marsh is differentiated into levels according to the plants' individual tolerance of salinity and water table levels. Vegetation found at the water must be able to survive high salt concentrations, periodical submersion , and a certain amount of water movement, while plants further inland in
5133-548: A system of major Bronx parks connected by park-like thoroughfares is usually attributed to John Mullaly . Woodlawn Cemetery , located on 400 acres (160 ha) and one of the largest cemeteries in New York City, sits on the western bank of the Bronx River near Yonkers . It opened in 1863, in what was then the town of Yonkers, at the time a rural area. Since the first burial in 1865, more than 300,000 people have been interred there. The borough's northern side includes
5310-472: Is a common elevation (above the sea level) limit for these plants to survive, where anywhere below the optimal line would lead to anoxic soils due to constant submergence and too high above this line would mean harmful soil salinity levels due to the high rate of evapotranspiration as a result of decreased submergence. Along with the vertical accretion of sediment and biomass, the accommodation space for marsh land growth must also be considered. Accommodation space
5487-578: Is adjacent to Hog Island and Cat Briar Island, two tiny islands in Pelham Bay. Hunter Island is also physically attached to Twin Island on the southeast corner. Twin Island was itself formerly two islands called East and West Twin Islands; the westernmost island was connected to Hunter Island via a man-made stone bridge, which now lies in ruins in one of the city's last remaining salt marshes . Twin Island
Hunter Island (Bronx) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5664-464: Is also dependent on other factors like productivity of the vegetation, sediment supply, land subsidence, biomass accumulation, and magnitude and frequency of storms. In a study published by Ü. S. N. Best in 2018, they found that bioaccumulation was the number one factor in a salt marsh's ability to keep up with SLR rates. The salt marsh's resilience depends upon its increase in bed level rate being greater than that of sea levels' increasing rate, otherwise
5841-409: Is based on the Bronx River , while the other strictly separates South Bronx from the rest of the borough. The Bronx River divides the borough nearly in half, putting the earlier-settled, more urban, and hillier sections in the western lobe and the newer, more suburban coastal sections in the eastern lobe. It is an accurate reflection on the Bronx's history considering that the towns that existed in
6018-542: Is correlated with sediment size: coarser sediments will deposit at higher elevations (closer to the creek) than finer sediments (further from the creek). Sediment size is also often correlated with particular trace metals, and thus tidal creeks can affect metal distributions and concentrations in salt marshes, in turn affecting the biota. Salt marshes do not however require tidal creeks to facilitate sediment flux over their surface although salt marshes with this morphology seem to be rarely studied. The elevation of marsh species
6195-601: Is directly connected to its strategic location between New England and New York ( Manhattan ). Control over the bridges across the Harlem River plagued the period of British colonial rule. The King's Bridge, built in 1693 where Broadway reached the Spuyten Duyvil Creek , was a possession of Frederick Philipse , lord of Philipse Manor . Local farmers on both sides of the creek resented the tolls, and in 1759, Jacobus Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer led them in building
6372-541: Is endangering other marshes, through erosion and submersion of otherwise tidal marshes. However, recent acknowledgment by both environmentalists and larger society for the importance of saltwater marshes for biodiversity, ecological productivity and other ecosystem services , such as carbon sequestration , have led to an increase in salt marsh restoration and management since the 1980s. Salt marshes occur on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitudes which can be stable, emerging, or submerging depending if
6549-498: Is important; those species at lower elevations experience longer and more frequent tidal floods and therefore have the opportunity for more sediment deposition to occur. Species at higher elevations can benefit from a greater chance of inundation at the highest tides when increased water depths and marsh surface flows can penetrate into the marsh interior. The coast is a highly attractive natural feature to humans through its beauty, resources, and accessibility. As of 2002, over half of
6726-416: Is in the fall. Thus seasonally, the abundance of chemolithotrophs in salt marshes is highest in autumn. Salt marshes are the ideal environment for sulfate-reducing bacteria. The sulfate-reducing bacteria tend to live in anoxic conditions, such as in salt marshes, because they require reduced compounds to produce their energy. Since there is a high sedimentation rate and a high amount of organic matter ,
6903-467: Is in turn attached to another former island called Two Trees Island. Twin and Two Trees Islands are now connected to Hunter Island and the mainland by landfill. All six landmasses form part of the Hunter Island Marine Zoology and Geology Sanctuary. To the south is Orchard Beach and Pelham Bay . Orchard Beach surrounds the bay on its east in a roughly crescent shape, and the northern part of the beach connects Hunter and Twin Islands. The bay formerly adjoined
7080-691: Is land and 15 square miles (39 km ) (27%) is water. The Bronx is New York City's northernmost borough, New York State's southernmost mainland county and the only part of New York City that is almost entirely on the North American mainland, unlike the other four boroughs that are either islands or located on islands. The bedrock of the West Bronx is primarily Fordham gneiss , a high-grade heavily banded metamorphic rock containing significant amounts of pink feldspar . Marble Hill – politically part of Manhattan but now physically attached to
7257-533: Is largely determined by the composition of plant species in the salt marsh ecosystem. Each type of salt-marsh plant has varying lengths of growing seasons , varying photosynthetic rates, and they all lose varying amounts of organic matter to the ocean, resulting in varying carbon-inputs to the ecosystem. The results from an experiment that was done in a salt marsh in the Yangtze estuary in China, suggested that both
Hunter Island (Bronx) - Misplaced Pages Continue
7434-420: Is made accessible to the salt marsh food web largely through these bacterial communities which are then consumed by bacterivores . Bacteria are responsible for the degradation of up to 88% of lignocellulotic material in salt marshes. However, fungal populations have been found to dominate over bacterial populations in winter months. The fungi that make up the decomposition community in salt marshes come from
7611-464: Is measured in g m yr they are equalled only by tropical rainforests. Additionally, they can help reduce wave erosion on sea walls designed to protect low-lying areas of land from wave erosion. De-naturalisation of the landward boundaries of salt marshes from urban or industrial encroachment can have negative effects. In the Avon-Heathcote estuary/Ihutai, New Zealand, species abundance and
7788-423: Is microbial decomposition activity. Nutrient cycling in salt marshes is highly promoted by the resident community of bacteria and fungi involved in remineralizing organic matter. Studies on the decomposition of a salt marsh cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora , have shown that fungal colonization begins the degradation process, which is then finished by the bacterial community. The carbon from Spartina alterniflora
7965-614: Is not very marked; the Venetian Lagoon in Italy , for example, is made up of these sorts of animals and or living organisms belonging to this ecosystem. They have a big impact on the biodiversity of the area. Salt marsh ecology involves complex food webs which include primary producers (vascular plants, macroalgae, diatoms, epiphytes, and phytoplankton), primary consumers (zooplankton, macrozoa, molluscs, insects), and secondary consumers. The low physical energy and high grasses provide
8142-458: Is the land available for additional sediments to accumulate and marsh vegetation to colonize laterally. This lateral accommodation space is often limited by anthropogenic structures such as coastal roads, sea walls and other forms of development of coastal lands. A study by Lisa M. Schile, published in 2014, found that across a range of sea level rise rates, marshlands with high plant productivity were resistant against sea level rises but all reached
8319-508: The Bedford Park neighborhood; the reservoir was built in the 1890s on the site of the former Jerome Park Racetrack . Further south is Crotona Park , home to a 3.3-acre (1.3 ha) lake, 28 species of trees, and a large swimming pool. The land for these parks, and many others, was bought by New York City in 1888, while land was still open and inexpensive, in anticipation of future needs and future pressures for development. Some of
8496-1157: The Camargue , France in the Rhône delta or the Ebro delta in Spain. They are also extensive within the rivers of the Mississippi River Delta in the United States . In New Zealand, most salt marshes occur at the head of estuaries in areas where there is little wave action and high sedimentation. Such marshes are located in Awhitu Regional Park in Auckland , the Manawatū Estuary , and the Avon Heathcote Estuary / Ihutai in Christchurch . Back-barrier marshes are sensitive to
8673-508: The Crenarchaeota group, AOB play a critical role within the salt marsh environment too. Increases in marsh salinity tend to favor AOB, while higher oxygen levels and lower carbon-to-nitrogen ratios favor AOA. These AOB are important in catalyzing the rate-limiting step within the nitrification process, by using ammonium monooxygenase (AMO), produced from amoA , to convert ammonium (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2-). Specifically, within
8850-560: The Hunter Island Marine Zoology and Geology Sanctuary , established in 1967, and the Kazimiroff Nature Trail and Orchard Beach Environmental Center , which opened in 1986. To the north and west of the former island is LeRoy's Bay , a lagoon nearby that separated Hunter Island from the mainland. The bay was traversed by a stone causeway to Hunter Island. Most of the lagoon was filled in during
9027-653: The Hutchinson River (named after the religious leader Anne Hutchinson , killed along its banks in 1641), passes through the East Bronx and empties into Eastchester Bay . The Bronx also includes several small islands in the East River and Long Island Sound , such as City Island and Hart Island . Rikers Island in the East River, home to the large jail complex for the entire city, is also part of
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#17327876107079204-514: The New York City Subway contributed to the increase in population as thousands of immigrants came to the Bronx, resulting in a major boom in residential construction. Among these groups, many Irish Americans , Italian Americans , and especially Jewish Americans settled here. In addition, French , German , Polish , and other immigrants moved into the borough. As evidence of the change in population, by 1937, 592,185 Jews lived in
9381-542: The Pelham Islands , the historical name for a group of islands in western Long Island Sound that once belonged to Thomas Pell . The island is connected to another former island, Twin Island , on the northeast. The area around Hunter Island was originally settled by the Siwanoy Native Americans. One of Pell's descendants, Joshua Pell, moved onto the island in 1743. It was subsequently owned by
9558-479: The Southern United States , Nicaraguans , Panamanians , Hondurans , and South Asians . The Bronx contains the poorest congressional district in the United States , New York's 15th . The borough also features upper- and middle-income neighborhoods, such as Riverdale , Fieldston , Spuyten Duyvil , Schuylerville , Pelham Bay , Pelham Gardens , Morris Park , and Country Club . Parts of
9735-465: The Spuyten Duyvil Creek ; Marble Hill's postal ZIP code , telephonic area codes and fire service, however, are shared with the Bronx and not Manhattan. The Bronx River flows south from Westchester County through the borough, emptying into the East River; it is the only entirely freshwater river in New York City. It separates the West Bronx from the schist of the East Bronx . A smaller river,
9912-476: The U.S. state of New York . It is south of Westchester County ; north and east of the New York City borough of Manhattan , across the Harlem River ; and north of the New York City borough of Queens , across the East River . The Bronx, the only New York City borough not primarily located on an island, has a land area of 42 square miles (109 km ) and a population of 1,472,654 at the 2020 census . Of
10089-470: The definite article as "the Bronx" or "The Bronx", both legally and colloquially. The "County of the Bronx" also takes "the" immediately before "Bronx" in formal references, like the coextensive "Borough of the Bronx". The United States Postal Service uses "Bronx, NY" for mailing addresses. The region was apparently named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the "Annexed District of The Bronx", created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County . It
10266-676: The mineralization of organic nitrogen compounds, to the process of nitrogen oxidation. Further, nitrogen oxidation is important for the downstream removal of nitrates into nitrogen gas, catalyzed by denitrifiers , from the marsh environment. Hence, AOB play an indirect role in nitrogen removal into the atmosphere. The bacterial photoautotroph community of salt marshes primarily consists of cyanobacteria , purple bacteria , and green sulfur bacteria . Cyanobacteria are important nitrogen fixers in salt marshes, and provide nitrogen to organisms like diatoms and microalgae. Oxygen inhibits photosynthesis in purple bacteria, which makes estuaries
10443-408: The sedimentation is greater, equal to, or lower than relative sea level rise ( subsidence rate plus sea level change), respectively. Commonly these shorelines consist of mud or sand flats (known also as tidal flats or abbreviated to mudflats ) which are nourished with sediment from inflowing rivers and streams. These typically include sheltered environments such as embankments, estuaries and
10620-641: The species richness and total abundance of sulfate-reducing bacterial communities increased when a new plant, S. alterniflora , with a higher C-input to the ecosystem was introduced. Although chemolithotrophs produce their own carbon, they still depend on the C-input from salt marshes because of the indirect impact it has on the amount of viable electron donors , such as reduced sulfur compounds. The concentration of reduced sulfur compounds, as well as other possible electron donors , increases with more organic-matter decomposition (by other organisms). Therefore if
10797-606: The "Gray Mare" at the northwestern shore of the island, is a glacial erratic where the Siwanoy would conduct ceremonies. Another boulder was the "Mishow", another important ceremonial site for the Siwanoy, as well as the burial sites of two sachems . Fishing was once conducted on Hunter Island's eastern shore (though not necessarily by the Siwanoy), and on some days, fishermen netted over a thousand pounds of fish. Sources indicate Wampage II, Siwanoy sachem and son of Wampage I , had
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#173278761070710974-413: The 1920s as the surrounding areas were developed. Hunter Island became popular with European immigrants who built shelters and established summer colonies. This led to the island being closed and camping banned, but was unsuccessful at preventing the beachgoers from returning. Upon taking office in 1934, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses surveyed every park in the city. Moses devised plans for
11151-438: The 62nd and last county to be created by the state, effective in 1914. Bronx County's courts opened for business on January 2, 1914 (the same day that John P. Mitchel started work as Mayor of New York City ). Marble Hill, Manhattan , was now connected to the Bronx by filling in the former waterway, but it is not part of the borough or county. The history of the Bronx during the 20th century may be divided into four periods:
11328-488: The Bronx (43.9% of the borough's population), while only 54,000 Jews lived in the borough in 2011. Many synagogues still stand in the Bronx, but most have been converted to other uses. Bootleggers and gangs were active in the Bronx during Prohibition (1920–1933). Irish, Italian, Jewish, and Polish gangs smuggled in most of the illegal whiskey, and the oldest sections of the borough became poverty-stricken. Police Commissioner Richard Enright said that speakeasies provided
11505-557: The Bronx began in 1639. The Bronx was originally part of Westchester County , but it was ceded to New York County in two major parts ( West Bronx , 1874 and East Bronx , 1895) before it became Bronx County. Originally, the area was part of the Lenape 's Lenapehoking territory inhabited by Siwanoy of the Wappinger Confederacy. Over time, European colonists converted the borough into farmlands. The Bronx's development
11682-404: The Bronx during the 19th and early 20th centuries were author Willa Cather , tobacco merchant Pierre Lorillard , and inventor Jordan L. Mott , who established Mott Haven to house the workers at his iron works. The consolidation of the Bronx into New York City proceeded in two stages. In 1873, the state legislature annexed Kingsbridge, West Farms, and Morrisania to New York, effective in 1874;
11859-407: The Bronx saw a steep decline in population, livable housing, and quality of life starting from the mid-to-late 1960s, continuing throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s, ultimately culminating in a wave of arson in the late 1970s, a period when hip hop music evolved. The South Bronx , in particular, experienced severe urban decay . The borough began experiencing new population growth starting in
12036-701: The Bronx was designated an All America City by the National Civic League , acknowledging its comeback from the decline of the mid-century. In 2006, The New York Times reported that "construction cranes have become the borough's new visual metaphor, replacing the window decals of the 1980s in which pictures of potted plants and drawn curtains were placed in the windows of abandoned buildings." The borough has experienced substantial new building construction since 2002. Between 2002 and June 2007, 33,687 new units of housing were built or were under way and $ 4.8 billion has been invested in new housing. In
12213-532: The Bronx – is so-called because of the formation of Inwood marble there as well as in Inwood, Manhattan , and parts of the Bronx and Westchester County. The Hudson River separates the Bronx on the west from Alpine , Tenafly and Englewood Cliffs in Bergen County, New Jersey ; the Harlem River separates it from the island of Manhattan to the southwest; the East River separates it from Queens to
12390-508: The Bronx's decline may have been the development of high-rise housing projects , particularly in the South Bronx . Yet another factor may have been a reduction in the real estate listings and property-related financial services offered in some areas of the Bronx, such as mortgage loans or insurance policies—a process known as redlining . Others have suggested a " planned shrinkage " of municipal services, such as fire-fighting. There
12567-542: The Bronx-based organization Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx, arguing the definite article is part of the proper name. In particular, the Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx is leading efforts to make the city refer to the borough with an uppercase definite article in all uses, comparing the lowercase article in the Bronx's name to "not capitalizing the 's' in 'Staten Island ' ". European colonization of
12744-577: The Bronx. The Bronx's highest elevation at 280 feet (85 m) is in the northwest corner, west of Van Cortlandt Park and in the Chapel Farm area near the Riverdale Country School . The opposite (southeastern) side of the Bronx has four large low peninsulas or "necks" of low-lying land that jut into the waters of the East River and were once salt marsh : Hunt's Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck and Throggs Neck . Further up
12921-626: The Hunter Mansion's garden. Member species of the islands' salt marsh ecosystem include egrets , cormorants , fiddler crabs , horseshoe crabs , marine worms , barnacles , and oysters . In 1983, the Theodore Kazimiroff Environmental Center was proposed for the park, alongside a nature trail that would wind through the park's terrain. It would be named out of respect to the late Kazimiroff, who had died in 1980. The Kazimiroff Nature Trail, as well as
13098-427: The Hunter and Henderson families, and the island was briefly named Henderson's Island after the latter. Henderson's Island was purchased by politician John Hunter in 1804. Hunter built a mansion on the island and his family resided on the island until 1865, when it was sold to former mayor Ambrose Kingsland . Several other people owned Hunter Island before being incorporated into Pelham Bay Park in 1888. Subsequently,
13275-709: The Hunter family built a mansion in the English Georgian style . It was described as one of the finest mansions of the period, with three stories, a large veranda , and terraced gardens leading to the island's shore. The building had a rectangular shape. The main entrance faced west, toward the mainland, and contained a grand doorway flanked by columns. A portico at the back faced the Long Island Sound. The mansion held an art collection of over 400 works from artists such as Rembrandt , Peter Paul Rubens , Anthony van Dyck , and Leonardo da Vinci . The home
13452-411: The Kazimiroff Nature Trail and Orchard Beach Environmental Center, which was established in 1986 as a tribute to Bronx preservationist Theodore Kazimiroff . Hunter Island is located within the northeastern part of Pelham Bay Park, which is itself located in the northeast Bronx, near New York City's northern border. The island's flora largely consists of tracts of old-growth forest that existed prior to
13629-399: The Pelham Bay Park Environmental Center at Orchard Beach, opened in June 1986. The Kazimiroff Nature Trail traverses 189 acres (76 ha) of Hunter Island. Much of the island's natural features are found along the trail. The trail comprises two overlapping lasso-shaped paths, the "red" and "blue" trails. The blue trail is slightly longer than the red trail. Along the shared "lasso spur" is
13806-589: The Plum Island estuary, Massachusetts (U.S.), stratigraphic cores revealed that during the 18th and 19th century the marsh prograded over subtidal and mudflat environments to increase in area from 6 km to 9 km after European settlers deforested the land upstream and increased the rate of sediment supply. The conversion of marshland to upland for agriculture has in the past century been overshadowed by conversion for urban development. Coastal cities worldwide have encroached onto former salt marshes and in
13983-510: The South Bronx. The IRT White Plains Road Line ( 2 and 5 trains) began to show an increase in riders. Chains such as Marshalls , Staples , and Target opened stores in the Bronx. More bank branches opened in the Bronx as a whole (rising from 106 in 1997 to 149 in 2007), although not primarily in poor or minority neighborhoods, while the Bronx still has fewer branches per person than other boroughs. In 1997,
14160-553: The Third Avenue Bridge as people buy apartments and renovate them. Several boutique and chain hotels opened in the 2010s in the South Bronx . New developments are underway. The Bronx General Post Office on the corner of the Grand Concourse and East 149th Street is being converted into a market place, boutiques, restaurants and office space with a USPS concession. The Kingsbridge Armory , often cited as
14337-554: The U.S. the growth of cities looked to salt marshes for waste disposal sites. Estuarine pollution from organic, inorganic, and toxic substances from urban development or industrialisation is a worldwide problem and the sediment in salt marshes may entrain this pollution with toxic effects on floral and faunal species. Urban development of salt marshes has slowed since about 1970 owing to growing awareness by environmental groups that they provide beneficial ecosystem services . They are highly productive ecosystems , and when net productivity
14514-535: The United States and Europe, they are now accorded a high level of protection by the Clean Water Act and the Habitats Directive respectively. With the impacts of this habitats and their importance now realised, a growing interest in restoring salt marshes through managed retreat or the reclamation of land has been established. However, many Asian countries such as China still need to recognise
14691-583: The abundance of fixed-nitrogen in these environments critically influences the distribution of the betaproteobacteria within the salt marsh: Nitrosomonas are more found to be in greater abundance within high N and C environments, whereas Nitrosospira are found to be more abundant in lower N and C regions. Further, factors such as temperature, pH, net primary productivity, and regions of anoxia may limit nitrification , and thus critically influence nitrifier distribution. The role of nitrification by AOB in salt marshes critically links ammonia , produced from
14868-419: The access of nutrients to other species. Their burrows provide an avenue for the transport of dissolved oxygen in the burrow water through the oxic sediment of the burrow walls and into the surrounding anoxic sediment, which creates the perfect habitat for special nitrogen cycling bacteria. These nitrate reducing (denitrifying) bacteria quickly consume the dissolved oxygen entering into the burrow walls to create
15045-687: The acquired land was set aside for the Grand Concourse and Pelham Parkway , the first of a series of boulevards and parkways ( thoroughfares lined with trees, vegetation and greenery). Later projects included the Bronx River Parkway , which developed a road while restoring the riverbank and reducing pollution, Mosholu Parkway and the Henry Hudson Parkway . In 2006, a five-year, $ 220-million program of capital improvements and natural restoration in 70 Bronx parks
15222-420: The area expanding to lower marshes and becoming a dominant species. P. australis is an aggressive halophyte that can invade disturbed areas in large numbers outcompeting native plants. This loss in biodiversity is not only seen in flora assemblages but also in many animals such as insects and birds as their habitat and food resources are altered. Due to the melting of Arctic sea ice and thermal expansion of
15399-509: The area prior to annexation to the City of New York generally did not straddle the Bronx River. In addition, what is today the Bronx was annexed to New York City in two stages: areas west of the Bronx River were annexed in 1874 while areas to the east of the river were annexed in 1895. Under this system, the Bronx can be further divided into the following regions: Salt marsh A salt marsh , saltmarsh or salting , also known as
15576-580: The bacteria can break down chitin into available carbon and nitrogen for plants to use. Actinobacteria have also been found in plant rhizosphere in costal salt marshes and help plants grow through helping plants absorb more nutrients and secreting antimicrobial compounds. In Jiangsu, China, Actinobacteria from the suborders Pseudonocardineae , Corynebacterineae , Propionibacterineae , Streptomycineae , Micromonosporineae , Streptosporangineae and Micrococcineae were cultured and isolated from rhizosphere soil. Another key process among microbial salt marshes
15753-492: The borough's name is sometimes disputed. Generally, the definite article is lowercase in place names ("the Bronx") except in some official references. The definite article is capitalized ("The Bronx") at the beginning of a sentence or in any other situation when a normally lowercase word would be capitalized. However, some people and groups refer to the borough with a capital letter at all times, such as Bronx Borough Historian Lloyd Ultan , The Bronx County Historical Society , and
15930-404: The building they lived in so they could qualify for emergency relocations by city social service agencies to better residences, sometimes being relocated to other parts of the city. Out of 289 census tracts in the Bronx borough, 7 tracts lost more than 97% of their buildings to arson and abandonment between 1970 and 1980; another 44 tracts had more than 50% of their buildings meet the same fate. By
16107-585: The capability to keep pace with a rising sea level, by 2100, mean sea level could see increases between 0.6m to 1.1m. Marshes are susceptible to both erosion and accretion, which play a role in a what is called a bio-geomorphic feedback. Salt marsh vegetation captures sediment to stay in the system which in turn allows for the plants to grow better and thus the plants are better at trapping sediment and accumulate more organic matter. This positive feedback loop potentially allows for salt marsh bed level rates to keep pace with rising sea level rates. However, this feedback
16284-577: The city in 1896. Following these two annexations, the Bronx's territory had moved from Westchester County into New York County, which already included Manhattan and the rest of pre-1874 New York City. On January 1, 1898, the consolidated City of New York was born, including the Bronx as one of the five distinct boroughs . However, it remained part of New York County until Bronx County was created in 1914. On April 19, 1912, those parts of New York County which had been annexed from Westchester County in previous decades were newly constituted as Bronx County,
16461-558: The class of Betaproteobacteria , Nitrosomonas aestuarii , Nitrosomonas marina , and Nitrosospira ureae are highly prevalent within the salt marsh environment; similarly, within the class of Gammaproteobacteria , Nitrosococcus spp. are key AOB in the marshes. The abundance of these chemolithoautotrophs varies along the salinity gradients present within salt marshes: Nitrosomonas are more prevalent within lower salinity or freshwater regions, while Nitrosospira are found to dominate in higher saline environments. In addition,
16638-514: The coastline, Rodman's Neck lies between Pelham Bay Park in the northeast and City Island . The Bronx's irregular shoreline extends for 75 square miles (194 km ). Although Bronx County was the third most densely populated county in the United States in 2022 (after Manhattan and Brooklyn ), 7,000 acres (28 km ) of the Bronx—about one fifth of the Bronx's area, and one quarter of its land area—is given over to parkland. The vision of
16815-419: The common inundation of marshlands. These types of plants are called halophytes. Halophytes are a crucial part of salt marsh biodiversity and their potential to adjust to elevated sea levels. With elevated sea levels, salt marsh vegetation would likely be more exposed to more frequent inundation rates and it must be adaptable or tolerant to the consequential increased salinity levels and anaerobic conditions. There
16992-515: The compacted agricultural soils acting as an aquiclude . Terrestrial soils of this nature need to adjust from fresh to saline interstitial water by a change in the chemistry and the structure of the soil, accompanied with fresh deposition of estuarine sediment, before salt marsh vegetation can establish. The vegetation structure, species richness, and plant community composition of salt marshes naturally regenerated on reclaimed agricultural land can be compared to adjacent reference salt marshes to assess
17169-595: The conditions of the sediment are usually dependably anoxic. However, the conditions all across the salt marsh (above the sediment) are not completely anoxic, which means the organisms living here must have some level of tolerance to oxygen. Many of the chemolithoautotrophs living outside or at the surface of the sediment also exhibit this characteristic. Sulfate-reducing bacteria play a significant role in nutrient recycling and in reducing nitrate pollution levels. Since humans have been adding disproportionate amounts of nitrates to coastal waters, salt marshes are one of
17346-521: The cordgrass Spartina anglica was introduced from England into the Manawatū River mouth in 1913 to try and reclaim the estuary land for farming. A shift in structure from bare tidal flat to pastureland resulted from increased sedimentation and the cordgrass extended out into other estuaries around New Zealand. Native plants and animals struggled to survive as non-natives out competed them. Efforts are now being made to remove these cordgrass species, as
17523-600: The damages are slowly being recognized. In the Blyth estuary in Suffolk in eastern England, the mid-estuary reclamations (Angel and Bulcamp marshes) that were abandoned in the 1940s have been replaced by tidal flats with compacted soils from agricultural use overlain with a thin veneer of mud. Little vegetation colonisation has occurred in the last 60–75 years and has been attributed to a combination of surface elevations too low for pioneer species to develop, and poor drainage from
17700-435: The depth and duration of tidal flooding. As a result, competitive species that prefer higher elevations relative to sea level can inhabit the area and often a succession of plant communities develops. Coastal salt marshes can be distinguished from terrestrial habitats by the daily tidal flow that occurs and continuously floods the area. It is an important process in delivering sediments, nutrients and plant water supply to
17877-503: The ditches. Increased nitrogen uptake by marsh species into their leaves can prompt greater rates of length-specific leaf growth, and increase the herbivory rates of crabs. The burrowing crab Neohelice granulata frequents SW Atlantic salt marshes where high density populations can be found among populations of the marsh species Spartina densiflora and Sarcocornia perennis . In Mar Chiquita lagoon , north of Mar del Plata , Argentina , Neohelice granulata herbivory increased as
18054-412: The early 1980s, the Bronx was considered the most blighted urban area in the country, particularly the South Bronx which experienced a loss of 60% of the population and 40% of housing units. However, starting in the 1990s, many of the burned-out and run-down tenements were replaced by new housing units. In May 1984, New York Supreme Court justice Peter J. McQuillan ruled that Marble Hill, Manhattan ,
18231-497: The eastern and northwestern sections of the borough . From the mid-1960s to the early 1980s, the quality of life changed for some Bronx residents. Historians and social scientists have suggested many factors, including the theory that Robert Moses ' Cross Bronx Expressway destroyed existing residential neighborhoods and created instant slums, as put forward in Robert Caro 's biography The Power Broker . Another factor in
18408-436: The ecosystem contains more decomposing organic matter, as with plants with high photosynthetic and littering rates, there will be more electron donors available to the bacteria, and thus more sulfate reduction is possible. As a result, the abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria increases. The high-photosynthetic-rate, high-litter-rate salt marsh plant, S. alterniflora, was discovered to withstand high sulfur concentrations in
18585-517: The ecosystems where nitrate pollution remains an issue. The enrichment of nitrates in the water increases denitrification , as well as microbial decomposition and primary productivity . Sulfate-reducing and oxidizing bacteria, however, play a role in removing the excess nitrates from the water to prevent eutrophication . Since the sulfate-reducing bacteria is in the water and sediment , reduced sulfur molecules are usually in abundance. These reduced sulfates then react with excess nitrate in
18762-480: The first six months of 2007 alone total investment in new residential development was $ 965 million and 5,187 residential units were scheduled to be completed. Much of the new development is springing up in formerly vacant lots across the South Bronx. In addition there came a revitalization of the existing housing market in areas such as Hunts Point, the Lower Concourse, and the neighborhoods surrounding
18939-408: The five boroughs, it has the fourth-largest area, fourth-highest population, and third-highest population density . The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a hillier section in the west , and a flatter eastern section. East and west street names are divided by Jerome Avenue . The West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County
19116-403: The flora must be tolerant of salt, complete or partial submersion, and anoxic mud substrate. The most common salt marsh plants are glassworts ( Salicornia spp.) and the cordgrass ( Spartina spp.), which have worldwide distribution. They are often the first plants to take hold in a mudflat and begin its ecological succession into a salt marsh. Their shoots lift the main flow of the tide above
19293-498: The flow of water in LeRoy's Bay. The bridge's remnants still exist as of 2017. Hunter Island Marine Zoology and Geology Sanctuary encompasses all of Twin Islands, Cat Briar Island, Two Trees Island, and the northeastern shoreline of Hunter Island. It contains many glacial erratics, large boulders that were deposited during the last glacial period . The rocky coast of Twin Islands contains the southernmost outcropping of Hartland schist ,
19470-415: The former Hunter Mansion's knoll ; a forest of white pines ; some mugwort and invasive Ailanthus ; the Hunter Mansion's main driveway; a less dense patch of trees and burnt tree stumps, part of a forest burned by the Siwanoy; white oaks and black locusts ; and lichen -covered boulders, a rare occurrence in New York City parks. The shorter red trail goes directly north through a white poplar forest;
19647-446: The human population as human-induced nitrogen enrichment enters these habitats. Nitrogen loading through human-use indirectly affects salt marshes causing shifts in vegetation structure and the invasion of non-native species. Human impacts such as sewage, urban run-off, agricultural and industrial wastes are running into the marshes from nearby sources. Salt marshes are nitrogen limited and with an increasing level of nutrients entering
19824-415: The island became a vacation destination. In the 1930s, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses extended nearby Orchard Beach , to the south of the island, by connecting Hunter Island to the mainland. Hunter Island formerly contained Hunter Mansion, which Hunter had built for his family in 1811. It was located on the island's highest point and was destroyed in 1937 when Orchard Beach was expanded onto
20001-720: The island in 1813. The Hunters built their own mansion on the island. The Old Stone House, which by then adjoined the mansion, was used as a barn. John Hunter lived on the estate until his death in 1852. Ownership of the mansion then passed to Elias Hunter. Upon Elias's death in 1865, his son John III was supposed to inherit the land only if he lived on it, as per the senior John Hunter's will. John III, who lived in Throggs Neck instead, sold it to Mayor Ambrose Kingsland in 1866. The land then passed in succession to Alvin Higgins, Gardiner Jorden, and Oliver Iselin. The city then bought
20178-485: The island. A causeway connecting Hunter Island to the mainland still exists. Today the former island is part of a wildlife refuge , the Hunter Island Marine Zoology and Geology Sanctuary, which was established in 1967 on the northern shores of Hunter and Twin Islands. The sanctuary includes rock outcroppings and an intertidal marine ecosystem that is not found anywhere else in New York state. Hunter Island also contains
20355-479: The land in 1889 for $ 324,000 (equivalent to $ 11,000,000 in 2023). In 1892, Stephen Peabody was given the right to occupy the Hunter Mansion, paying $ 1,200 a year in rent, in conjunction with his new role as groundskeeper of Hunter Island. Soon afterward, the mansion became a shelter for children operated by the Society of Little Mothers. The barn adjoining the mansion burned down in a fire in approximately 1890, and
20532-411: The largest armory in the world, is currently slated for redevelopment. Under consideration for future development is the construction of a platform over the New York City Subway 's Concourse Yard adjacent to Lehman College . The construction would permit approximately 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m ) of development and would cost US$ 350–500 million . Despite significant investment compared to
20709-546: The largest park in New York City— Pelham Bay Park , which includes Orchard Beach —and the third-largest, Van Cortlandt Park , which is west of Woodlawn Cemetery and borders Yonkers . Also in the northern Bronx, Wave Hill , the former estate of George W. Perkins —known for a historic house, gardens, changing site-specific art installations and concerts—overlooks the New Jersey Palisades from
20886-438: The late 1980s that continues into today. The Bronx was a mostly rural area for many generations, with small farms supplying the city markets. In the late 19th century, however, it grew into a railroad suburb. Faster transportation enabled rapid population growth in the late 19th century, involving the move from horse-drawn street cars to elevated railways and the subway system, which linked to Manhattan in 1904. The South Bronx
21063-650: The late 1990s and continuing to the present day. The Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape (also known historically as the Delawares ), while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck . It was divided by the Aquahung River (now known in English as the Bronx River ). The Bronx was named after Jonas Bronck ( c. 1600–1643 ), a European settler whose precise origins are disputed. Documents indicate he
21240-771: The leeward side of barrier islands and spits . In the tropics and sub-tropics they are replaced by mangroves ; an area that differs from a salt marsh in that instead of herbaceous plants , they are dominated by salt-tolerant trees. Most salt marshes have a low topography with low elevations but a vast wide area, making them hugely popular for human populations. Salt marshes are located among different landforms based on their physical and geomorphological settings. Such marsh landforms include deltaic marshes, estuarine, back-barrier, open coast, embayments and drowned-valley marshes. Deltaic marshes are associated with large rivers where many occur in Southern Europe such as
21417-766: The main role in nutrient cycling and biogeochemical processing. To date, the microbial community of salt marshes has not been found to change drastically due to human impacts, but the research is still ongoing. Because of the major role of microbes in these environments, it is critical to understand the different processes performed and different microbial players present in salt marshes. Salt marshes provide habitat for chemo(litho)autotrophs , heterotrophs , and photoautotrophs alike. These organisms contribute diverse environmental services such as sulfate reduction , nitrification , decomposition and rhizosphere interactions. Chemoautotrophs , also known as chemolithoautotrophs, are organisms capable of creating their own energy, from
21594-569: The mainland immediately north of the Dutch settlement of New Haarlem (on Manhattan Island ), and bought additional tracts from the local tribes. He eventually accumulated 500 acres (200 ha) between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which became known as Bronck's River or the Bronx [River] . Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Bronck's Land . The American poet William Bronk
21771-611: The major bedrock component of New England coastlines, as well as granite with both migmatite dikes and veins made of quartz . The sanctuary supports a unique intertidal marine ecosystem that is rare in New York State. It holds the largest continuous oak forest in Pelham Bay Park, including white , red , and black oak, as well as black cherry , white poplar , white pines , Norway spruce , and black locust trees. One can also find grape hyacinth , periwinkle , daylily , and Tartarian honeysuckle , which were part of
21948-500: The marsh can sometimes experience dry, low-nutrient conditions. It has been found that the upper marsh zones limit species through competition and the lack of habitat protection, while lower marsh zones are determined through the ability of plants to tolerate physiological stresses such as salinity, water submergence and low oxygen levels. The New England salt marsh is subject to strong tidal influences and shows distinct patterns of zonation. In low marsh areas with high tidal flooding,
22125-424: The marsh canopy. Inundation and sediment deposition on the marsh surface is also assisted by tidal creeks which are a common feature of salt marshes. Their typically dendritic and meandering forms provide avenues for the tide to rise and flood the marsh surface, as well as to drain water, and they may facilitate higher amounts of sediment deposition than salt marsh bordering open ocean. Sediment deposition
22302-489: The marsh will be overtaken and drowned. Biomass accumulation can be measured in the form of above-ground organic biomass accumulation, and below-ground inorganic accumulation by means of sediment trapping and sediment settling from suspension. Salt marsh vegetation helps to increase sediment settling because it slows current velocities, disrupts turbulent eddies, and helps to dissipate wave energy. Marsh plant species are known for their tolerance to increased salt exposure due to
22479-449: The marsh. At higher elevations in the upper marsh zone, there is much less tidal inflow, resulting in lower salinity levels. Soil salinity in the lower marsh zone is fairly constant due to everyday annual tidal flow. However, in the upper marsh, variability in salinity is shown as a result of less frequent flooding and climate variations. Rainfall can reduce salinity and evapotranspiration can increase levels during dry periods. As
22656-563: The mid-1930s reconstruction of Orchard Beach , and the bay became known as the "Orchard Beach Lagoon", or the Lagoon for short. To the north of Hunter Island is Glen Island Park , outside the city limits in Westchester County . It is separated from Hunter Island via LeRoy's Bay. Glen Island Park is operated by Westchester County, and parking and beach access are open only to Westchester residents. The eastern part of Hunter Island
22833-466: The mud surface while their roots spread into the substrate and stabilize the sticky mud and carry oxygen into it so that other plants can establish themselves as well. Plants such as sea lavenders ( Limonium spp.), plantains ( Plantago spp.), and varied sedges and rushes grow once the mud has been vegetated by the pioneer species . Salt marshes are quite photosynthetically active and are extremely productive habitats. They serve as depositories for
23010-523: The mudflats); decreased with those species at the highest elevations, which experienced the lowest frequency and depth of tidal inundations; and increased with increasing plant biomass. Spartina alterniflora , which had the most sediment adhering to it, may contribute >10% of the total marsh surface sediment accretion by this process. Salt marsh species also facilitate sediment accretion by decreasing current velocities and encouraging sediment to settle out of suspension. Current velocities can be reduced as
23187-645: The native Lenape after 1643. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Bronx received many immigrant and migrant groups as it was transformed into an urban community, first from European countries particularly Ireland , Germany , Italy , and Eastern Europe , and later from the Caribbean region (particularly Puerto Rico , Trinidad , Haiti , Guyana , Jamaica , Barbados , and the Dominican Republic ), and immigrants from West Africa (particularly from Ghana and Nigeria ), African American migrants from
23364-542: The natural tidal cycles are shifted due to land changes. The second option suggested by Bakker et al. (1997) is to restore the destroyed habitat into its natural state either at the original site or as a replacement at a different site. Under natural conditions, recovery can take 2–10 years or even longer depending on the nature and degree of the disturbance and the relative maturity of the marsh involved. Marshes in their pioneer stages of development will recover more rapidly than mature marshes as they are often first to colonize
23541-431: The northeastern United States, residents and local and state agencies dug straight-lined ditches deep into the marsh flats. The end result, however, was a depletion of killifish habitat. The killifish is a mosquito predator , so the loss of habitat actually led to higher mosquito populations, and adversely affected wading birds that preyed on the killifish. These ditches can still be seen, despite some efforts to refill
23718-558: The oceans, as a result of global warming, sea levels have begun to rise. As with all coastlines, this rise in water levels is predicted to negatively affect salt marshes, by flooding and eroding them. The sea level rise causes more open water zones within the salt marsh. These zones cause erosion along their edges, further eroding the marsh into open water until the whole marsh disintegrates. While salt marshes are susceptible to threats concerning sea level rise, they are also an extremely dynamic coastal ecosystem. Salt marshes may in fact have
23895-566: The official maps of the city. Since the late 1980s, significant development has occurred in the Bronx, first stimulated by the city's "Ten-Year Housing Plan" and community members working to rebuild the social, economic and environmental infrastructure by creating affordable housing . Groups affiliated with churches in the South Bronx erected the Nehemiah Homes with about 1,000 units. The grass roots organization Nos Quedamos' endeavor known as Melrose Commons began to rebuild areas in
24072-471: The original forest that once covered the city. These open spaces are primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north and east from Manhattan. The word "Bronx" originated with Swedish -born (or Faroese -born) Jonas Bronck , who established the first European settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639. European settlers displaced
24249-405: The oxic mud layer that is thinner than that at the mud surface. This allows a more direct diffusion path for the export of nitrogen (in the form of gaseous nitrogen (N 2 )) into the flushing tidal water. The variable salinity, climate, nutrient levels and anaerobic conditions of salt marshes provide strong selective pressures on the microorganisms inhabiting them. In salt marshes, microbes play
24426-467: The phylum ascomycota , the two most prevalent species being Phaeosphaeria spartinicola and Mycosphaerella sp. strain 2. In terms of bacteria, the alphaproteobacteria class is the most prevalent class within the salt marsh environment involved in decomposition activity. The propagation of Phaeosphaeria spartinicola is through ascospores that are released when the host plant is wetted by high tides or rain. The perception of bay salt marshes as
24603-459: The physical properties of the surrounding margins were strongly linked, and the majority of salt marsh was found to be living along areas with natural margins in the Avon / Ōtākaro and Ōpāwaho / Heathcote river outlets; conversely, artificial margins contained little marsh vegetation and restricted landward retreat. The remaining marshes surrounding these urban areas are also under immense pressure from
24780-505: The plant, although the exact mechanism has yet to be determined. Examining 16S ribosomal DNA found in Yangtze River Estuary, the most common bacteria in the rhizosphere were Proteobacteria such as Betaproteobacteria , Gammaproteobacteria , Deltaproteobacteria , and Epsilonproteobacteria . One such widespread species had a similar ribotype to the animal pathogen S. marcescens , and may be beneficial for plants as
24957-427: The post war period, many exacerbated social problems remain including high rates of violent crime, substance abuse, overcrowding, and substandard housing conditions. The Bronx has the highest rate of poverty in New York City, and the greater South Bronx is the poorest area. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , Bronx County has a total area of 57 square miles (150 km ), of which 42 square miles (110 km )
25134-548: The process. They are very adapted to photosynthesizing in low light environments with bacteriochlorophyll pigments a, c, d, and e, to help them absorb wavelengths of light that other organisms cannot. When co-existing with purple bacteria, they often occupy lower depths as they are less tolerant to oxygen, but more photosynthetically adept. Some mycorrhizal fungi , like arbuscular mycorrhiza are widely associated with salt marsh plants and may even help plants grow in salt marsh soil rich in heavy metals by reducing their uptake into
25311-463: The rate and duration of tidal flooding decreases so that vegetation can colonize on the exposed surface. The arrival of propagules of pioneer species such as seeds or rhizome portions are combined with the development of suitable conditions for their germination and establishment in the process of colonisation. When rivers and streams arrive at the low gradient of the tidal flats, the discharge rate reduces and suspended sediment settles onto
25488-641: The reshaping of barriers in the landward side of which they have been formed. They are common along much of the eastern coast of the United States and the Frisian Islands . Large, shallow coastal embayments can hold salt marshes with examples including Morecambe Bay and Portsmouth in Britain and the Bay of Fundy in North America. Salt marshes are sometimes included in lagoons, and the difference
25665-412: The rising tide around their stems and leaves and form low muddy mounds which eventually coalesce to form depositional terraces, whose upward growth is aided by a sub-surface root network which binds the sediment. Once vegetation is established on depositional terraces further sediment trapping and accretion can allow rapid upward growth of the marsh surface such that there is an associated rapid decrease in
25842-415: The salt marsh are numerous. Sediment deposition can occur when marsh species provide a surface for the sediment to adhere to, followed by deposition onto the marsh surface when the sediment flakes off at low tide. The amount of sediment adhering to salt marsh species is dependent on the type of marsh species, the proximity of the species to the sediment supply, the amount of plant biomass, and the elevation of
26019-493: The settlement of the New York City area, as well as plants introduced by John Hunter in the 19th century. A 2005 survey by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks) found 49 native species as well as four invasive species. Some of the plants found on Hunter Island, including lousewort , alum root , and broad beech fern are seldom found in other New York City parks. The island contains
26196-401: The soil, which would normally be somewhat toxic to plants. The abundance of chemolithoautotrophs in salt marshes also varies temporally as a result of being somewhat dependent on the organic C-input from plants in the ecosystem. Since plants grow most throughout the summer, and usually begin to lose biomass around fall during their late stage, the highest input of decomposing organic matter
26373-457: The southeast; and to the east, Long Island Sound separates it from Nassau County in western Long Island. Directly north of the Bronx are (from west to east) the adjoining Westchester County communities of Yonkers , Mount Vernon , Pelham Manor and New Rochelle . There is also a short southern land boundary with Marble Hill in the Borough of Manhattan, over the filled-in former course of
26550-415: The southern part of Hunter Island, but approximately one third of the original bay was filled in to create Orchard Beach from 1934 to 1938. Orchard Beach's parking lot is located on the southeast side of Hunter Island. The Siwanoy Native Americans who originally occupied the area referred to the general vicinity around Hunter Island as "Laap-Ha-Wach King", or "place of stringing beads". One notable boulder,
26727-555: The species. For example, in a study of the Eastern Chongming Island and Jiuduansha Island tidal marshes at the mouth of the Yangtze River , China, the amount of sediment adhering to the species Spartina alterniflora , Phragmites australis , and Scirpus mariqueter decreased with distance from the highest levels of suspended sediment concentrations (found at the marsh edge bordering tidal creeks or
26904-406: The stems of tall marsh species induce hydraulic drag, with the effect of minimising re-suspension of sediment and encouraging deposition. Measured concentrations of suspended sediment in the water column have been shown to decrease from the open water or tidal creeks adjacent to the marsh edge, to the marsh interior, probably as a result of direct settling to the marsh surface by the influence of
27081-436: The success of Spartina alterniflora and Suaeda maritima seed germination and established seedling survival, either by burial or exposure of seeds, or uprooting or burial of established seedlings. However, bioturbation by crabs may also have a positive effect. In New Zealand, the tunnelling mud crab Helice crassa has been given the stately name of an 'ecosystem engineer' for its ability to construct new habitats and alter
27258-410: The success of marsh regeneration. Cultivation of land upstream from the salt marsh can introduce increased silt inputs and raise the rate of primary sediment accretion on the tidal flats, so that pioneer species can spread further onto the flats and grow rapidly upwards out of the level of tidal inundation. As a result, marsh surfaces in this regime may have an extensive cliff at their seaward edge. At
27435-497: The system from anthropogenic effects , the plant species associated with salt marshes are being restructured through change in competition. For example, the New England salt marsh is experiencing a shift in vegetation structure where S. alterniflora is spreading from the lower marsh where it predominately resides up into the upper marsh zone. Additionally, in the same marshes, the reed Phragmites australis has been invading
27612-457: The three towns were soon abolished in the process. The whole territory east of the Bronx River was annexed to the city in 1895, three years before New York's consolidation with Brooklyn , Queens , and Staten Island . This included the Town of Westchester (which had voted against consolidation in 1894) and parts of Eastchester and Pelham. The nautical community of City Island voted to join
27789-423: The tidal flat surface, helped by the backwater effect of the rising tide. Mats of filamentous blue-green algae can fix silt and clay sized sediment particles to their sticky sheaths on contact which can also increase the erosion resistance of the sediments. This assists the process of sediment accretion to allow colonising species (e.g., Salicornia spp.) to grow. These species retain sediment washed in from
27966-450: The toxic environment. Purple bacteria can be further classified as either purple sulphur bacteria , or purple non-sulfur bacteria. Purple sulphur bacteria are more tolerant to sulfide and store the sulfur they create intracellularly, while purple non-sulfur bacteria excrete any sulfur they produce. Green sulfur bacteria ( Chlorobiaceae ) are photoautotrophic bacteria that utilize sulfide and thiosulfate for their growth, producing sulfate in
28143-1043: The use of inorganic molecules , and are able to thrive in harsh environments, such as deep sea vents or salt marshes, due to not depending upon external organic carbon sources for their growth and survival. Some Chemoautotrophic bacterial microorganisms found in salt marshes include Betaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria , both classes including sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB), and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) which play crucial roles in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning. Bacterial chemolithoautotrophs in salt marshes include sulfate-reducing bacteria. In these ecosystems, up to 50% of sedimentary remineralization can be attributed to sulfate reduction. The dominant class of sulfate-reducing bacteria in salt marshes tends to be Deltaproteobacteria. Some examples of deltaproteobacteria that are found in salt marshes are species of genera Desulfobulbus , Desulfuromonas , and Desulfovibrio . The abundance and diversity of chemolithoautotrophs in salt marshes
28320-511: The value of marshlands. With their ever-growing populations and intense development along the coast, the value of salt marshes tends to be ignored and the land continues to be reclaimed. Bakker et al. (1997) suggests two options available for restoring salt marshes. The first is to abandon all human interference and leave the salt marsh to complete its natural development. These types of restoration projects are often unsuccessful as vegetation tends to struggle to revert to its original structure and
28497-603: The water, reducing nitrate and oxidizing the reduced sulfur. As a result of human nitrate enrichment, it is predicted that sulfur-oxidizing bacteria which also reduce nitrates will increase in relative abundance to sulfur-reducing bacteria. Within salt marshes, chemolithoautotrophic nitrifying bacteria are also frequently identified, including Betaproteobacteria ammonia oxidizers such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira . Although ammonia-oxidizing Archaea (AOA) are found to be more prevalent than ammonium-oxidizing Bacteria (AOB) within salt marsh environments, predominantly from
28674-536: The world's population was estimated to being living within 60 km of the coastal shoreline, making coastlines highly vulnerable to human impacts from daily activities that put pressure on these surrounding natural environments. In the past, salt marshes were perceived as coastal 'wastelands,' causing considerable loss and change of these ecosystems through land reclamation for agriculture, urban development, salt production and recreation. The indirect effects of human activities such as nitrogen loading also play
28851-475: The wounds left by the crabs. The salt marshes of Cape Cod , Massachusetts (US), are experiencing creek bank die-offs of Spartina spp. (cordgrass) that has been attributed to herbivory by the crab Sesarma reticulatum . At 12 surveyed Cape Cod salt marsh sites, 10% – 90% of creek banks experienced die-off of cordgrass in association with a highly denuded substrate and high density of crab burrows. Populations of Sesarma reticulatum are increasing, possibly as
29028-598: Was a Swedish-born immigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland , Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the present-day Bronx and built a farm named "Emmaus" close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue and 132nd Street in Mott Haven . He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of
29205-526: Was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Bronck's son or his younger brother, but most probably a nephew or cousin, as there was an age difference of 16 years. Much work on the Swedish claim has been undertaken by Brian G. Andersson, former Commissioner of New York City's Department of Records, who helped organize a 375th Anniversary celebration in Bronck's hometown in 2014. The Bronx is referred to with
29382-416: Was a manufacturing center for many years and was noted as a center of piano manufacturing in the early part of the 20th century. In 1919, the Bronx was the site of 63 piano factories employing more than 5,000 workers. At the end of World War I , the Bronx hosted the rather small 1918 World's Fair at 177th Street and DeVoe Avenue. The Bronx underwent rapid urban growth after World War I. Extensions of
29559-457: Was abandoned by the early 20th century. By the early 1900s, Hunter Island had become a popular summer vacation destination, and it hosted a campsite. The Hunter House had been renovated into a hotel. In 1903, due to overcrowding on Hunter Island, NYC Parks opened another campsite at Rodman's Neck on the south tip of the island, with 100 bathhouses. By 1917, Hunter Island saw half a million seasonal visitors. The park's condition started to decline in
29736-411: Was also much debate as to whether rent control laws had made it less profitable (or more costly) for landlords to maintain existing buildings with their existing tenants than to abandon or destroy those buildings. In the 1970s, parts of the Bronx were plagued by a wave of arson. The burning of buildings was predominantly in the poorest communities, such as the South Bronx. One explanation of this event
29913-485: Was begun (financed by water and sewer revenues) as part of an agreement that allowed a water filtration plant under Mosholu Golf Course in Van Cortlandt Park. One major focus is on opening more of the Bronx River 's banks and restoring them to a natural state. The Bronx adjoins: There are two primary systems for dividing the Bronx into regions, which do not necessarily agree with one another. One system
30090-478: Was continued in the "Borough of The Bronx", created in 1898, which included a larger annexation from Westchester County in 1895. The use of the definite article is attributed to the style of referring to rivers. A time-worn story purportedly explaining the use of the definite article in the borough's name says it stems from the phrase "visiting the Broncks", referring to the settler's family. The capitalization of
30267-408: Was demolished in 1937 after a long period of deterioration. The stone causeway connected the island to the mainland. The entrance to the causeway from Eastern Boulevard (present-day Shore Road), on the mainland, was marked by two white granite gateposts. The Hunter's Island Inn, a mansion owned by Elias Hunter's daughter Elizabeth de Lancey , was located across from the gateposts. The causeway blocked
30444-546: Was found for the first time outside of Asia , here, at the Bronx Zoo. Over the next 40 years it spread throughout eastern North America and killed back essentially every American Chestnut ( Castanea dentata ), causing ecological and economic devastation. Just south of Van Cortlandt Park is the Jerome Park Reservoir , surrounded by 2 miles (3 km) of stone walls and bordering several small parks in
30621-645: Was historically a common practice. Dikes were often built to allow for this shift in land change and to provide flood protection further inland. In recent times intertidal flats have also been reclaimed. For centuries, livestock such as sheep and cattle grazed on the highly fertile salt marsh land. Land reclamation for agriculture has resulted in many changes such as shifts in vegetation structure, sedimentation, salinity, water flow, biodiversity loss and high nutrient inputs. There have been many attempts made to eradicate these problems for example, in New Zealand,
30798-634: Was separated from New York County (modern-day Manhattan) in 1914. About a quarter of the Bronx's area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery , Van Cortlandt Park , Pelham Bay Park , the New York Botanical Garden , and the Bronx Zoo in the borough's north and center. The Thain Family Forest at the New York Botanical Garden is thousands of years old and is New York City's largest remaining tract of
30975-525: Was simultaneously part of the Borough of Manhattan (not the Borough of the Bronx) and part of Bronx County (not New York County) and the matter was definitively settled later that year when the New York Legislature overwhelmingly passed legislation declaring the neighborhood part of both New York County and the Borough of Manhattan and made this clarification retroactive to 1938, as reflected on
31152-404: Was situated at the highest point on the island, 90 feet (27 m) above sea level, and had views of Long Island Sound to the east and the hills and woodlands of the Town of Pelham to the north. At the time that the mansion existed, the remainder of the island was mostly lawns, except for a few outbuildings such as the former Old Stone House, as well as a tenant's house and a garden. The mansion
31329-423: Was that landlords decided to burn their low property-value buildings and take the insurance money, as it was easier for them to get insurance money than to try to refurbish a dilapidated building or sell a building in a severely distressed area. The Bronx became identified with a high rate of poverty and unemployment, which was mainly a persistent problem in the South Bronx. There were cases where tenants set fire to
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