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106-413: The Three Crowned Kings , were the triumvirate of Chera , Chola and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country, Tamilakam , from their three Nadu (countries) of Chola Nadu , Pandya Nadu (present day Madurai and Tirunelveli ) and Chera Nadu (present day Kerala and some parts of Tamilnadu ) in southern India. They signalled a time of integration and political identity for

212-546: A Tamil language manuscript of uncertain date, contains a legend about the divine origin of the three crowned kings. According to it, the Shramana king Shalivahana (also known as Bhoja in this story) defeated Vikramaditya , and started persecuting the worshipers of Shiva and Vishnu . After failing to kill Shalivahana with a rain of fire, Shiva created three kings: Vira Cholan (Chola), Ula Cheran (Chera), and Vajranga Pandiyan (Pandya). The three kings came to bathe together at

318-572: A chairman, Edvard Beneš , who joined Masaryk in exile in 1915, as the organization's general secretary, and Milan Rastislav Štefánik , a Slovak who was an aviator in the French Army, designating to represent Slovak interests in the national council. During the closing weeks of the war, the Czechoslovak National Council was formally upgraded to a provisional government and its members were designated to hold top offices in

424-449: A daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure; peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai , service tenure, and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai were the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to periodic revision. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes; one directly paid

530-668: A delegation. Two years later, he was accompanied by a Mongolian military unit of 2000, returned to Anatolia with a jarlig given by Guyuk declaring him sultan. He was recognized as sultan in Sivas , Erzincan , Diyarbakır , Malatya , Harput . Later, a meeting was held, resulting in an accord where the three brothers (Kaykaus, Kilij and Kayqubad) would share the throne. A khutbah was read on their behalf, and coins were struck in their names. However, influenced by some emirs, Kilij Arslan did not accept this and went into conflict with Kaykaus, but suffered an unexpected defeat. On 14 June 1249, he

636-696: A descendant of the Early Cholas , reestablished resp. founded the Chola empire in 848 CE. Vijayalaya took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya and Pallava empires in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar , and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola empire. Under Aditya I , the Cholas along with

742-653: A major role in inter-regional and overseas trade. The best-known guilds were the Manigramam and Ayyavole , who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement of the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations and guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya Empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were

848-573: A major role in the army; the empire had numerous war elephants that carried houses or huge howdahs on their backs. These howdahs were full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and fought with spears at close quarters. The Chola army was mostly composed of Kaikolars —men with strong arms who were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury. Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made of bricks but other materials like stone, wood, and mud were also used. According to

954-601: A similar position: Cholas The Chola Empire , which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas , was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty , and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia . The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak

1060-577: A state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader. Informally, the term "triumvirate" may be used for any association of three. Under the influence of the Soviet Union , the term troika (Russian: for "group of three") may be used for "triumvirate". In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament . In

1166-555: A variable annual revenue to the state and the other paid fixed-rate dues to public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, Chola rulers built large, stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake that

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1272-490: Is Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , which the Rajaraja commissioned in 1010. They were also well known for their patronage of art. The development of the sculpting technique used in Chola bronzes of Hindu deities that were built using a lost wax process, was pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread, and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. Vijayalaya ,

1378-556: Is evident in their expeditions to the Ganges , naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya Empire on the island of Sumatra , and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity . Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at

1484-714: Is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu . Rajendra also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V a prisoner; he also conquered Rattapadi —territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad , and Kolar , where Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue—in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories included

1590-558: Is said to have dispatched Nagama's son Viswanatha, who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara rule. The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas, is not known. It is speculated he either fell in battle or was executed along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara. The Government of the Chola empire was monarchical , similar to the Sangam age . The empire consisted of various kingdoms, vassals, chiefdoms and areas of influence owning alliance to

1696-903: The Book of Exodus Moses , his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during the Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites . Later, when Moses was away on the Mount Sinai Aaron and Hur were left in charge of all the Israelites. In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve Apostles at three particular occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter , James, son of Zebedee and his brother John . They were

1802-704: The Edicts of Ashoka , and first in Tolkappiyam among Tamil literature who was the first to call them Three Glorified by Heaven ( Tamil :  வான்புகழ் மூவர் , Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar ). Ptolemy and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention three kingdoms ruling Tamilakam . The Pandyas were the earliest of the Muvendhar and were of high antiquity being mentioned by Kātyāyana and Valmiki . However

1908-811: The First Czechoslovak Republic . According to the Article 8 paragraph (3) from the Constitution of Indonesia , there are three head of government institutions that can act as a "temporary" triumvirate only if there are vacancies in the position of president and vice president at the same time (e.g. both president and vice president were assassinated, sick, not doing their duties, died, or resigned). They are Minister of Foreign Affairs , Minister of Home Affairs , and Minister of Defense . Those three ministers can act for president and vice president together for maximum 30 days. After that, during

2014-632: The Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Privy Secretariat , when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling. In Hinduism , the gods Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate Trimurti , where they each represent the balancing forces of creation, preservation, and destruction, respectively. Their female counterparts and consorts,

2120-692: The Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BCE), Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE), and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (d. 80 BCE) formed a triumvirate following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of the child emperor Zhao . Despite the Three Excellencies – including the Grand chancellor , Grand Secretariat , and irregularly the Grand Commandant – representing

2226-586: The Pandya dynasty to Emperor Augustus were recorded. The Roman and Greek writers praise Korkai (now called Tuticorin or Thoothukudi) as the seaport of the Pandyas. The Cholas were a prominent dynasty in South India, and they played a significant role in the Sangam Age , which is generally considered to span from 300 BCE to 1297 CE. During this period, the Cholas engaged in extensive trade both within

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2332-594: The Rajo Adaik who ruled the customs and the Rajo Ibadaik who acted as a Grand Mufti . During the Roman Republic , triumviri (or tresviri ) were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties of Roman magistrates . The term triumvirate is most commonly used by historians of ancient Rome to refer to two political alliances during

2438-722: The Tamil people . They frequently waged war against one another under a period of instability and between each other, held control over Greater Tamilakam from 6th century BCE to the 13th century. After being defeated by the Pandyas, the Cholas fled to Devicottah and are later mentioned in various texts that participated in wars in the 16th century. The etymology of the Tamil word for the three kings – Moovendhar (pronounced Mūvēntar ) – comes from Tamil : மூ , romanized:  mū , lit.   'three' and Tamil : வேந்தர் , romanized:  vēntar , lit.   'king',. They are mentioned by Megasthenes and

2544-481: The caste system played a role in Chola governance. According to Kathleen Gough , the Vellalars , the dominant aristocratic caste, provided taxes and tribute to the monarchy and military Temples in the Chola era acted as both places of worship and centres of economic activity, benefiting the community. Some of the output of villages was given to temples, which reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to

2650-498: The crisis of the Roman Republic : Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola , Chera , and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country. Sivaperuman , Murugan and Agatiyar are considered triumvirate of Tamil language and Sangam literature . In 1246, Rum Seljuk sultan Kaykaus II was invited to Güyük Khan 's coronation. Instead he sent Kilij Arslan IV , who went to Karakorum with

2756-539: The fire dynasty , retaining the solar and lunar origins for the Chola and the Pandya kings, respectively. The Tiruvilayatar Puranam (or Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam ), possibly from the 17th century, also states that when Brahma re-created the world after a deluge , he created the Chera, Chola and the Pandya kings as descendants of the fire, the sun and the moon, respectively. Chola Purva Patayam ("Ancient Chola Record"),

2862-427: The first triumvirate of Julius Caesar , Pompey , and Crassus which led to the end of the Roman Republic . Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as triumvirs which was used against them in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794). In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi,

2968-624: The triveni sangam (three-river confluence) in Thirumukkoodal, and formed an alliance against Shalivahana. Next, they went through a number of adventures at various places, including Kashi and Kanchi . With the blessings of Durga , they found treasure and inscriptions of Hindu kings from the age of Shantanu to Vikramaditya. They then reached Cudatturiyur (possibly Uraiyur ), where Vira Cholan wrote letters to all those who worshipped Shiva and Vishnu, seeking their help against Shalivahana. A number of people assembled at Cudatturiyur to support

3074-514: The 10th to 11th centuries because Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major Chola export. Farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community, who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and were an economically powerful group. Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people besides landowners. The Vellalar community

3180-674: The 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country but they also faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying the Chalukya capital. The Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with

3286-565: The Chalukyas. Virarajendra then marched against Vengi and probably killed Saktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya VII. In the midst of this, in 1063, Rajendra II died; because his son Rajamahendra had predeceased him, Virarajendra returned to Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was crowned the Chola king (1063–1070). Virarajendra split the Western Chalukya kingdom by persuading Chalukya prince Vikramaditya IV to become his son-in-law and to seize

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3392-667: The Chola Empire's main trading partners. The Chola dynasty played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The empire's market structure and economic policies were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song dynasty . A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in

3498-411: The Chola Empire. Kulottunga Chola I administered the province through his sons, whom he sent there as viceroys. There was a prolonged fight between Kulottunga Chola I and Vikramaditya VI. Kulothunga's long reign was characterized by unparalleled success and prosperity; he avoided unnecessary wars and earned the admiration of his subjects. Kulottunga's successes resulted in the well-being of the empire for

3604-402: The Chola empire, Justice was mostly a local matter; minor disputes were settled at village level. Minor crimes were punished with fines or a direction for the offender to donate to a charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. The king heard and decided crimes of the state, such as treason; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or

3710-480: The Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of Tamil country during this period. They exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other, thereby preventing the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During

3816-708: The Chola period several guilds, communities, and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. Members of the Vellalar caste were sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The Ulavar caste were agricultural workers and peasants were known as Kalamar. The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants who also maintained armies. During

3922-425: The Chola period, they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th centuries), there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non- Brahmin peoples in temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in financial power. Skilled classes like weavers and merchants had become prosperous. Land ownership

4028-439: The Cholas recovered the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III; the Cholas also recovered Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja II (1146–1175) a fact attested to by the construction of the third grand, chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam . Up to 1215, during

4134-485: The Cholas was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas steadily gained control of Tamil country and territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan , before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha. Fromn 1215,

4240-618: The Eastern Chalukyan princes had married into the imperial Chola family and felt they belonged to it as much as to the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi had "spent his childhood days in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was a familiar favourite to the princes and the people of the Chola country" according to Kalingathuparani , an epic written in praise of him. Following

4346-632: The Emperor. Several of these vassalages had some degree of autonomy. Several historians have described the governmental system of the Cholas as a form of Feudalism . However, others including Burton Stein reject this due to differences between the governance of the Cholas and that of traditional feudalism in contemporary Europe . The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called mandalams which were further divided into valanadus , which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams . At local government level, every village

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4452-605: The Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Rajarata of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. From the period of Rajaraja, the Cholas engaged in a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas . The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties,

4558-627: The Grand Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-chief Dou Wu (d. 168),

4664-796: The Grand Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Grand Secretariat while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Grand Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Grand Secretariat. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when

4770-516: The Hoysalas and the Cholas, and dispossessed the Hoysalas, defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of its prosperity and had replaced the Chola empire in the view of foreign observers. The last-recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279; there is no evidence he was immediately followed by another Chola prince. In around 1279, Kulasekhara Pandiyan routed

4876-484: The Hoysalas from Kannanur Kuppam and in the same war, the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century until period of the Vijayanagara Empire . In the early 16th century, Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore , rose out of obscurity and plundered

4982-596: The Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai , Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak , often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak. The Czechoslovak National Council , an organization founded in Paris in 1916 by Czech and Slovak émigrés during World War I to liberate their homeland from Austria-Hungary , consisted of the triumvirate of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk as

5088-597: The Indian subcontinent and with foreign regions. Their trading activities helped them amass wealth, expand their influence, and contribute to the growth of their kingdom. The Cholas had a well-developed maritime trade network, which allowed them to establish trade links with various regions, including Southeast Asia , Sri Lanka , the Arabian Peninsula , and East Africa . They possessed a strong navy and used it to protect their trade routes and maintain control over

5194-528: The Later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja III to the last emperor Rajendra III , was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, the Cholas lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore ) districts to the Hoysala Empire . Immediately after the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I,

5300-409: The Minister of War; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy . Post- war Bosnia and Herzegovina is ruled by a three-member Presidency . While French Huguenots had derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise , Anne de Montmorency , and Jacques d'Albon during the French Wars of Religion , in later years

5406-435: The Pallavas defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty . Later, Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and occupied the Tondaimandalam . In 925, Aditya's son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka, which was then-known as Ilangai. Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the Battle of Vallala. Later, Parantaka I

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5512-503: The Pandyans gradually became a major force in Tamil country and consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and the Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul, Tiruchy, Karur, and Satyamangalam and in the Kaveri Delta , Thanjavur, Mayuram, Chidambaram, Vriddhachalam, and Kanchi. The Pandyans marched to Arcot ; Tirumalai, Nellore, Visayawadai, Vengi, and Kalingam by 1250. The Pandyas steadily routed

5618-562: The Sangam Age in South India, alongside the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Chera kingdom, located in present-day Kerala and Kongu Nadu, had a significant impact on trade, economy, and cultural exchange during that time. The Cheras were known for their extensive trade networks and maritime activities. They had access to important ports along the Malabar Coast, such as Muziris (modern-day Kodungallur), Tyndis (modern-day Ponnani), and Nelcynda (modern-day Cranganore). These ports served as major centers for trade, attracting merchants from different parts of

5724-411: The Western Chalukyan dominions and set fire to the Kollipaka fort on the frontier between the Kalyani and Vengi territories. This brought relief for Rajaraja Narendra, who was now firmly in control at Vengi, with Rajadhiraja I proceeding to the Chalukyan capital, displacing the Chalukyan king Someshvara I, performing his coronation at Manyakheta, and collecting tribute from the defeated king, who had fled

5830-431: The Western and Eastern Chalukyas . Rajaraja's daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. The Western Chalukyas felt the Vengi kingdom was in their natural sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas. The frontier mostly remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja . Rajendra's reign

5936-491: The administration was improved and the Emperors were able to exercise closer control over the parts of the empire. The administrative structure expanded, particularly during and after the reign of Rajaraja. The government at this time had a multi-tiered, large, land-revenue department that was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. Corporate bodies such as the Ur, Nadu, Sabha, Nagaram, and sometimes local chieftains, undertook The assessment and collection of revenue, and passed

6042-414: The ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram , Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains, and traps. Chola soldiers used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and steel shields. Several Chola weapons utilized Wootz steel . The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in

6148-448: The battlefield. While the Chalukyans kept creating trouble through Vijayaditya VII, Vengi remained firmly under the control of the Cholas. Someshvara I again launched an attack on Vengi and then the Cholas in 1054. After Rajadhiraja died, Rajendra II crowned himself on the battlefield. He galvanized the Chola army, defeating the Chalukyas under Someshvara I. The Chalukya king again fled the battlefield, leaving behind his queen and riches in

6254-531: The beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty , which ultimately caused the Chola's downfall. The Cholas established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders, and regarded temples in their kingdoms as both places of worship and of economic activity. A prime example of Chola architecture

6360-444: The confiscation of property. The Chola military had four elements; the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry, and a navy. The Emperor was the supreme commander. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen, the latter of which were the most-permanent and most-dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams . Elephants played

6466-488: The consent of the Kalyani court, established himself permanently in the kingdom. Meanwhile, prince Rajendra Chalukya, son of Rajaraja Narendra through the Chola princess Ammangai, was brought up in the Chola harem. Rajendra Chalukya married Madhurantakidevi, the daughter of RajendraII. To restore him on the Vengi throne, RajendraII sent his son Rajamahendra and brother ViraRajendra against the Western Chalukyas and Vijayaditya VII. Chola forces marched against Gangavadi and repelled

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6572-462: The context of the Soviet Union , the term troika ( Russian : for "group of three") is used for "triumvirate". In the Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849: Almost immediately following the Roman Republic, the Red Triumvirate governed the restored Papal States from 1849 to 1850: The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in

6678-430: The course of trade. These corporations had mercenary armies for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called " nagaram " in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram. Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows a hospital was named after Virarajendra . Many diseases were cured by

6784-407: The death of the death of Adhirajendra, Rajendra Chalukya established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga I (1070–1122), beginning the Later Chola or Chalukya-Chola period. Kulothunga I reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi for the rest of his life. The Eastern Chalukya line came to an end with Vijayaditya's death in 1075 and Vengi became a province of

6890-405: The doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician, who was paid annually eighty kalams of paddy, eight kasus , and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, a barber who performed minor operations, and a waterman. The Chola queen Kundavai established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for its perpetual maintenance. During

6996-428: The dominions of the Pandya prince in the south. The Pandya, who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara , appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent ( Karyakartta ) Nagama Nayaka, who was stationed in the south, to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but the once-loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya

7102-568: The entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. Rajaraja Chola I was an energetic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000, Rajaraja conducted a land survey to effectively marshall his empire's resources. He built Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010. Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north and defeated

7208-597: The establishment of a Pandya territory is not known until the sixth century under King Kadungon who liberated the Pandya country from the Kalabhras . Xuanzang reports that Jainism was flourishing while Buddhism was declining during this period. They were famous for being patrons of the Tamil Sangams which were held in their capital, Madurai . Pliny mentions the Pandya country and its capital. The large number of Roman coins from Emperor Augustus to Emperor Zeno found in Madurai shows that trade flourished among Rome , Greece and Tamilakam . Two embassies sent from

7314-419: The expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige, and naval commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy grew from a small entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in Asia, but

7420-425: The forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal , and reached the Ganges river in northern India. Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of the empire there. This expedition left such an impression on the Malay people of the medieval period his name

7526-426: The goddesses Saraswati , Lakshmi and Parvati , make up the parallel Tridevi . Triumvirates during the Pagaruyuang era in the Minangkabau Highlands were known as Rajo Tigo Selo, or "the three reigning kings." The Rajo Tigo Selo was descended from the same line in the same dynasty and ruled at the same reigning time. It consisted of three kings, the Rajo Alam who ruled the government and diplomatic affairs,

7632-412: The inscribers had a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic education system for

7738-450: The king royal justice would ensure a happy future for him, and that injustice would lead to divine punishment. The Cholas, who were in possession of parts of the west and east coasts of peninsular India, engaged in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. South Indian guilds played

7844-414: The local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade. At the top of this economy were elite merchant groups ( samayam ) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade. The Chola Empire's main export was cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a centre for cotton textiles Tamil poets praised. Chola rulers encouraged

7950-453: The masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training, in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; monasteries ( matha or gatika ) were centres of learning and received government support. Under Chola kings, there was generally an emphasis on a fair justice system, and the kings were often described as sengol-valavan , the king who established just rule; and priests warned

8056-475: The most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate. The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Grand Chancellor, Grand Secretariat, and Grand Commandant, but

8162-514: The next 100 years but Kulothunga lost the territories in the island of Lanka and began to lose control of the Pandya territories. Under Rajaraja Chola III and his successor Rajendra Chola III, the Later Cholas were quite weak and experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I held Rajaraja Chola III as a hostage for some time. At the close of

8268-652: The only apostles present at the Raising of Jairus' daughter , Transfiguration of Jesus and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane . Later, at the time of the Early Christian Church this triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James's death, as it became composed of Peter, John and James, brother of Jesus , known collectively also as the three Pillars of the Church . During

8374-561: The possession of the victorious Chola army. The Cholas consolidated their hold on Vengi and Kalinga. Although there were occasional skirmishes with the Chalukyas, they were repeatedly defeated by both the Cholas and the Vengi princes, who openly professed loyalty to the Chola empire. Following the death of Rajaraja Narendra in 1061, another opportunity for the Kalyani court to strengthen its hold on Vengi arose. Vijayaditya VII seized Vengi and with

8480-517: The reign of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas, and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas, and established a presence in Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III, who succeeded Rajaraja III, was a more competent ruler who led successful expeditions to the north, as attested to by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. He also defeated two Pandya princes, one of whom

8586-590: The resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India. A lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war, in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war, and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa and Pallavarayanpettai inscriptions. For three generations,

8692-457: The revenue to the centre. Rajaraja's reign initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment, and the empire was reorganised into units known as valanadus . The executive officer first communicated the order of the King to the local authorities. Afterwards, the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by witnesses, who were either local magnates or government officers. In

8798-532: The rich resources of the Western Ghats and the forests of Kerala, enabling them to export goods like timber, teak, sandalwood, and medicinal herbs. The Silappatikaram alludes to the solar ancestry of the Cholas and the lunar ancestry of the Pandyas. It does not mention anything about the ancestry of the Cheras. The 15th-century Tamil Mahabharata of Villiputtur Alvar describes the Chera king as from

8904-416: The rule of Kulothunga Chola III, Chola administration and territorial integrity was stable and very prosperous, but during his rule, Chola power started declining following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–1216. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Sri Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. The decline of the Cholas was also marked by

9010-635: The seas. Their trading activities were not limited to goods but also extended to cultural and intellectual exchanges. One of the key commodities in Chola trade was spices . They actively participated in the spice trade, importing and exporting various spices such as pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. The Cholas also traded in other valuable commodities like precious stones, pearls, textiles, ivory, and perfumes. They were known for their craftsmanship and exported exquisite bronze sculptures, pottery, and textiles, which were highly sought after in foreign markets. The Cheras were another prominent dynasty during

9116-424: The settlements. Before the reign of Rajaraja I, huge parts of Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, when Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes almost vanished from Chola records, and were either replaced with or became dependent officials, through whom

9222-543: The term of the triumvirate, the People's Consultative Assembly must elect a new president and vice president from the two pairs of candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election. The newly elected president and vice president will continue the remaining term of former president and vice president that were elected from previous general election, not five years. In

9328-571: The term would be used to describe other arrangements within France. At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman magistrature names for their newly created institutions, the three-headed collective head of state was named the Consulat (1799–1804), a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included an office of First Consul who

9434-423: The three kings' campaign. When Shalivahana heard of this preparation, he marched towards the south and took possession of the strong citadel at Tiruchirappalli . The three kings sent their envoy to Shalivahana, asking him to surrender and renounce his faith. When he refused, they and their allies assembled an army at Thiruvanaikaval . From an inscription that they had earlier found at Kanchi, they realised that there

9540-612: The throne of Kalyani for himself. When Virarajendra died in 1070, he was succeeded by his son Adhirajendra, who was assassinated a few months later, leaving the Chola dynasty was without a lineal successor in the Vijayalaya Chola line. Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi

9646-490: The weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During this period, weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. Weavers had their own residential sector in all towns; the most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar . During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree of skill and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk. Metalcrafts peaked during

9752-578: The world. The Cheras played a crucial role in the spice trade, which was highly lucrative during the period. They were actively involved in the export of spices like black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. These spices were in high demand in the Roman Empire and other foreign markets, and the Cheras capitalized on this demand to amass wealth. Apart from spices, the Cheras also traded in other valuable commodities such as ivory, pearls, textiles, precious stones, and forest products. They had access to

9858-421: Was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and briefly made the Pandyas submit to Chola control. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and sided with the Pandyas, and repulsed the Cholas to counter the latter's revival. In South India, the Pandyas had become a great power that banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu and Kannada country; the Hoysalas were allies of the Cholas on Tamil country. The demise of

9964-535: Was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram , nadu or kottam , depending on the area. A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu . These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later one at Gangaikonda Cholapuram , Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals where occasional courts were held. Similar to other medieval Indian societies,

10070-472: Was a subterranean entrance into the Tiruchirappalli fort. They sent a few soldiers who entered the fort and opened its Chintamani gate. Their forces then entered the fortress, and defeated Shalivahana. Chola Purva Patayam dates Shalivahana's defeat to the year 1443 of an uncertain calendar era (possibly from the beginning of Kali Yuga ). Triumvirate The term can also be used to describe

10176-571: Was assassinated in a political plot. After Parantaka II, Uttama Chola became the Chola emperor and was followed by Raja Raja Chola I , the greatest Chola monarch. Under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I , the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state. At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari – Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal,

10282-402: Was caught and brought to his brother. However, he was well received and returned together to Konya . Both were enthroned alongside Kayqubad II . Thus a period of joint rule began from 1249 until 1254. Kaykaus, controlled the capital, Konya, and everything further west, and the coast at Antalya , up to Ankara . Kilij Arslan was allocated everything to the east of Konya up to Erzurum . Kayqubad

10388-428: Was defeated by Rashtrakutas under Krishna III and the Cholas' heir apparent Rajaditya Chola was killed in the Battle of Takkolam , in which the Cholas lost Tondaimandalam region to Rashtrakutas. The Cholas recovered their power during the reign of Parantaka II . The Chola army under the command of crown prince Aditha Karikalan defeated the Pandyas and expanded the kingdom to Tondaimandalam . Aditha Karikalan

10494-587: Was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. An internal trade in several articles was carried out by organised mercantile corporations. The metal industries and the jewellers' art had reached a high degree of excellence. Sea salt was made under government supervision and control. Merchants organised into guilds that were described sometimes by the terms nanadesis ; these were powerful, autonomous corporations of merchants that visited other countries in

10600-477: Was followed by those of three of his sons in succession; Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , and Virarajendra . In his eagerness to restore Chola hegemony over Vengi to its former absolute state, Rajadhiraja I (1042–1052) led an expedition into Vengi country in 1044–1045. He fought a battle at Dhannada, and compelled the Western Chalukyan army and Vijayaditya VII to retreat in disorder. Rajendra then entered

10706-557: Was gradually reduced in significance when Cholas fought land battles to subjugate the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India. Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. Chola rulers issued coins in gold, silver, and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers; at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram , which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in

10812-625: Was granted minor estates on a scale sufficient for his personal expenses. The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times. The Three Pashas also known as Ottoman Triumvirate effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I : Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior ; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922),

10918-615: Was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra . In 1070, Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra , ascended the Chola throne, beginning the Later Chola dynasty. The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga  I, his son Vikrama Chola , and other successors Rajaraja II , Rajadhiraja II , and Kulothunga III , who conquered Kalinga, Ilam , and Kataha . The rule of

11024-474: Was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners. There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life but there are reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates

11130-582: Was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire in 1804. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror from 1793 to 1794 Maximilien Robespierre , Louis Antoine de Saint-Just , and Georges Couthon , as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety , were accused by their political opponents of forming an unofficial triumvirate, pointing out

11236-456: Was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper ranks of the peasantry. In almost all villages, the distinction between persons paying the land tax ( iraikudigal ) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on estates of other people and received

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