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130-688: He was de facto Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller from 1799 to 1801 and ordered the construction of a number of priories of the Order of Malta. Paul's pro-German sentiments and unpredictable behavior made him unpopular among the Russian nobility , and he was secretly assassinated by his own officers. Paul was son of Emperor Peter III , nephew and anointed heir of the Empress Elizabeth (second-eldest daughter of Tsar Peter

260-464: A cheap watch. Paul's early isolation from his mother created a distance between them that later events would reinforce. She never considered inviting him to share power in governing Russia. Once Paul's son Alexander was born, it appeared that she had found a more suitable heir. The use made of his name by the rebel Yemelyan Pugachev , who impersonated his father Peter, tended no doubt to render Paul's position more difficult. Catherine's absolute power and

390-536: A daughter of Ludwig IX , Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt . The bride's older sister, Frederika Louisa , was already married to the Crown Prince of Prussia . Around this time, Catherine allowed Paul to attend the council in order that he might be trained for his work as Emperor. Wilhelmina and their child died in childbirth on 15 April 1776, three years after the wedding. It soon became even clearer to Catherine that Paul wanted power, including his separate court. There

520-578: A fire caused by a defective chimney destroyed a major part of the interior of the palace, including all the decor of the State Apartments and living rooms. Most of the furniture was saved, along with some door panels, fireplaces and mirrors, but most of the Palace had to be rebuilt. Maria Feodorovna brought Cameron and Brenna's young assistant, the Italian architect Carlo Rossi , to help restore

650-468: A fleet to Denmark, bombarding Copenhagen and forcing the Danes to surrender in the beginning of April. Nelson then sailed towards St. Petersburg, reaching Reval (14 May 1801), but after the conspiracy assassinated Paul (23 March 1801), the new Tsar Alexander opened peace-negotiations shortly after taking the throne. The most original aspect of Paul I's foreign policy was his rapprochement with France after

780-545: A half stories high. Each facade of the palace was decorated with molded friezes and reliefs. In September 1781, as construction of the Pavlovsk Palace began, Paul and Maria set off on a journey to Austria, Italy, France and Germany. They traveled under the incognito of "The Count and Countess of the North". During their travels they saw the palaces and French gardens of Versailles and Chantilly, which strongly influenced

910-452: A half years. Officers were quartered in the salons on the first floor, and the ballroom was made into a garage for cars and motorcycles. Barracks were located in the north wing and a hospital in the south wing. German soldiers, Dutch soldiers and Spanish soldiers in special units of the German army occupied the buildings in the park. The sculpture and furniture that remained in the house and all

1040-493: A parade ground for Emperor Pavel's Imperial guards. In the forest to the left of this axis he placed a romantic thatch-roofed dairy with stalls for two cows modeled after the one in the park of Württemberg where Maria Feodorovna had grown up; and on the other side of the parade route, an aviary, filled with parakeets, nightingales, starlings, and quail. This part of the garden also included a labyrinth , and picturesque tombstones imported from Italy. An early French visitor described

1170-526: A proposal authorizing her son's legitimacy. Both efforts proved fruitless, and though Alexander agreed to his grandmother's wishes, he remained respectful of his father's position as immediate successor to the Russian throne. Catherine suffered a stroke on 17 November 1796, and died without regaining consciousness. Paul's first act as Emperor was to inquire about and, if possible, destroy her testament, as he feared it would exclude him from succession and leave

1300-688: A revolution, before Russia could wage war on foreign soil. Paul offered to mediate between Austria and France through Prussia and pushed Austria to make peace, but the two countries made peace without his assistance, signing the Treaty of Campoformio in October 1797. This treaty, with its affirmation of French control over islands in the Mediterranean and the partitioning of the Republic of Venice , upset Paul, who saw it as creating more instability in

1430-470: A roof or floors. The north wall had fallen. Most of the parquet floors of the palace had been used as firewood; a few pieces were found in unburned portions of the palace near the stoves. Of the more than 100,000 trees that had been in the park before the War, at least 70 percent had been cut down or destroyed by shelling. All the decorative bridges in the park had been blown up. Eight hundred bunkers had been dug in

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1560-487: A thatched roof, where milk products were kept and prepared, and an aviary in the form of a small classical temple with metal netting between the Dorian columns, which was filled with nightingales , goldfinch , starlings and quail . For the palace itself, Cameron conceived a country house which seems to have been based on a design by Andrea Palladio shown in a woodcut in his book I quattro libri dell'architettura , for

1690-539: Is a title of the supreme head of various orders , including chivalric orders such as military orders and dynastic orders of knighthood . The title also occurs in modern civil fraternal orders such as the Freemasons , the Odd Fellows , and various other fraternities . Additionally, numerous modern self-styled orders attempt to imitate habits of the former bodies. In medieval military orders such as

1820-672: Is granted statehood and thus widely considered sovereign , the Grand Master is also its Head of State . If within the Holy Roman Empire , a Reichsfürst and Head of Government , and thus a true territorial Prince of the church , as was the case with the Teutonic Knights and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . Except the modern continuation of the organisations of medieval foundation,

1950-801: Is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany. Paul's correspondence with his parents-in-law, Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg , and Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt , written between 1776 and 1797, is also preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart. Paul and Sophie had ten children; nine survived to adulthood (and from whom can be traced 30 legitimate grandchildren ): Formerly engaged with King Gustav IV of Sweden Grand Master (order) Grand Master ( Latin : Magister Magnus ; German : Großmeister ; French : Grand Maître ; Spanish : Gran Maestre ; Swedish : Stormästare )

2080-671: Is the grand master of the Legion of Honour , and Portugal. In Freemasonry , the Grand Master is an office given to a Freemason elected to oversee a Masonic jurisdiction . Pavlovsk Palace Pavlovsk Palace ( Russian : Павловский дворец ) is an 18th-century Russian Imperial residence built by the order of Catherine the Great for her son Grand Duke Paul , in Pavlovsk , within Saint Petersburg . After his death, it became

2210-494: The Imperial Russian Army . Under Catherine's reign, Grigori Potemkin introduced new uniforms that were cheap, comfortable, practical and designed in a distinctly Russian style. Paul decided to fulfill his father Peter III's intention of introducing Prussian uniforms. Impractical for active duty, these were deeply unpopular with the men, as was the effort required to maintain them. His love of parades and ceremony

2340-773: The Knights Templar or the Livonian Brothers of the Sword , the Grand Master was the formal and executive head of a military and feudal hierarchy, which can be considered a "state within the state", especially in the crusader context lato sensu , notably aimed at the Holy Land or pagan territories in Eastern Europe , as well as the reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula . If an order

2470-706: The Reflections questioned her authority and added weight to her suspicion of an internal conspiracy with Paul at its centre. For a courtier to have openly supported or shown intimacy towards Paul, especially following this publication, would have meant political suicide. Paul spent the following years away from the Imperial Court, content to remain at his private estates at Gatchina Palace with his growing family and perform Prussian drill exercises. As Catherine grew older, she became less concerned that her son attend court functions; her attentions focused primarily on

2600-677: The Russian nobility as decadent and corrupt, and was determined to transform them into a disciplined, principled, loyal caste resembling a medieval chivalric order . To those few who conformed to his view of a modern-day knight (e.g., his favourites Mikhail Kutuzov , Aleksey Arakcheyev , and Feodor Rostopchin ) he granted more serfs during the five years of his reign than his mother had presented to her lovers during her thirty-four years. Those who did not share his chivalric views were dismissed or lost their places at court: seven field marshals and 333 generals fell into this category. Paul made several idiosyncratic and deeply unpopular attempts to reform

2730-583: The Villa Capra "La Rotonda" near Vicenza in Italy. This same drawing was later used by Thomas Jefferson in his design for the University of Virginia . The palace he designed had a cube-shaped central block three stories high with a low dome supported by sixty-four columns. On either side of the building were two single story colonnades of curved open winged galleries connected to service buildings one and

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2860-673: The 18th century. In 1780, Catherine the Great loaned her official architect, the Scotsman Charles Cameron , to design a palace on a hillside overlooking the Slavyanka River, near the site of Marienthal. Cameron had studied under English architect Isaac Ware , who was close to William Kent . Kent introduced the Palladian style of architecture into England with his work at Chiswick House for Lord Burlington . Through this connection Cameron became familiar with

2990-610: The Austrians for the terrible defeat in Switzerland, as did his furious sovereign. This defeat, combined with Austria's refusal to reinstate the old monarchies in Italy and their disrespect of the Russian flag during the taking of Ancona , led to the formal cessation of the alliance in October 1799. Although by the fall of 1799 the Russo-Austrian alliance had more or less fallen apart, Paul still cooperated willingly with

3120-589: The Baltic against possible British attack, prevent the British from searching neutral merchant vessels, and freeze all British trade in Northern Europe. As France had already closed all of Western and Southern Europe to British trade, Britain, which relied heavily upon imports (especially for timber, naval products, and grain) felt seriously threatened by Paul's move and reacted fast. In March 1801, Britain sent

3250-495: The British had left India largely unguarded and would have great difficulty staving off a force that came over land to attack it. The British themselves considered this enough of a problem that they signed three treaties with Persia, in 1801 , 1809 and 1812, to guard against an army attacking India through Central Asia. Paul sought to attack the British where they were weakest: through their commerce and their colonies. Throughout his reign, his policies focused reestablishing peace and

3380-521: The British left the Russian troops on the Isle of Wight in the Channel after the retreat, as it was illegal for foreign troops to enter Britain. This defeat and subsequent maltreating of Russian troops strained Russo-British relations, but a definitive break did not occur until later. The reasons for this break are less clear and simple than those of the split with Austria, but several key events occurred over

3510-565: The British. Together, they planned to invade the Netherlands, and through that country attack France proper. Unlike Austria, neither Russia nor Britain appeared to have any secret territorial ambitions: they both simply sought to defeat the French. The Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland started well, with a British victory – the Battle of Callantsoog (27 August 1799) – in the north, but when

3640-517: The Dutch style, with small gardens, was called "Marienthal", or the "Valley of Maria". Maria's house was a small wooden house with a cupola and flower beds, named "Paullust", or "Paul's Joy". Paul and Maria Feodorovna began to create picturesque "ruins", a Chinese kiosk, Chinese bridges and classical temples in the English landscape garden style which had spread rapidly across Europe in the second half of

3770-664: The Emperor Paul was murdered by members of his court in 1801, and his son Alexander became Emperor. Pavlovsk Palace became the residence of the Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759–1828), the mother of both Emperor Alexander I of Russia and Emperor Nicholas I of Russia . She turned the house into a memorial to her murdered husband, filled with his furniture and portraits, and made the house a showcase for finest 18th-century French furnishings, paintings, sculpture and porcelain. Another disaster struck Pavlovsk in 1803;

3900-531: The Empress granted him another estate, Gatchina Palace , where he was allowed to maintain a brigade of soldiers whom he drilled on the Prussian model , an unpopular stance at the time. Catherine and her son and heir Paul maintained a distant relationship throughout her reign. Empress Elizabeth had taken up the child and proved an obsessive but incapable caretaker, as she had not raised children of her own. Paul

4030-524: The French to the end. Finally, two events occurred in rapid succession that destroyed the alliance completely: first, in July 1800, the British seized a Danish frigate, prompting Paul to close the British trading factories in St. Petersburg as well as impound British ships and cargo; second, even though the allies resolved this crisis, Paul could not forgive the British for Admiral Nelson's refusal to return Malta to

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4160-511: The Gallery with large arched windows framed with rosettes ornaments. Because of the construction of the library, Gonzago's assistant had to redo the ceiling of the Gallery in 1824. Rossi placed busts of ancient writers and philosophers between the windows, with stucco wreaths above them. In the 19th-century updates of the paintings in the Gallery were made. During the Soviet era, a museum-reserve

4290-465: The Great ), and his wife Catherine II , born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst , daughter of a minor German prince who married into the Russian Romanov dynasty . Catherine subsequently deposed Paul's father, Peter III, to take the Russian throne and become Catherine the Great. While Catherine hinted in the first edition of her memoirs published by Alexander Herzen in 1859 that her lover Sergei Saltykov

4420-458: The Great died in 1796, and Paul became Emperor. He decided to enlarge Pavlovsk into a palace suitable for a royal residence, adding two new wings on either side of the main building, and a church attached to the south wing. Between 1797 and 1799, he lavished money and the finest materials on Brenna's interiors. The reign of Emperor Paul did not last long. He alienated the nobles, and became increasingly fearful of conspiracies. His fears were justified;

4550-633: The Hessian State Archive (Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt) in Darmstadt , Germany. In addition, Paul's letters to his first father-in-law, Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, (together with letters from his first wife to her father) are also preserved in the Hessian State Archive in Darmstadt. Paul's correspondence with his brother-in-law, King Frederick I of Württemberg (Maria Feodorovna's brother), written between 1776 and 1801,

4680-466: The Order of St. John, and therefore to Paul, when the British captured it from the French in September 1800. In a drastic response, Paul seized all British vessels in Russian ports, sent their crews to detention camps and took British traders hostage until he received satisfaction. Over the next winter, he went further, using his new Armed Neutrality coalition with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia to prepare

4810-414: The Palace and found that a group of revolutionary sailors had searched the Palace for weapons and taken a few sabers, but otherwise everything was in its place. He hired former soldiers to guard the house, put all the furniture into the main building, made an inventory of all the treasures in the Palace, and successfully resisted demands from various revolutionary committees for dishes, chairs, tables, and all

4940-545: The Palace, He redesigned the Greek and Italian halls, replacing the molding on the walls with false marble, and he added a Russian touch; fireplaces faced with Russian lapis-lazuli and jasper , which had originally been in the Mikhailovsky Palace that Paul had built in St. Petersburg. Voronykhin also made plans for a semi-circular library in one of the wings, which was later built by Carlo Rossi, and he redesigned

5070-411: The Palace. She also employed a Russian architect, Andrei Voronykhin, who had been born a serf, and was trained in decoration and design, who rose to become the architect of Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Voronykhin was named chief architect of Pavlovsk by Maria Feodorovna. He brought back the architect Quarenghi , who had redecorated five rooms on the main floor, to recreate his work. He remade some of

5200-903: The Palace. They found other furniture and objects as far away as Riga, Tallinn, and in Konigsberg, in Germany. Some precious objects from Pavlovsk left Russia even before the war. Four Gobelins tapestries from Pavlovsk were sold by the Soviet Government to J. Paul Getty , and are now on display in the Getty Museum in Malibu, California . The restorers used only the original variants of the architectural decoration; those created by Cameron, Brenna, Voronykhin, and Rossi. The only changes permitted were to use modern materials. Columns made of wood were replaced by poured concrete or bricks, and

5330-650: The Priory of St. Petersburg declared that Grand Master Hompesch had betrayed the Order by selling Malta to Napoleon. A month later the Priory elected Paul Grand Master on 24 November 1798, according to the 1847 edition of the Glossary of Heraldry . This election resulted in the establishment of the Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller within the Imperial Orders of Russia. The election of

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5460-469: The Russian Revolution in 1917, the eldest son of Constantine Constantinovich, Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia , along with his wife, Princess Helen of Serbia , the daughter of King Peter I of Serbia , were living in one of the wings of Pavlovsk, together with his father's widowed sister Queen Olga of Greece . As the political situation deteriorated, they left, and the house was left to

5590-401: The Russian army arrived in September, the allies found themselves faced with bad weather, poor coordination, and unexpectedly fierce resistance from the Dutch and the French, and their success evaporated. As the month wore on, the weather worsened and the allies suffered more and more losses, eventually signing an armistice in October 1799. The Russians suffered three-quarters of allied losses and

5720-602: The Russian court poet Derzhavin commented bitterly on the inglorious return from that expedition of its commander Count Valerian Zubov , who was the youthful brother of Prince Platon Zubov , the lover of the Empress Саtherine. Upon his death in 1762, Peter III had been buried without any honors in the Annunciation Church at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg . Immediately after

5850-530: The allies managed to push the French out of Italy, though they suffered heavy losses. However, by this point in time, cracks had started to appear in the Russo-Austrian alliance, due to their different goals in Italy. While Paul and Suvorov wanted the liberation and restoration of the Italian monarchies, the Austrians sought territorial acquisitions in Italy, and were willing to sacrifice later Russian support to acquire them. The Austrians, therefore, happily saw Suvorov and his army out of Italy in 1799 to go meet up with

5980-609: The army of Alexander Korsakov , at the time assisting the Austrian Archduke Charles to expel the French armies currently occupying Switzerland. However, the campaign in Switzerland had become a stalemate, without much activity on either side until the Austrians withdrew. Because this happened before Korsakov and Suvorov could unite their forces, the French could attack their armies one at a time, destroying Korsakov's and forcing Suvorov to fight his way out of Switzerland, suffering heavy losses. Suvorov, shamed, blamed

6110-513: The balance of power in Europe, while supporting autocracy and old monarchies, without seeking to expand Russia's borders. In lieu of Russia's failure to honour the terms of the Treaty of Georgievsk , Qajar Iran reinvaded Georgia. Georgian rulers felt they had nowhere else to turn now as Georgia was again re-subjugated by Iran. Tbilisi was captured and burnt to the ground, and eastern Georgia reconquered. However, Agha Mohammad Khan , Persia's ruler,

6240-408: The bases, and delicate clocks had to have their casing and mechanisms separated and packed separately, with diagrams on how to put them back together. One piece of each set of furniture was saved, and the others left behind. The Roman and Greek antiquities were too heavy and delicate to move, so they were taken to the basements, placed as close together as possible, and then hidden by a brick wall. By

6370-461: The beginning of the Palace, fifty rooms were finished, and the Palace looked again as it had in the time of Maria Feodorovna. Pavlovsk Park was conceived by Cameron as a classic English landscape garden , an idealized landscape filled with picturesque pieces of classical architecture, designed to surprise and please the viewer. Like the English landscape garden, it took much of its inspiration from

6500-456: The birth of their first son, the future Alexander I of Russia . At the time the land was given to Paul and Maria Feodorovna, there were two rustic log lodges called Krik and Krak . Paul and his wife spent the summers of 1777 to 1780 in Krik, while their new homes and the garden were being built. They began by building two wooden buildings, one kilometer apart. Paul's house, a two-story house in

6630-458: The bones of Grigori Potemkin , the famed military commander and one of his mother's lovers, dug out of his grave and scattered. Paul's early foreign policy can largely be seen as reactions against his mother's. In foreign policy, this meant that he opposed the many expansionary wars she fought and instead preferred to pursue a more peaceful, diplomatic path. Immediately upon taking the throne, he recalled all troops outside Russian borders, including

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6760-537: The books from the library. He was able to persuade Lunacharsky himself to come to Pavlovsk. After Lunacharsky's visit, Pavlovsk was officially confiscated, but turned into a museum, open to the public two or three days a week. Having succeeded in saving the Palace, Polovtsoff took family and belongings and slipped across the border to Finland and moved to Paris. The German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 and

6890-469: The books of the Rossi Library were taken to Germany. The statue of Emperor Paul in the courtyard was used as a telephone pole. The Germans did not discover the antiquities hidden behind the brick wall in the basement. Pavlovsk was retaken on 24 January 1944. When the Soviet troops arrived, the palace had already been burning for three days. The main building of the Palace was a hollow shell, without

7020-777: The care of Alexander Polovotsoff, director of the Art Institute and the Museum of Applied Arts in St. Petersburg. When Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power in November 1917, Polovtsoff went to the Winter Palace, found Anatoly Lunacharsky , the Commissar of Enlightenment of the new government, and demanded that Pavlovsk be saved as a museum. Lunacharsky agreed and named him Commissar Curator of Pavlovsk. He returned to

7150-508: The ceilings of the Italian and Greek Halls were made of steel and concrete so they would be fireproof. A special school, the Mukhina Leningrad Higher Artistic Industry School, was created in Leningrad to teach the arts of restoring architectural details, furniture, and art objects. This school produced a corps of restoration experts who worked on all the palaces around Leningrad. The work was meticulous and difficult, and proceeded very slowly. In 1950, after six years of planting new trees, parts of

7280-417: The coalition fell apart. Several scholars have argued that this change in position, radical though it seemed, made sense, as Bonaparte became First Consul and made France a more conservative state, consistent with Paul's view of the world. Paul also decided to send a Cossack army to take British India , as Britain itself was almost impervious to direct attack, being an island nation with a formidable navy, but

7410-482: The death of his mother, Paul ordered his father's remains transferred, first to the church in the Winter Palace and then to the Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg , the burial site of the Romanovs. 60-year-old Count Alexei Orlov, who had played a role in deposing Peter III and possibly also in his death, was made to walk in the funeral cortege, holding the Imperial Crown of Russia as he walked in front of Peter's coffin. Peter III had never been crowned so at

7540-778: The dedication by Catherine on the ' Bronze Horseman ' statue of Peter the Great. Paul was idealistic and capable of great generosity, but he was also mercurial and capable of vindictiveness. In spite of doubts of his legitimacy, he greatly resembled his father, Peter III, and other Romanovs as well and shared the same character. During the first year of his reign, Paul emphatically reversed many of his mother's policies. Although he accused many of Jacobinism , he allowed Catherine's best known critic, Alexander Radishchev , to return from Siberian exile. Besides Radishchev, he liberated Nikolay Novikov from Schlüsselburg fortress , and also Tadeusz Kościuszko , yet after liberation both were confined to their own estates under police supervision. He viewed

7670-413: The delicate balance of courtier status greatly influenced the relationship at Court with Paul, who openly disregarded his mother's opinions. Paul adamantly protested his mother's policies, writing a veiled criticism in his Reflections , a dissertation on military reform. In it he directly disparaged expansionist warfare in favour of a more defensive military policy. Unenthusiastically received by his mother,

7800-399: The different seasons in the park, painting scenes with brilliant colors of the autumn leaves. Gonzaga was the architect of Pavlovsk Park until his death in 1831 at the age of eighty. The Gonzago Gallery is a unique architectural and fresco ensemble in the Pavlovsk Palace, created by the Italian decorator, architect and art theorist Pietro di Gottardo Gonzago in the early 19th century. It is

7930-511: The early century by Benois, and another eleven thousand photographs taken just before the war. The chief of the restoration, Feodor Oleinik, was insistent that all the restoration be faithful to the original work: "Pay attention and do not use later details", he demanded. "Only the original variant, only that done by Cameron, Brenna, Vornykhin, or Rossi." Old techniques of artisans of the 18th century, such as painting false marble and gilding furniture, had to be relearned and applied. A silk workshop

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8060-420: The effect of this part of the garden: "Melancholy consumes the soul when you arrive...then the pain is followed by pleasure." Marie Feodorovna was deeply interested in botany. In 1801, Cameron constructed an elegant flower garden behind the Palace, just outside the windows of the private apartment of Marie Feodorovna. Next to the garden was a Greek temple containing a statue of the Three Graces , looking down at

8190-404: The election immediately gave Paul, as Grand Master of the Order, another reason to fight the French Republic: to reclaim the Order's ancestral home. The Russian army in Italy played the role of an auxiliary force sent to support the Austrians, though the Austrians offered the position of chief commander over all the allied armies to Alexander Suvorov, a distinguished Russian general. Under Suvorov,

8320-455: The funeral procession of Catherine the Great, Paul I, and Alexander I. as well as the Coronations of Paul I, Alexander I and Nicholas I. For Cameron he painted landscape scenes of the Pavlovsk Park on the walls and ceilings of rooms of the Palace, and he designed spectacular sets for the 1814 ceremony at Pavlovsk welcoming Alexander I home after his victory over Napoleon. Gonzaga planned the landscape of Pavlovsk Park with meticulous care, marking

8450-515: The future Emperor Alexander I. It was not until 1787 that Catherine may have in fact decided to exclude her son from succession. After Alexander and his brother Constantine were born, she had them placed under her charge, just as Elizabeth had done with Paul. That Catherine grew to favour Alexander as successor rather than Paul is unsurprising. She met secretly with Alexander's tutor, Frédéric-César de La Harpe , to discuss his pupil's ascension, and attempted to convince Alexander's mother Maria to sign

8580-492: The future appearance of Pavlovsk Park. King Louis XVI presented them with four Gobelin tapestries , Marie Antoinette presented Maria Feodorovna with a sixty-piece toilet set of Sèvres porcelain, and they ordered more sets of porcelain and purchased statues, busts, paintings, furniture and paintings, all for Pavlovsk. While they traveled, they kept in contact almost daily with Kuchelbecker, the supervisor of construction at Pavlovsk, sending back and forth drawings, plans and notes on

8710-546: The heir, accompanied by the admonition, "Time to grow up! Go and rule!" Alexander I did not punish the assassins, and the court physician, James Wylie , declared apoplexy the official cause of death. There is some evidence that Paul I was venerated as a saint among the Russian Orthodox populace, even though he was never officially canonized by any of the Orthodox Churches. Paul's letters to his first mother-in-law, Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken , (together with letters from his first wife to her mother) are preserved in

8840-447: The histories of the Order and was impressed by their honor and connection to the old order it represented. He relocated the Priories of Poland to St. Petersburg in January 1797. The knights responded by making him a protector of the Order in August of that same year, an honour he had not expected but, in keeping with his chivalric ideals, he happily accepted. In June 1798, Napoleon seized Malta ; this greatly offended Paul. In September,

8970-406: The home of his widow, Maria Feodorovna . The palace and the large English garden surrounding it are now a Russian state museum and public park. In 1777, the Empress Catherine II of Russia gave a parcel of a thousand hectares of forest along the winding Slavyanka River , four kilometers from her residence at Tsarskoye Selo, to her son and heir Paul I and his wife Maria Feodorovna , to celebrate

9100-402: The house to her younger son, Michael, and specified that none of the furniture should be taken away. After Michael's death, it went to the second son of Nicholas I, Konstantine Nikolayevich. It then passed to his widow and then their eldest son, Konstantine Konstantinovich. Her descendants respected the will, and turned the house into a family museum, just as it was when she died. At the time of

9230-408: The incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801. The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg, Garsevan Chavchavadze , reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Alexander Kurakin . In May 1801, after Paul's death, Russian General Carl Heinrich von Knorring removed the Georgian heir to

9360-416: The interior walls and decoration had been exactly recreated, the next step was the furnishings. The twelve thousand pieces of furniture and art objects removed from their original places, from paintings and tapestries to water pitchers and glasses, had to be put back where they belonged. Furniture, doors, and parquet floors of many different colors of wood which had been burned or stolen were remade exactly like

9490-529: The last rail link from Leningrad to Moscow was cut, and the city was under blockade. By 28 August, the Germans were fifty kilometers from Pavlovsk. A Soviet division headquarters was located in one wing of the palace. As the Germans approached, the park and palace came under bombardment. The museum staff began to bury the statues which were too heavy to evacuate. They calculated that the Germans would not dig deeper than one meter eighty centimeters, so they buried all

9620-725: The library, which contained more than twenty thousand books as well as collections of rare coins and butterflies. He also designed the Corner Salon, where Maria Feodorovna received guests such as the first American Ambassador to Russia, John Quincy Adams , and the Lavender Room, whose walls were made of lilac-colored false marble, matching the lilac flowers outside the windows. These rooms were furnished with furniture made of native Russian woods, including Karelian birch, poplar and walnut. Maria Feodorovna died on 24 October 1828, fourteen days after her sixty-seventh birthday. She left

9750-537: The midst of the construction, tensions grew between them and Cameron. Cameron was used to the unlimited budget for materials given him by Catherine the Great, while Catherine gave very little money to Paul; and Cameron was annoyed by the furniture, tapestries and fireplaces brought back from Europe by Maria Feodorovna without consulting him. Maria Feodorovna in turn was annoyed by the bright polychrome decoration and Pompeian arabesques used by Cameron, and wanted more delicate colors, and Paul did not like anything that resembled

9880-457: The newly completed palace of Saint Michael's Castle . The assassins included General Levin August, Count von Bennigsen , a Hanoverian in the Russian service and General Vladimir Mikhailovich Yashvil , a Georgian. They charged into Paul's bedroom, flushed with drink after dining together, and found the emperor hiding behind some drapes in the corner. The conspirators pulled him out, forced him to

10010-466: The next generation will never be able to reconstruct them." Even before the war had ended, the Soviet government decided to restore Pavlovsk and the other ruined palaces around Leningrad. First the mines had to be cleared from the ruins and palace and the park. Then the remaining walls were supported with scaffolding, and casts were made of the remaining molding. Fragments of plaster molding were collected, sorted, and casts made. The color of paint still on

10140-445: The only example in Northern Europe of an exterior fresco painting of such a large area: 350 square metres for the wall and 200 square metres for the ceiling. The gallery was built in 1795-1797 by the architect Vincenzo Brenna as a summer outdoor dining room for the palace's inhabitants.  The painting of the Gallery, created by Pietro di Gotthardo Gonzago, was carried out on behalf of Empress Maria Feodorovna much later. The work

10270-421: The organization of the army in 1796 by introducing The Infantry Codes , a series of guidelines for the army based largely upon show and glamour. But his greatest commander, Alexander Suvorov , completely ignored them, believing them to be worthless. At great expense, he built three palaces in or around the Russian capital. Much was made of his courtly love affair with Anna Lopukhina . Emperor Paul also ordered

10400-463: The original plans of Palladio, which were in the personal collection of Lord Burlington. This style was the major influence on Cameron when he designed Pavlovsk. Cameron began his project not with the palace itself but with two classical pavilions. The first was the Temple of Friendship, a circular Dorian temple with sixteen columns supporting a low dome, containing a statue of Catherine the Great. It

10530-470: The originals. The crystal chandeliers of the 18th century were exactly copied. In 1957, thirteen years after the Palace had been burned, the first seven rooms were opened to the public. In 1958, four more rooms were opened, and eleven more in 1960. The Egyptian Vestibule was finished in 1963, and the Italian Room opened in 1965. Eleven more rooms were ready by 1967. By 1977, on the 200th anniversary of

10660-481: The park opened to the public. In 1955, the restoration of the facade of the Palace was completed, and restoration of the interiors began. Fortunately for the restorers, the original plans by Cameron, Brenna, Voronykhin and Rossi still existed. Also, fragments of the original interior molding, cornices, friezes and the frames for the carvings, bas-reliefs, medallions and paintings still remained, and could be copied. In addition, there were 2500 photographic negatives taken in

10790-516: The park was the Rose Pavilion, built in 1811, a simple structure surrounded entirely by rosebushes. The Rose Pavilion was the site of a grand fete on 12 July 1814, celebrating the return of Alexander I to St. Petersburg after the defeat of Napoleon. For the occasion, architect Pietro de Gottardo Gonzaga built a ballroom the size of the Rose Pavilion itself in just seventeen days, and surrounded it with huge canvases of Russian villagers celebrating

10920-709: The park. The Rose Pavilion was gone; the Germans had used the materials to construct a fortified dugout. On 18 February 1944, a meeting was held at the House of Architects in Leningrad to discuss the fate of the ruined Palaces. Academician and architect Aleksei Shchusev, who had designed the Lenin Mausoleum, called for the immediate reconstruction of the Palaces. "If we do not do this", he said, "we who know and remember these palaces in all their glory as they were, then

11050-588: The private apartments of Maria Feodorovna on the ground floor, which included a library, boudoir and bedroom. He installed French doors and large windows in the apartment, so the flower garden outside seemed to be part of the interior. In 1805 Voronykhin built the Centaur bridge in the park, and the Visconti bridge, which crossed the Slavyanka at a point it was filled with water lilies. His last construction in

11180-509: The project of finding another wife for Paul, and on 7 October 1776, less than six months after the death of his first wife and their child, Paul married again. The bride was the beautiful Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg , who received the new Russian name Maria Feodorovna. Their first child, Alexander , was born in 1777, within a year of the wedding, and on this occasion the Empress gave Paul an estate, Pavlovsk . Paul and his wife gained leave to travel through western Europe in 1781–1782. In 1783,

11310-586: The region and displaying France's ambitions in the Mediterranean. In response, he offered asylum to the Prince of Condé and his army, as well as the future Louis XVIII , both of whom had been forced out of Austria by the treaty. By this point, the French Republic had seized Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, establishing republics with constitutions in each, and Paul felt that Russia now needed to play an active role in Europe in order to overthrow what

11440-507: The remaining walls was carefully noted for later copying. Photographs and early plans of the palace were brought together to help with the restoration. As soon as the war ended, a search began for treasures stolen from the Palace. Curators collected pieces of furniture, fabric, the legs of tables and pieces of doors and gilded cornices from the German fortifications around the Palace. In the buildings which had been German headquarters, they found chairs, marble statues and rolled-up paintings from

11570-620: The republic had created and restore traditional authorities. In this goal he found a willing ally in the Austrian chancellor Baron Thugut , who hated the French and loudly criticized revolutionary principles. Britain and the Ottoman Empire joined Austria and Russia to stop French expansion, free territories under their control and re-establish the old monarchies. The only major power in Europe who did not join Paul in his anti-French campaign

11700-506: The river into a picturesque pond in the valley below the Palace. In 1780, Cameron constructed a large Roman temple at a turn in the river in the bottom of the valley. The classical temple, similar to the Temple of Pan in the gardens at Stowe House in England. It was originally called the Temple of Gratitude, dedicated to Catherine the Great, who had donated the land for the Park, but in 1780 it

11830-405: The river. She imported flowers from Holland for her garden, including hyacinth , tulips , daffodils and narcissus . She also constructed an orangery and several greenhouses where she grew apricots, cherries, peaches, grapes and pineapples. The River Slavyanovka was the picturesque axis of the composition, with winding paths along the river providing changing views to the visitor. A dam turned

11960-409: The romanticized landscape paintings of Claude Lorraine and Hubert Robert . The gallery of Pavlovsk has twelve landscape paintings by Hubert Robert that were commissioned by Maria Feodorovna. Cameron laid out a triple alley of five straight rows of Linden trees , imported from Lübeck , in a long axis from the courtyard of the Palace, leading to a small semi-circular place in the forest. This served as

12090-526: The rooms, such as the Tapestry Room and the State Bedroom, exactly as they had been, but for other rooms he added decoration inspired by Roman models discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum; Roman-style lamps, furniture, Roman couches, and chairs copied after those of Roman senators. Following the French taste of the time for Egyptian art, he added black Egyptian statues in the entry vestibule of

12220-523: The same time the Slavyanka River was dammed, to create a lake which would mirror the facade of the palace above. Maria Feodorovna also insisted in having several rustic structures which recalled the palace where she grew up at Étupes, forty miles from Basel , in what was then the Duchy of Württemberg and today is in Alsace . Cameron constructed a small Swiss chalet with a library; a dairy of rough stones with

12350-626: The smallest details. Paul and Maria Feodorovna returned in November 1782, and they continued to fill Pavlovsk with art objects. A shipment of antique marbles, statues, busts, urns, and pottery discovered and purchased at Pompei , arrived in 1783. Sixteen sets of furniture, over two hundred pieces, were ordered from Paris between 1783 and 1785 for the State Rooms. In 1784, twelve Hubert Robert landscapes were commissioned for Pavlovsk. The couple purchased ninety-six clocks from Europe. The Imperial Glass factory, made special chandeliers for each room. In

12480-459: The sovereign of an Orthodox nation as the head of a Catholic order was controversial, and it was some time before the Holy See or any of the Order's other priories approved it. This delay created political issues between Paul, who insisted on defending his legitimacy, and the priories’ respective countries. Though recognition of Paul's election would become a more divisive issue later in his reign,

12610-469: The statues as deep as three meters. The statues of the Three Graces were buried three meters beneath the private garden of Maria Feodorovna. Their calculations were correct; the statues were still there after the war. On 16 September, the last soldiers left, and the Germans took over Pavlovsk Palace, still occupied by a group of elderly women guardians. The Germans occupied Pavlovsk palace for two and

12740-714: The struggling expedition Catherine II had sent to conquer Qajar Iran through the Caucasus and the 60,000 men she had promised to Britain and Austria to help them defeat the French . Paul hated the French before their revolution, and afterwards, with their republican and anti-religious views, he detested them even more. In addition to this, he knew French expansion hurt Russian interests, but he recalled his mother's troops primarily because he firmly opposed wars of expansion. He also believed that Russia needed substantial governmental and military reforms to avoid an economic collapse and

12870-606: The style of his mother's house, the Catherine Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. The tensions led to a parting in 1786. Cameron left to build a new palace for Catherine in the Crimea. He had finished entry vestibule and the five rooms of the private apartments. The work of decorating the interior was taken over by an Italian architect, Vincenzo Brenna , from Florence, who had come to Russia in 1783. Brenna designed interiors which reflected Paul's taste for Roman classicism. He created

13000-511: The supreme head of various orders in Britain and other Commonwealth nations. In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , the Grand Master is styled "Sovereign", e.g. Sovereign Grand Master , due to its status as an internationally independent sovereign entity . In republican nations, a president may also serve as the grand master of the various state orders such as in France, where the president

13130-454: The swiftness of the German advance took the Soviet government by surprise. The morning after the attack, the curators of Pavlovsk, under the direction of museum curator Anatoliy Kuchumov, began to pack as many of art objects as possible, starting with the Sèvres porcelain toilet set given by Louis XVI to Maria Feodorovna and Paul in 1780. Ninety-six hours after the announcement of the beginning of

13260-489: The table, and tried to compel him to sign his abdication . Paul offered some resistance, and Nikolay Zubov struck him with a sword, after which the assassins strangled and trampled him to death. Paul's successor on the Russian throne, his 23-year-old son Alexander, was actually in the palace at the time of the killing; he had "given his consent to the overthrow of Paul, but had not supposed that this would be carried out by means of assassination". Zubov announced his accession to

13390-531: The third week of August thirteen thousand objects, plus all the documentation, had been packed and sent away. Some crates were sent to Gorky, others to Sarapul, and the last group, on 20 August 1941, went to Leningrad, where the crates were stored in the basement of St Isaac's Cathedral . The last shipment included the chandelier from the Italian Hall and the jasper vases from the Greek Hall. On 30 August,

13520-462: The throne as Peter III. However, within a matter of months, Paul's mother engineered a coup to depose her husband. Peter soon died in prison, either being killed by Catherine's supporters or due to a fit of apoplexy when exerting himself in a dispute with Prince Feodor, one of his jailers. The 8-year-old Paul retained his position as Tsesarevich , or heir apparent. In 1772, her son and heir, Paul, turned eighteen. Paul and his adviser, Panin, believed he

13650-463: The throne to Alexander. These fears may have contributed to Paul's promulgation of the Pauline Laws , which established the strict principle of primogeniture in the House of Romanov, leaving the throne to the next male heir. The army, then poised to attack Persia in accordance with Catherine's last design, was recalled to the capital within one month of Paul's accession. In a remarkable poem,

13780-406: The throne, David Batonishvili , from power and deployed a provisional government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev . Paul's premonitions of assassination were well-founded. His attempts to force the nobility to adopt a code of chivalry alienated many of his trusted advisors. The Emperor also discovered outrageous machinations and corruption in the Russian treasury . A conspiracy

13910-606: The time of his reburial, Paul personally performed the ritual of coronation on his remains. Paul responded to the rumour of his illegitimacy by parading his descent from Peter the Great. The inscription on the monument to the first Emperor of Russia near the St. Michael's Castle reads in Russian " To the Great-Grandfather from the Great-Grandson ". This is an allusion to the Latin "PETRO PRIMO CATHARINA SECUNDA",

14040-473: The title of Grand Master has been used by the heads of Grand Lodges of Freemasons since 1717, and by Odd Fellows since the 18th century. The title of Grand Master is also used by various other fraternities, including academic ones associated with universities . The national leader of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity goes by the title "Worthy Grand Master". The heads of local chapters use

14170-399: The title of "Grand Master". A sovereign monarch often holds the title of Grand Master of the highest honorary dynastic orders of knighthood, or may confer or entrust it upon another person including a prince of the royal family, regularly the heir to the throne , who in other orders may hold another high rank/title. The term "Sovereign" is generally used in place of "Grand Master" for

14300-446: The trees to be saved or cut down. He laid out paths and changed contours to create the effects he wanted, using open and closed spaces and different colors and shapes of trees to make theatrical scenes. He made dramatic use of the contrast between the white bark and light leaves of birch trees and the dark needles of red-brown trunks of pine trees, setting groups of birch trees in front of dark backgrounds of pines. He made decorative use of

14430-420: The victory. The ball inside the pavilion opened with a Polonaise led by Alexander and his mother, and ended with a huge display of fireworks. In her later years Maria Feodorovna had a literary salon at Pavlovsk, which was frequented by poet Vasily Zhukovsky , fabulist Ivan Krylov , and historian Nikolai Karamzin . The last great St. Petersburg architect to work at Pavlovsk was Carlo Rossi, who in 1824 designed

14560-659: The war against Napoleon in 1812, wrote that Pavlovsk Park was the most beautiful example of the English landscape garden in all of the Russian Empire. Beginning in 1792, the chief architect of the Pavlovsk Park was the Italian landscape architect and painter, Pietro Gonzaga, who had begun his career as a set designer at the La Scala Theater in Milan. Gonzaga always remained a theater designer; he designed

14690-491: The war, the first thirty-four crates were being carried from the palace by horse-drawn cart. Boards were put over the windows, and sand on the floor of the Palace. Thirty curators often worked by candlelight, and by July there were air raids. The paintings, chandeliers, crystal, porcelain, rare furniture, and works of ivory and amber were packed and sent first. They worked with great care – each piece of furniture had to be carefully dismantled, porcelain vases had to be separated from

14820-541: The white and gold Halls of War and Peace, on either side of the Greek Hall by Cameron, which had a colonnade of green false marble columns, resembling a Greek temple. He made the Italian hall into a replica of a Roman temple, and he built the State Bedroom for Maria Feodorovna as an imitation of the state bedroom of the King of France, with a huge gilded bed, and cream silk wallpaper painted in tempura with colorful flowers, fruit, musical instruments and gardening tools. Catherine

14950-603: The winter of 1799–1800 that helped: Bonaparte released 7,000 captive Russian troops that Britain had refused to pay the ransom for; Paul grew closer to the Scandinavian countries of Denmark-Norway and Sweden , whose claim to neutral shipping rights offended Britain; Paul had the British ambassador in St. Petersburg ( Whitworth ) recalled (1800) and Britain did not replace him, without any clear reason given as to why; and Britain, needing to choose between their two allies, chose Austria, who had with certainty committed to fighting

15080-630: Was Paul's biological father, she later recanted and asserted in the final edition that Peter III was Paul's true father. Simon Sebag Montefiore argues that while Paul's true paternity is "impossible to know [...] he did look and behave like Peter." Paul was taken almost immediately after birth by the Empress Elizabeth, and had limited contact with his mother. As a boy, he was reported to be intelligent and good-looking, but sickly. His pug-nosed facial features in later life are attributed to an attack of typhus , from which he suffered in 1771. Paul

15210-611: Was Prussia, whose distrust of Austria and the security they got from their current relationship with France prevented them from joining the Second Coalition . Despite the Prussians’ reluctance, Paul decided to move ahead with the war, promising 60,000 men to support Austria in Italy and 45,000 men to help Britain in North Germany and the Netherlands. Another important factor in Paul's decision to go to war with France

15340-513: Was assassinated in 1797 in Shusha , after which the Persian grip on Georgia softened again. Erekle, King of Kartli-Kakheti , still dreaming of a united Georgia, died a year later. After his death, a civil war broke out over the succession to the throne of Kartli-Kakheti, and one of the rival candidates called on Russia to intervene and decide matters. On 8 January 1801, Tsar Paul I signed a decree on

15470-411: Was carried out in 1805–1807. It is believed that Gonzago previously made a drawing on the wet plaster method graffiti, and then worked on the plaster that has not yet dried up in the technique of grisaille red paint based on iron oxide pigment. When the plaster had dried, the artist elaborated and modelled the form with lime-based paints. In 1822-1824 the architect Carlo Rossi built a library over

15600-470: Was not well-liked either. He ordered that Wachtparad ("Watch parades") take place early every morning in the parade ground of the palace, regardless of the weather conditions. He would personally sentence soldiers to be flogged if they made a mistake, and on one occasion ordered a Guards regiment to march to Siberia after they became disordered during maneuvers, although he changed his mind after they had walked about 10 miles (16 km). He attempted to reform

15730-460: Was opened in Moscow to recreate the original woven fabrics for wall coverings and upholstery, copying the texture, color and thread counts of the originals. In forty rooms of the Palace, painted decoration on the walls and ceilings had to be precisely recreated in the original colors and designs. A Master painter and six helpers recreated the original trompe l'oeil ceilings and wall paintings. Once

15860-597: Was organized, some months before it was executed, by Counts Peter Ludwig von der Pahlen , Nikita Petrovich Panin , and Admiral de Ribas , with the alleged support of the British ambassador in Saint Petersburg , Charles Whitworth. The death of de Ribas in December 1800 delayed the assassination; but, on the night of 23 March [ O.S. 11 March] 1801, a band of dismissed officers murdered Paul at

15990-591: Was placed at a bend of the Slavyanka River, below the future palace, and was surrounded by silver poplars and transplanted Siberian pines. The second was the Apollo Colonnade, a double row of columns with an entablature, forming a setting for a reproduction of the Belvedere Apollo. It was placed at the entrance of the park, and it was made of porous limestone with a coarse finish; the surfaces suggest that they had been aged by centuries of weather. At

16120-414: Was planted near the Palace. An Italian garden, with parterres, classical statues and a grand staircase was created by Brenna on the hillside overlooking the lake. Cameron used the intimate Dutch style for the little private garden outside Maria Feodorovna's private apartments, and the huge park was in the style of the English and French landscape garden. An English visitor, John Lowden, who saw Pavlovsk during

16250-401: Was put in the charge of a trustworthy governor, Nikita Ivanovich Panin , and of competent tutors. Panin's nephew went on to become one of Paul's assassins. One of Paul's tutors, Poroshin, complained that he was "always in a hurry", acting and speaking without reflection. Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, when Paul was eight years old, and he became crown prince with the accession of his father to

16380-524: Was renamed the Temple of Friendship, in honor of the visit to Pavlovsk of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor . Between 1780 and 1783, at the top of the hill which descended to the lake, Cameron constructed a colonnade with a copy of the Apollo Belvedere in Rome. By the early 19th century, the park at Pavlovsk had gardens representing many different styles. A formal and geometric garden à la française

16510-479: Was supervised by a variety of caregivers. Roderick McGrew briefly relates the neglect to which the infant heir was sometimes subject: "On one occasion he fell out of his crib and slept the night away unnoticed on the floor." Even after Elizabeth's death, relations with Catherine hardly improved. Paul was often jealous of the favours she would shower upon her lovers. In one instance, the empress gave to one of her favourites 50,000 rubles on her birthday, while Paul received

16640-411: Was talk of having both Paul and his mother co-rule Russia, but Catherine narrowly avoided it. A fierce rivalry began between them, as Catherine knew she could never truly trust her son, as his claim to the throne was superior to hers. Paul coveted his mother's position, and by the laws of succession prevalent then, it was rightfully his. After her daughter-in-law's death, Catherine began work forthwith on

16770-460: Was the island of Malta , the home of the Knights Hospitaller . In addition to Malta, the Order had priories in the Catholic countries of Europe that held large estates and paid the revenue from them to the Order. In 1796, the Order approached Paul about the Priory of Poland, which had been in a state of neglect and paid no revenue for 100 years, and was now on Russian land. Paul as a child had read

16900-422: Was the rightful tsar of Russia, as the only son of Peter III. His adviser had also taught him that the rule of women endangered good leadership, which was why he was so interested in gaining the throne. Distracting him, Catherine took trouble to find Paul a wife among the minor princesses of the Holy Roman Empire . She chose Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, who acquired the Russian name " Natalia Alexeievna ",

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