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130-407: The name of the city is in the local Iraqi Turkmen dialect , meaning salt and dates . Naphtha , oil and asphalt was found in the town in the 18th century. The city was populated by both Kurds and Turkmens in the 19th century. Claudius Rich visited the town in 1820 and stated that the town had a population of 50,000. In 1882 Major General Gerard visited the town and stated that the town had

260-494: A Turkish dialect (of Turkey ), which they call Irak Türkmen Türkçesi , Irak Türkçesi , or Irak Türkmencesi . Studies have long noted the similarities between Iraqi Turkmen and certain Southeastern Anatolian dialects around the region of Urfa and Diyarbakır , or have described it as an " Anatolian " or an " Eastern Anatolian dialect". There are also linguists who have said that Iraqi Turkmen

390-477: A bazaar , 300 houses, 100 regulars and 30 zaptiyehs. The town was captured by United Kingdom in May 1918 and were met with joy from the locals. The local Hamawand tribe would offer their assistance to secure the area. In 1925, Tuz Khurmatu’s population was entirely Turkmen , except for some Jewish families (35 out of 405 families). 40% of the population was Kurdish in the 1947 census. In 1976, Tooz District

520-522: A coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece . The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro- enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson . In response to the coup, five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee . This justification has been rejected by

650-444: A Turkish polity in the north. Following nationalist violence in the 1950s , Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of

780-661: A base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression. The island would serve Britain as a key military base for its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal , the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of the First World War and

910-732: A ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself. The junta in Athens , and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia, Glafkos Clerides temporarily assumed the presidency. But after the peace negotiations in Geneva , the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started

1040-531: A century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Achaemenid rule in 545 BC. The Cypriots, led by Onesilus , king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in the Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenids. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards

1170-497: A dependent territory of the United Kingdom . The northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Cyprus was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming settlements emerging a few thousand years later. During the late Bronze Age , Cyprus, known in contemporary sources as Alashiya , developed an urbanised society closely connected to

1300-594: A large influx of Turks settled down in the region. After defeating the Safavids on December 31, 1534, Suleiman entered Baghdad and set about reconstructing the physical infrastructure in the province and ordered the construction of a dam in Karbala and major water projects in and around the city's countryside. Once the new governor was appointed, the town was to be composed of 1,000 foot soldiers and another 1,000 cavalry. However, war broke out after 89 years of peace and

1430-596: A major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens . A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar , who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan . His brother and successor Aimery was recognised as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor . Following the death in 1473 of James II , the last Lusignan king, the Republic of Venice assumed control of

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1560-568: A means to strengthen the collective "we" identity by continuing to distinguish it from the other ethnic groups. ... The use of Turkish was presented as a natural progression from the Turkmen; any suggestion that the oral languages were different was immediately rejected." Parental literacy rates in Turkish are low, as most are more familiar with the Arabic script (due to the Ba'athist regime). Therefore,

1690-691: A member of the European Union . After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot parliament , led by the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş , proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey. The events of

1820-584: A part of their homeland include: Altun Kupri , Badra , Bakuba , Diala , Erbil , Khanaqin , Kifri , Kirkuk , Kizilribat , Mendeli , Mosul , Salahaldeen , Sancar , Tal Afar , and Tuz Khurmatu . Thus, the Turkmeneli region lies between the Arab areas of settlement to the south and Kurdish areas to the north. According to the 1957 census the Iraqi Turkmen formed the majority of inhabitants in

1950-451: A precedent to be avoided, and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA. The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right to self-determination from Greek Cypriots. Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leader Menderes considered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured

2080-409: A region they refer to as " Turkmeneli " which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq. Iraqi Turkmen consider their capital city to be Kirkuk . Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield describe the Turkmeneli region as follows: ...what Turkmens refer to as Turkmeneli – a vast swath of territory running from Iraq's border with Turkey and Syria and diagonally down the country to

2210-575: A second invasion on 14 August. The invasion resulted in Morphou , Karpass , Famagusta and the Mesaoria coming under Turkish control. International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north. At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in

2340-681: A semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King. The island was conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 BC and Cypriot navy helped Alexander during the siege of Tyre (332 BC) . The Cypriot fleet was also sent to help Amphoterus . In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generals Stasander and Stasanor both from the Soli and later both became satraps in Alexander's empire. Following Alexander's death,

2470-703: A short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 ( de jure until 1914). Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom 's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914. The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots . From

2600-582: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , dating to approximately 6800 BC. During the Late Bronze Age , from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part as Alashiya in contemporary texts) became more connected to the wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade in copper extracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanised settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time

2730-520: Is believed that many of today's Iraqi Turkmen are the descendants of the Ottoman soldiers, traders and civil servants who were brought into Iraq during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The presence of Turkic peoples in what is today Iraq first began in the 7th century when approximately 2,000 –5,000 Oghuz Turks were recruited in the Muslim armies of Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad . They arrived in 674 with

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2860-546: Is believed to have taken place following the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period. Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology , being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis , and home to King Cinyras , Teucer and Pygmalion . Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition , which

2990-695: Is closer to Azerbaijani, placing the Kirkuk dialect as "more or less" an "Azerbaijani Turkish" dialect. Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa, and there are other regions in the Kirkuk Governorate , such as Altun Kupri , Taza Khurmatu , and Bashir , which are said to show unity with the Eastern Anatolian dialect of Urfa. Indeed, the dialects spoken in Turkmen-dominated regions in other parts of

3120-468: Is geographically a part of West Asia , but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European . Cyprus is the third largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is east of Greece , north of Egypt , south of Turkey , and west of Lebanon and Syria . Its capital and largest city is Nicosia . Cyprus also shares land borders with Akrotiri and Dhekelia ,

3250-451: Is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead. Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites like Aetokremnos on the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias. The arrival of the first humans coincides with the extinction of the 75 cm (2.46 ft) high Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus and 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall Cyprus dwarf elephant ,

3380-546: Is now identified by the modern community as Turkmeneli . Many of these settlers assumed positions of military and administrative responsibilities in the Seljuk Empire . The third, and largest, wave of Turkmen migration to Iraq arose during the four centuries of Ottoman rule (1535–1919). By the first half of the sixteenth century the Ottomans had begun their expansion into Iraq, waging wars against their arch rival,

3510-711: The British Mandate over Iraq , the Turkish language was recognized as an official language in Kirkuk and Kifri under Article 5 of the Language Act of 1930. Article 6 of the Act permitted the language of education to be determined by the native language of the majority of students, whilst Article 2 and Article 4 gave Iraqi citizens the right to have court hearings and decisions verbally translated into Arabic , Kurdish , or Turkish in all cases. Upon Iraq's entry into

3640-736: The Citadel Christians . The Turkmen Bible Partnership translated the New Testament into the Iraqi Turkmen dialect and printed and distributed 2,000 copies of it in 2021. The Iraqi Turkmens are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq. According to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning the Iraqi Turkmens have a population of about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million (approximately 9% of

3770-540: The Classical Latin word for copper through the phrase aes Cyprium , "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum . The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is Cypriot . The terms Cypriote and Cyprian (later a personal name ) are also used, though less frequently. The state's official name in Greek literally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation

3900-740: The Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus, Kyprianos , and four other bishops. In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place. Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by

4030-454: The Greek military junta . This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July, which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots. A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community , with Turkey alone recognising

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4160-569: The Iraqi Turkmen diaspora also communicate in standard (Istanbul) Turkish, whilst the younger generations in Iraq (below the age of 18 in 2019) speak Istanbul Turkish with ease. In addition, diglossia in Iraq Turkmen dialects and Istanbul Turkish has become a widespread phenomenon. Most Iraqi Turkmen can also speak Arabic and/or Kurdish . Due to the existence of different Turkish migration waves to Iraq for over 1,200 years,

4290-642: The League of Nations in 1932, the League demanded that Iraq recognize its ethnic and religious minorities. Consequently, the Turkish language, alongside Kurdish, was to be recognized as an official language under the Iraqi constitution of 1932: "in the liwa of Kirkuk , where a considerable part of the population is of Turkmen race, the official language, side by side with Arabic, shall be either Kurdish or Turkish". According to Article 1, no law, order, or act of government

4420-527: The Republic of Turkey since its foundation in 1923. Moreover, the fact that the Turkmen mainly live in urban areas, where they deal with trade and commerce, and their tendency to acquire higher education , the power of religious and tribal factors inherent in Iraq's political culture does not significantly affect the Turkmens. A small minority of the Iraqi Turkmens are Catholics, it is estimated their number at about 30,000. They are not to be confused with

4550-434: The Republic of Turkey . Turkish media outlets (especially satellite TV) has been influential; moreover, there are a number of private schools which teach in Turkish backed by Turkish institutions. Thus, diglossia in Iraq Turkmen and standard Turkish (of Turkey) has become a widespread phenomenon. In 2020, a request to grant ISO 639 code for Iraqi Turkmen was submitted to SIL, but later rejected in 2024 as it doesn't meet

4680-475: The Soviet Union and China , on the other...even the term "Turks" is selectively used. It is habitually used in reference to the 'closer' Turkish communities while the others are commonly referred to by their own particular names (i.e., Azeris, Turkestanis, etc.)... More important perhaps than the legal factor has been the historical and cultural identity of the Turks in Cyprus, Greece, Bulgaria and Iraq with

4810-572: The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus 's main broadcaster BRT , to share programmes and documentaries. The Iraqi Turkmen are predominantly Muslims . The Sunni Turkmen form the majority (about 60–70%), but there is also a significant number of Turkmen practicing the Shia branch of Islam (about 30% to 40%). Nonetheless, the Turkmen are mainly secular , having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in

4940-475: The Turkish minority in Iraq , and the Iraqi-Turkish minority ( Arabic : تركمان العراق , romanized :  Turkumān al-ʻIrāq ; Turkish : Irak Türkleri , Kurdish : تورکمانی عێراق, Turkmanî Êraq) are Iraq 's third largest ethnic group. They make up to 10%–13% of the Iraqi population and are native to northern Iraq. Iraqi Turkmen share ties with Turkish people , and do not identify with

5070-460: The Turkmen of Turkmenistan and Central Asia . According to Iraqi Turkmen scholar Professor Suphi Saatçi, prior to the mid-20th century the Turkmens in Iraq were known simply as "Turks". It was not until after the military coup of July 14, 1958, that the ruling military junta officially introduced the name "Turkman/Turkmen": the political goal of the Iraqi government was to distinguish

5200-532: The United Nations and the international community. The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds of paratroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles. Three days later, when

5330-639: The division of his empire , and the subsequent Wars of the Diadochi , Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt . It was during this period that the island was fully Hellenised . In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by the Roman Republic and became Roman Cyprus in 22 BC. When the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of

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5460-456: The eurozone . The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek 𐀓𐀠𐀪𐀍 , ku-pi-ri-jo , meaning "Cypriot" (Greek: Κύπριος ), written in Linear B syllabic script. The classical Greek form of the name is Κύπρος ( Kýpros ). The etymology of the name is unknown. Suggestions include: Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to

5590-529: The 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of

5720-704: The 7th century, followed by migrations during the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194), the fleeing Oghuz during the Mongol destruction of the Khwarazmian dynasty (see Kara Koyunlu and Ag Qoyunlu ), and the largest migration, during the Ottoman Empire (1535–1919). With the conquest of Iraq by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by Sultan Murad IV 's capture of Baghdad in 1638, a large influx of Turks—predominantly from Anatolia —settled down in Iraq. It

5850-601: The British and went to Serbia ’s assistance, in order to fulfill her Treaty obligations under the Serbo-Greek pact of May 1913. It gave Greece a golden “opportunity” in achieving enosis with Cyprus. Alternatively it was a “lost opportunity” when the Zaimis administration declined the British proposal. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne , the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus, and in 1925 it

5980-556: The Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the constant encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials. The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians. By 1872,

6110-674: The EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight. British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation TMT The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised

6240-555: The East Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire ), and would remain so for some 900 years. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community. Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched by Umayyad Caliphate . Many were quick raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were killed and great wealth carried off or destroyed. The city of Salamis

6370-416: The Empire. There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and the island entered a period of impoverishment. Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea. In 1156 Raynald of Châtillon and Thoros II of Armenia brutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of

6500-417: The Governor of Cyprus not to act against TMT despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government. During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots , who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots , who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards,

6630-568: The Greek Cypriot police. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to

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6760-405: The Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in

6890-411: The Greek world. During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there was not a Persian satrap . The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and

7020-409: The Iraqi Turkmen Congress adopted a Declaration of Principles, Article Three states that "the official written language of the Turkmen is Istanbul Turkish , and its alphabet is the new Latin alphabet ." By 2005 the Turkish language replaced traditional Turkmeni, which had used the Arabic script , in Iraqi schools. Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on November 17, 1993, one in Erbil and

7150-415: The Iraqi Turkmen dialects also show similarities with Cypriot Turkish and Balkan Turkish regarding modality . The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern Turkish alphabet . The Turkish language was recognized as a minority language in Kirkuk and Kifri in 1930, until the revolutionary government introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja" in 1959 with

7280-530: The Iraqi Turkmen dialects of Tal Afar (approx 700,000 speakers), Altun Kupri , Tuz Khurmatu , Taza Khurmatu , Kifri , Bashir and Amirli show unity with the Eastern Anatolian dialect of Urfa ; meanwhile, the dialects in Kirkuk , Erbil , Dohuk , Mandali and Khanaqin show similarities with Azerbaijani Tabrizi and Afshar Turkic dialects. Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa, and 21.4% of Kirkuk province's population had self-declared their mother tongue as "Turkish" in

7410-435: The Iraqi Turkmen from other Turks in Anatolia , just as the Greek government used the name " Muslim minority " for those Turks living within the borders of Greece . The state-imposed terms on the Turks of Iraq were not resisted, for the word "Turkmen" had historically been designated to the Oghuz Turks who had accepted Islam and migrated westwards from Central Asia to the Middle East , and had continued to be used in

7540-453: The Iraqi Turkmen is uncertain, but several possible explanations and theories of settlement in the region indicate that they likely originally emerged in Iraq as garrisons established by multiple rulers in various time periods. The Iraqi Turkmen are believed to be the descendants of various waves of Turkic settlement in Mesopotamia beginning from the 7th century until the end of Ottoman rule (1919). The first wave of migration dates back to

7670-433: The Iraqi Turkmen varieties are by no means homogeneous; dialects can vary according to regional features. Several prestige languages in the region have been particularly influential: Ottoman Turkish from 1534 onwards and then Persian after the Capture of Baghdad (1624) . Once the Ottoman empire retook Iraq in 1640 the Turkish varieties of Iraq continued to be influenced by Ottoman Turkish, as well as other languages in

7800-427: The Iraqi constitution; since then, the Iraqi Turkmens have opened numerous Turkish schools and media exposure from Turkey has led to the standardisation of their dialects towards Standard Turkish and the preferable language for adolescents associating with the Turkish culture . Indeed, Iraqi Turkmens themselves (according to the 1957 census), as well as a range of linguistic sources, tend to view their language as

7930-428: The Iraqi government admitted that the Iraqi Turkmen population was actually more than 400% from the previous year's total. Scott Taylor has described the political nature of the results thusly: According to the 1957 census conducted by King Faisal II – a monarch supported by the British – there were only 136,800 Turkmen in all of Iraq. Bearing in mind that since the British had wrested control of Mesopotamia from

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8060-399: The Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea of union with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots. Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low. They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during

8190-458: The Persian Safavids . In 1534, under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, Mosul was sufficiently secure within the Ottoman Empire and became the chief province ( eyalet ) responsible for all other administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of immigrant Turkmen along northern Iraq, religious scholars were also brought in to preach Hanafi (Sunni) Islam. With loyal Turkmen inhabiting

8320-443: The Turkish character of Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of Turkish as the official language of the liwa . Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the Arabs and Kurds , in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status. Since the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Iraqi Turkmen have found themselves increasingly mistreated under successive regimes, such as in

8450-410: The Turkmen Directorate of Education in Kirkuk has started Turkish language lessons for the wider society. Furthermore, the Turkmen officer for the Ministry of Education in Nineveh has requested from the "United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq" the instigation of Turkish language classes for parents. The current prevalence of satellite television and media exposure from Turkey may have led to

8580-402: The Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods. Some Turkmen also participate in the political institutions of the KRG, including the Parliament. Erbil's citadel also contains the Turkmen Culture House . Cyprus Cyprus ( / ˈ s aɪ p r ə s / ), officially the Republic of Cyprus , is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea . It

8710-409: The Turks after the First World War , a deliberate campaign had been undertaken to eradicate or diminish all remnants of Ottoman influence. Therefore it should not be surprising that after Abdul Karim Kassem launched his successful revolution in 1958 – killing 23-year-old King Faisal II, expelling the British and declaring Iraq a republic – that a different set of numbers was published. According to

8840-472: The Turks of Turkey. Not only are these communities geographically adjacent to the Turks but they have all shared the Ottoman past, speak more or less the same language, and are predominantly Sunni. Professor Orit Bashkin has observed that within Iraqi Turkmen literature, poets have managed to "remain loyal to Iraq as a state" whilst they have also "concurrently upheld their Turkish distinctiveness": For Mustafa Gökkaya (b. 1910), this signified that his community

8970-421: The Turks of the Great Seljuq Empire . Large scale migration of the Turkmen in Iraq occurred in 1055 with the invasion of Sultan Tuğrul Bey , the second ruler of the Seljuk dynasty , who intended to repair the holy road to Mecca . For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq, especially Tal Afar , Erbil , Kirkuk , and Mandali , which

9100-405: The US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory. Meanwhile, by 1964, enosis was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime minister Georgios Papandreou agreed that enosis should be the ultimate aim and King Constantine wished Cyprus "a speedy union with

9230-441: The Umayyud conquest of Basra. More Turkic troops settled during the 8th century, from Bukhara to Basra and also Baghdad. During the subsequent Abbasid era, thousands more of Turkmen warriors were brought into Iraq; however, the number of Turkmen who had settled in Iraq were not significant, as a result, the first wave of Turkmen became assimilated into the local Arab population. The second wave of Turkmens to descend on Iraq were

9360-454: The aim of politically distancing the Turks of Iraq from Turkey . Then, in 1972, the Iraqi government banned the Turkish language and schools and media using Turkish were prohibited. Further bans on the Turkish language were made in the 1980s when the Baath regime prohibited the Iraqi Turkmens from speaking Turkish in public. It was not until 2005 that the Turkmen dialects were recognized under

9490-426: The annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death"

9620-455: The area, the Ottomans were able to maintain a safe route through to the southern provinces of Mesopotamia . Following the conquest, Kirkuk came firmly under Turkish control and was referred to as "Gökyurt", it is this period in history whereby modern Iraqi Turkmen claim association with Anatolia and the Turkish state . With the conquest of Iraq by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by Sultan Murad IV 's capture of Baghdad in 1638,

9750-425: The border with Iran . Turkmen sources note that Turcomania – an Anglicized version of "Turkmeneli" – appears on a map of the region published by William Guthrie in 1785, but there is no clear reference to Turkmeneli until the end of the twentieth century. The Iraqi Turkmen generally consider several major cities, and small districts associated with these cities, as part of Turkmeneli. The major cities claimed to be

9880-474: The calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration. Turkish Cypriots started living in enclaves . The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line , with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus in response to the continuing Cypriot intercommunal violence , but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from

10010-490: The capture of Baghdad whilst others came even later with other notable Ottoman figures. Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens wanted Turkey to annex the Mosul vilayet and for them to become part of an expanded state; this is because, under the Ottoman monarchy, the Iraqi Turkmens enjoyed a relatively trouble-free existence as the administrative and business classes. However, due to

10140-522: The city of Kirkuk , with 40% declaring their mother tongue as " Turkish ". The second-largest Iraqi Turkmen city is Tel Afar where they make up 95% of the inhabitants. The once mainly Turkoman cities of the Diyala Province such as Kifri have been heavily Kurdified and Arabized . Some Iraqi Turkmen also live outside the Turkmeneli region. For example, there is a significant community living in Iraq's capital city of Baghdad , especially in

10270-407: The city was besieged and finally conquered by Abbas the Great in 1624. The Persians ruled the city until 1638 when a massive Ottoman force, led by Sultan Murad IV , recaptured the city. In 1639, the Treaty of Zuhab was signed that gave the Ottomans control over Iraq and ended the military conflict between the two empires. Thus, more Turks arrived with the army of Sultan Murad IV in 1638 following

10400-557: The country – including Amirli , Kifri , Tal Afar and Tuz Khurmatu – are all said to be similar to the Turkish dialect of Urfa. Hence, there are linguists who acknowledge similarities with Azerbaijani spoken in Iran but say that Iraqi Turkmen has "greater proximity to Turkish of Turkey ". According to Christiane Bulut, Iraqi Turkman is neither Azeri nor Anatolian Turkish but "a transitional dialect group, displaying linguistic features similar to both". Besides their traditional dialects,

10530-543: The country's population). According to Mesut Yeğen, documents from the British Foreign Office claim that the Turkmens made a majority in the city of Erbil in 1919 The 1957 Iraqi census (which is recognized as the last reliable census, as later censuses were reflections of the Arabization policies of the Ba'ath regime ) recorded 567,000 Turks out of a total population of 6.3 million, forming 9% of

10660-583: The criteria for being a distinct language. Professor Christiane Bulut has argued that publications from Azerbaijan often use expressions such as "Azerbaijani (dialects) of Iraq" or "South Azerbaijani" to describe Iraqi Turkmen dialects "with political implications"; however, in Turcological literature, closely related dialects in Turkey and Iraq are generally referred to as "eastern Anatolian" or "Iraq-Turkic/-Turkman" dialects, respectively. Furthermore,

10790-599: The decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of the Central Powers , on 5 November 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan a Sultanate and British protectorate . In October 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by King Constantine I of Greece , on the condition that Greece join the war on the side of

10920-532: The demise of the Ottoman monarchy , the Iraqi Turkmen participated in elections for the Constituent Assembly ; the purpose of these elections was to formalise the 1922 treaty with the British government and obtain support for the drafting of a constitution and the passing of the 1923 Electoral law. The Iraqi Turkmens made their participation in the electoral process conditional on the preservation of

11050-593: The ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year. Attempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, the Annan Plan , drafted by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan , was put to a referendum in both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of

11180-605: The entire island, including its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone , with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , which remain under the UK's control according to the London and Zürich Agreements . However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of

11310-420: The first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community. Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island from Anatolia . This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on

11440-743: The former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus and Asia Minor with a capital in Constantinople , and was actively pursued by the Cypriot Orthodox Church , which had its members educated in Greece. These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued the Megali Idea , would later found the guerrilla organisation EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston or National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters). The Greek Cypriots viewed

11570-423: The historical standards of Ottoman Turkish (which was the official language of administration and lingua franca in Iraq between 1534 and 1920 ) and neighboring Azerbaijani Turkic . In particular, standard (i.e. Istanbul) Turkish as a prestige language has exerted a profound influence on their dialects; thus, the syntax in Iraqi Turkmen differs sharply from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties. Collectively,

11700-415: The island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right. In the 1950s, the pursuit of enosis became a part of the Greek national policy. Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule. However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls for enosis , as they saw the union of Crete with Greece, which led to the exodus of Cretan Turks , as

11830-541: The island's area, and the north, administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by the UN buffer zone . The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became

11960-545: The island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro , reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine. The Venetians fortified Nicosia by building the Walls of Nicosia , and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing

12090-495: The island. The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that

12220-547: The last census which asked about language. In particular, a cultural orientation towards Turkey prevails among Iraqi Turkmen intellectuals and diglossia (Turkish of Turkey) is very frequent in educated circles, especially in Kirkuk . In addition, the Erbil dialect shows similarities with Turkish dialects stretching from Kosovo to Rize , Erzurum and Malatya . The Iraqi Turkmen generally also have an active command in standard Turkish due to their cultural orientation towards

12350-577: The leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover. Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople. In 1185 Isaac Komnenos , a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire. In 1191, during the Third Crusade , Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac. He used it as

12480-625: The massacres of 1923, 1946, and 1959, and from 1980, when the Ba'th Party targeted the community. The Iraqi Turkmens are mostly Muslims and have close cultural and linguistic ties with the Anatolian region of Turkey . The Iraqi Turkmen dialects fall under the Western Oghuz branch of Turkic languages and are often referred to as "Iraqi Turkmen Turkish" "Iraqi Turkish", and "Iraqi Turkic". The dialects possess their own unique characteristics, but have also been influenced by

12610-421: The minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights. However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that

12740-423: The mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion. The crisis of 1963–64 had brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out

12870-564: The neighbourhoods of Adhamiyah and Ragheba Khatun. The Turkmen population in Erbil is estimated to be around 300,000. They mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and

13000-635: The new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute . Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean. The country has an advanced high-income economy . The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2008, Cyprus joined

13130-553: The north. Cyprus was granted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA. As per the Zürich and London Agreement , Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others. The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving

13260-456: The northern part of the island. In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised a referendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation, where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour of enosis . The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island's population at the time ( census 1946 ). Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955

13390-503: The only large mammals native to the island. Neolithic farming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC). Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predating ancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia

13520-666: The other in Kifri. In 2010 the Turkmen Federation of Scouts ( Türkmen Izcilik Federasyonu ) was founded, based in Kirkuk . In 2005 Iraqi Turkmen community leaders decided that the Turkish language would replace the use of traditional Turkmeni in Iraqi schools; Turkmeni had used the Arabic script whereas Turkish uses the Latin script (see Turkish alphabet ). Kelsey Shanks has argued that "the move to Turkish can be seen as

13650-605: The plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, claiming that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey. In total, 66.7% of the voters rejected the Annan Plan . On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union , together with nine other countries. Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until

13780-533: The population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians. The Muslim population included numerous crypto-Christians , including the Linobambaki , a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities; this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule. As soon as

13910-618: The population) whilst Patrick Clawson has stated that the Iraqi Turkmen make up about 9% of the total population. Furthermore, international organizations such as the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization has stated that the Iraqi Turkmen community is 3 million or 9–13% of the Iraqi population. Iraqi Turkmen claim that their total population is over 3 million. It is estimated to be 2.7% of total Iraqi population at 2015 by Gulf/2000 Project of Columbia University. The Iraqi Turkmen primarily inhabit northern Iraq, in

14040-470: The properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974. The Republic of Cyprus has de jure sovereignty over

14170-409: The region, such as Arabic and Kurdish . Ottoman Turkish had a strong influence in Iraq until 1920, for it was not only the official language of administration but also the lingua franca . Indeed, Turkish has remained a prestige language among Iraqi Turkmen, exerting a profound historical influence on their dialect. As a result, Iraqi Turkmen syntax differs sharply from Irano-Turkic. In general,

14300-614: The region. Thus, the Iraqi Turkmen (as well as the Syrian Turkmens and Anatolian Turkmens) do not identify themselves with the Turkmen people of Turkmenistan . Rather, the term "Turkmen" in the Middle East is often used to designate Turkic-speakers, particularly in the Arab areas, or where Sunni Turks live in Shiite dominated areas. Despite the modern usage of the term "Turkmen", Professor David Kushner has pointed out that

14430-713: The rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan , which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes , which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots. Intercommunal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving

14560-415: The second census of 1958, the Turkmen registry stood at 567,000 – an increase of more than 400 per cent from the previous year's total. Subsequent censuses, in 1967, 1977, 1987 and 1997, are all considered highly unreliable, due to suspicions of manipulation by the various regimes in Iraq. The 1997 census states that there was 600,000 Iraqi Turkmen out of a total population of 22,017,983, forming 2.72% of

14690-686: The standardisation of Turkmeni towards Turkish, and the preferable language for adolescents associating with the Turkish culture . In 2004 the Türkmeneli TV channel was launched in Kirkuk , Iraq . It broadcasts programmes in the Turkish and Arabic languages. As of 2012, Türkmeneli TV has studios in Kirkuk and Baghdad in Iraq , and in the Çankaya neighbourhood in Ankara , Turkey . Türkmeneli TV has signed agreements with several Turkish channels, such as TRT , TGRT and ATV , as well as with

14820-529: The summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations . Turkish settlers have been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states. The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of the Geneva Convention , whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland. The Turkish invasion,

14950-478: The term "Turks" continues to be used in referring to the "Outside Turks" of the former Ottoman Empire, including the Turks in Iraq, which is in contrast to the terms used for other Turkic peoples who did not share this Ottoman history: Generally one may distinguish between the 'closer' communities [to Turkey] of Turks in Cyprus , Greece , Bulgaria , and Iraq , on the one hand, and the more 'distant' ones in Iran ,

15080-470: The terms "Turkmen/Turkman" are also considered to be historically political because in the early 20th century the minority were simply recognized as Turks who spoke the Turkish language, until after the military coup of 14 July 1958, when the ruling military junta introduced the names "Turkman/Turkmen" to distance the Turks of Iraq from those in Anatolia, and then banned the Turkish language in 1972. Under

15210-400: The total Iraqi population. This put them third, behind Arabs and Kurds . However, due to the undemocratic environment, their number has always been underestimated and has long been a point of controversy. For example, in the 1957 census, the Iraqi government first claimed that there was 136,800 Turks in Iraq. However, the revised figure of 567,000 was issued after the 1958 revolution when

15340-587: The total Iraqi population; however, this census only allowed its citizens to indicate belonging to one of two ethnicities, Arab or Kurd, this meant that many Iraqi Turkmen identified themselves as Arabs (the Kurds not being a desirable ethnic group in Saddam Hussein's Iraq), thereby skewing the true number of Iraqi Turkmen. In 2004 Scott Taylor suggested that the Iraqi Turkmen population accounted for 2,080,000 of Iraq's 25 million inhabitants (forming 8.32% of

15470-595: The twentieth century. In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Congress of Berlin , Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained a de jure Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan ) in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as

15600-549: The upper classes, a growing Greek middle ranks , and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included King John II of Cyprus who married Helena Palaiologina . In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprus massacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants. The previous Latin elite were destroyed and

15730-542: The wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement by Mycenaean Greeks at the end of the 2nd millennium BC . It was subsequently occupied by several major powers , including the empires of the Assyrians , Egyptians and Persians , from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great . Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt , the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire , Arab caliphates for

15860-535: The worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta and Kyrenia . Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on the island is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to

15990-503: Was Muslim and that "my father is Turk, and the homeland [is] my mother". For Reşit Ali Dakuklu (b. 1918), being part of "the Turks of Iraq" signified maintaining brotherly relations with every nation, being united with Iraq, while speaking in Turkish. Universal and local, Iraqi and Turkish at the same time, the Turkoman poets were willing to serve their nation yet unwilling to neglect their culture and their Turkishness. The exact origin of

16120-409: Was allowed to contradict the terms of the 1932 constitution, nor could it be changed in the future. However, in 1959 the military junta introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja". More recently, Article 4 of the 2005 Iraqi Constitution recognizes "Turkomen" as an official minority language in the "administrative units in which they constitute density of population" (alongside Syriac ). In 1997

16250-617: Was declared a British crown colony . During the Second World War , many Greek and Turkish Cypriots enlisted in the Cyprus Regiment . The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead to enosis . The idea of enosis was historically part of the Megali Idea , a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in

16380-520: Was destroyed and never rebuilt. Byzantine control remained stronger in the northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south. In 688, Emperor Justinian II and Caliph Abd al-Malik signed a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, but would remain politically neutral to both while being retained as a province administered by

16510-530: Was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in

16640-710: Was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt , as documented in the Amarna letters ). The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is Kushmeshusha , as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC. At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement. The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC. A major wave of Greek settlement

16770-669: Was separated from Kirkuk Governorate and attached to Saladin Governorate for Arabization purposes. The population of the town was 75,737 the subsequent year, and decreased to 51,998 in 1987. The town participated in the 1991 Iraqi uprising before being suppressed by the Ba'athist Iraqi army. 34°52′38″N 44°38′18″E  /  34.87722°N 44.63833°E  / 34.87722; 44.63833 Iraqi Turkmen#Language The Iraqi Turkmen (also spelled as Turkoman and Turcoman ; Turkish : Irak Türkmenleri ), also referred to as Iraqi Turks , Turkish-Iraqis ,

16900-681: Was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonised the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians. Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire for

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