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134-619: The USS Lead Superfund Site is the location of a culmination of environmental pollution by numerous sources in East Chicago. Initially, from 1893 to 1912, there was a DuPont facility, processing various metals and chemicals. This DuPont facility was joined in 1912 by the Anaconda Copper Company which refined lead and produced lead pigment which was used in paint. South of the Anaconda Company from 1920 to 1985

268-519: A direct bandgap , and can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to convert electrical energy directly into light. After World War I , the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tons of weaponized lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl 2 ), an organoarsenic vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s. During

402-568: A tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, As 4 . It is rapidly transformed into grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm . Black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus . Black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220 °C and by crystallization of amorphous arsenic in

536-554: A wood preservative . In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate (also known as CCA or Tanalith ) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States. However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations). Arsenic

670-487: A bidding war with the giant distillery Seagram Company Ltd. Seagram became DuPont's largest single shareholder, with four seats on the board of directors. On April 6, 1995, after being approached by Seagram Chief Executive Officer Edgar Bronfman Jr. , DuPont announced a deal in which the company would buy back all the shares owned by Seagram. In 1999, DuPont spun off Conoco and sold all of its shares. Conoco later merged with Phillips Petroleum Company . DuPont acquired

804-490: A distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm . Grey arsenic is a semimetal , but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–1.4 eV if amorphized . Grey arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus ( P 4 ). Both have four atoms arranged in

938-545: A diverse range of technologies for many markets including agriculture, genetic traits, biofuels , automotive, construction, electronics, chemicals, and industrial materials. In 2002, the company sold the Clysar business to Bemis Company for $ 143 million. In 2004, the company sold its textiles business, which included some of its best-known brands such as Lycra ( Spandex ), Dacron polyester, Orlon acrylic, Antron nylon and Thermolite, to Koch Industries . In May 2007

1072-543: A diversified industrial firm. CFO Lori Koch was named CEO effective 1 June 2024, as current CEO Ed Breen transitioned to executive chairman. The split is expected to be completed in 18 to 24 months. The company's corporate headquarters and experimental station were located in Wilmington, Delaware . The company's manufacturing, processing, marketing, and research and development facilities, as well as regional purchasing offices and distribution centers were located throughout

1206-423: A major role in the development of the U.S. state of Delaware and first arose as a major supplier of gunpowder. DuPont developed many polymers such as Vespel , neoprene , nylon , Corian , Teflon , Mylar , Kapton , Kevlar , Zemdrain, M5 fiber , Nomex , Tyvek , Sorona , Corfam and Lycra in the 20th century, and its scientists developed many chemicals, most notably Freon ( chlorofluorocarbons ), for

1340-517: A major source of arsenic contamination of groundwater in regions with high levels of naturally-occurring arsenic minerals. Synthetic arsenates include Scheele's Green (cupric hydrogen arsenate, acidic copper arsenate), calcium arsenate , and lead hydrogen arsenate . These three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons . The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid . Unlike phosphorous acid , arsenous acid

1474-723: A manufacturer of gunpowder, as du Pont noticed that the industry in North America was lagging behind Europe. The company grew quickly, and by the mid-19th century had become the largest supplier of preppy gunpowder to the United States military , supplying one-third to one-half the powder used by the Union Army during the American Civil War . The Eleutherian Mills site is now a museum and a National Historic Landmark . DuPont continued to expand, moving into

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1608-441: A new corporate entity bearing Dow Chemical's name and agribusiness divisions into the newly created Corteva ; DowDuPont reverted its name to DuPont and kept the specialty products divisions. Prior to the spinoffs it was the world's largest chemical company in terms of sales. The merger has been reported to be worth an estimated $ 130 billion. The present DuPont, as prior to the merger, is headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware , in

1742-422: A new identity that is "fundamentally different" from DowDuPont. The company published a list of sustainability commitments to be achieved by 2030. In February 2020, DuPont announced that it is bringing back Edward D. Breen as its CEO after removing former Chief Executive Marc Doyle and CFO Jeanmarie Desmond less than a year after they assumed their roles. Lori D. Koch, previously head of investor relations, assumed

1876-527: A precursor of skin cancer. Longer terms of exposure may also cause lung and bladder cancers, diabetes, pulmonary disease and cardiovascular disease. Both lead and arsenic can be linked to detrimental pregnancy outcomes and infant mortality, due to the ease of blood crossing the placenta to the fetus. After the mayor of East Chicago declared an evacuation order for the residents of the WCHC, the current tenants were “issued tenant protection vouchers to help relocate to

2010-532: A role in human metabolism. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health. The United States' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranked arsenic number 1 in its 2001 prioritized list of hazardous substances at Superfund sites. Arsenic

2144-464: A safe home”, says James Gastner and Veronica Gaitán of The Urban Institute. However, the eviction of residents from their long-term homes came with multiple problems: “Many residents remained in the complex beyond the target date officials set for evacuation, in part because of the limited rental units available in East Chicago and some landlords’ refusal to accept government vouchers”. These residents were forced to move across state lines, which resulted in

2278-591: A subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens. A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis , continued to sell nitarsone until 2015, primarily for use in turkeys. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich ) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler ), for treating diseases such as cancer or psoriasis . Arsphenamine, as well as neosalvarsan ,

2412-415: A version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors , producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain , PHS-1, has been isolated and

2546-432: Is a chemical element with the symbol As and the atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens , and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony . Arsenic is a notoriously toxic heavy metal . It occurs naturally in many minerals , usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal . It has various allotropes , but only

2680-437: Is a more stable oil with greater flexibility in food and industrial applications." Plenish is genetically engineered to "block the formation of enzymes that continue the cascade downstream from oleic acid (that produces saturated fats), resulting in an accumulation of the desirable monounsaturated acid." In October 2001, the company sold its pharmaceutical business to Bristol Myers Squibb for $ 7.798 billion. In 2011, DuPont

2814-458: Is classified as a Group-A carcinogen . The three most common arsenic allotropes are grey, yellow, and black arsenic, with grey being the most common. Grey arsenic (α-As, space group R 3 m No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, grey arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form

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2948-606: Is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the Bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization 's standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb). However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and

3082-514: Is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH) 3 . A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment ( As 2 S 3 ) and realgar ( As 4 S 4 ) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments. In As 4 S 10 , arsenic has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As 4 S 4 which features As-As bonds so that the total covalency of As is still 3. Both orpiment and realgar, as well as As 4 S 3 , have selenium analogs;

3216-589: Is in alloying with lead. Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic. Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic. "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits . Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from silicon . Unlike silicon, GaAs has

3350-647: Is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts. During the Victorian era , arsenic was widely used in home decor, especially wallpapers. In Europe, an analysis based on 20,000 soil samples across all 28 countries show that 98% of sampled soils have concentrations less than 20 mg kg-1. In addition, the As hotspots are related to frequent fertilization and close distance to mining activities. Extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and neighboring countries. It

3484-427: Is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic. Naturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash , weathering of minerals and ores, and mineralized groundwater. Arsenic is also found in food, water, soil, and air. Arsenic is absorbed by all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables, rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood. An additional route of exposure

3618-433: Is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust. On roasting arsenopyrite in air, arsenic sublimes as arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides, while roasting without air results in the production of gray arsenic. Further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture. The word arsenic has its origin in

3752-561: Is related to the gammaproteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii . The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues . In 2011, it was postulated that the Halomonadaceae strain GFAJ-1 could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic, exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally. The study

3886-467: Is released from the sediment into the groundwater, caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater was used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in

4020-474: Is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid . A 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer PET scan images than the previous radioactive agent, iodine -124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise. Nanoparticles of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser cytotoxicity than other arsenic formulations. The main use of arsenic

4154-494: Is stable only below −50 °C, at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride, releasing chlorine gas. ) Arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V semiconductors gallium arsenide , indium arsenide , and aluminium arsenide . The valence electron count of GaAs is the same as a pair of Si atoms, but the band structure is completely different which results in distinct bulk properties. Other arsenic alloys include

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4288-490: Is the 22nd most abundant element in seawater and ranks 41st in abundance in the universe. Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs 2 (M = Fe , Ni , Co ) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native (elemental) arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite ( Fe As S ), which is structurally related to iron pyrite . Many minor As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in

4422-485: Is therefore called a monoisotopic element . As of 2024, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 64 to 95. The most stable of these is As with a half-life of 80.30 days. All other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exception of As ( t 1/2 =65.30 hours), As ( t 1/2 =26.0 hours), As ( t 1/2 =17.77 days), As ( t 1/2 =26.26 hours), and As ( t 1/2 =38.83 hours). Isotopes that are lighter than

4556-496: Is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons . One of the simplest arsenic compounds is the trihydride, the highly toxic, flammable, pyrophoric arsine (AsH 3 ). This compound is generally regarded as stable, since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of 250–300 °C decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid. Several factors, such as humidity , presence of light and certain catalysts (namely aluminium) facilitate

4690-664: Is used in armor, belts, hoses, composite structures, cable sheathing, gaskets, brake pads, clutch linings, friction pads, slot insulation , phase barrier insulation, and interturn insulation. Following the DuPont and Dow merger and subsequent spinoff, this product line remained with DuPont. On the company's 200th anniversary in 2002, it was presented with the Honor Award by the National Building Museum in recognition of DuPont's "products that directly influence

4824-455: Is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of DNA. Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor can be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility. The Chinese brake fern ( Pteris vittata ) hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation . Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering

4958-527: The Clayton Antitrust Act forced DuPont to divest its shares of General Motors. In the 1920s, DuPont continued its emphasis on materials science , hiring Wallace Carothers to work on polymers in 1928. Carothers invented neoprene , a synthetic rubber ; the first polyester super polymer ; and, in 1935, nylon . The invention of Teflon followed a few years later and has since been proven responsible for health problems in those exposed to

5092-690: The Hanford plutonium producing plant in Hanford, Washington . In 1950 DuPont also agreed to build the Savannah River Plant in South Carolina as part of the effort to create a hydrogen bomb . DuPont was one of an estimated 150 American companies that provided Nazi Germany with patents, technology and material resources that proved crucial to the German war effort . DuPont maintained business connections with various corporations in

5226-892: The Niagara River at Tonawanda, New York , the Sabine River Works Plant in Orange, Texas , and the Parlin Site in Sayreville, New Jersey . The facilities in Vadodara , Gujarat and Hyderabad , Telangana in India constituted the DuPont Services Center and DuPont Knowledge Center respectively. The European Commission opened a probe to assess whether the proposed merger was in line with

5360-987: The Pioneer Hi-Bred agricultural seed company in 1999. DuPont ranked 86th in the Fortune 500 on the strength of nearly $ 36 billion in revenues, $ 4.848 billion in profits in 2013. In April 2014, Forbes ranked DuPont 171st on its Global 2000, the listing of the world's top public companies. During this time, DuPont businesses were organized into the following five categories, known as marketing "platforms": Electronic and Communication Technologies, Performance Materials, Coatings and Color Technologies, Safety and Protection, and Agriculture and Nutrition. The agriculture division, DuPont Pioneer , made and sold hybrid seed and genetically modified seed , some of which produces genetically modified food . Genes engineered into their products included LibertyLink , which provides resistance to Bayer's Ignite Herbicide /Liberty herbicides;

5494-712: The Renaissance era . During the Bronze Age , arsenic was melted with copper to make arsenical bronze . Jabir ibn Hayyan described the isolation of arsenic before 815 AD. Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) later isolated the element from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide . In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature, although rarely. Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl ), often claimed as

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5628-617: The Sherman Antitrust Act . The courts declared that the company's dominance of the explosives business constituted a monopoly and ordered divestment . The court ruling resulted in the creation of the Hercules Powder Company (later Hercules Inc. and now part of Ashland Inc. ) and the Atlas Powder Company (purchased by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) and now part of AkzoNobel ). At

5762-539: The Syriac word ܙܪܢܝܟܐ zarnika , from Arabic al-zarnīḵ الزرنيخ 'the orpiment ', based on Persian zar ("gold") from the word زرنيخ zarnikh , meaning "yellow" (literally "gold-colored") and hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was adopted into Greek (using folk etymology ) as arsenikon ( ἀρσενικόν ) – a neuter form of the Greek adjective arsenikos ( ἀρσενικός ), meaning "male", "virile". Latin -speakers adopted

5896-631: The Vietnam War , the United States used Agent Blue , a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice. Some species of bacteria obtain their energy in the absence of oxygen by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria use arsenite as fuel, which they oxidize to arsenate. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr). In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ

6030-490: The food chain , are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation . For example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present. The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50 μg/day. Values about 1000 μg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms, but there

6164-457: The nonmetals . Though stable in dry air, arsenic forms a golden-bronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer. When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide ; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. It burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide , which have

6298-505: The refrigerant industry. It also developed synthetic pigments and paints including ChromaFlair . In 2015, DuPont and the Dow Chemical Company agreed to a reorganization plan in which the two companies would merge and split into three. As a merged entity, DuPont simultaneously acquired Dow and renamed itself to DowDuPont on August 31, 2017, and after 18 months spun off the merged entity's material science divisions into

6432-823: The $ 2.1 million DuPont Nature Center at Mispillion Harbor Reserve, a wildlife observatory and interpretive center on the Delaware Bay near Milford, Delaware was opened to enhance the beauty and integrity of the Delaware Estuary. The facility is state-owned and operated by the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC). In 2010, DuPont Pioneer received approval to market Plenish soybeans, which contain "the highest oleic acid content of any commercial soybean product, at more than 75 percent. Plenish has no trans fat, 20 percent less saturated fat than regular soybean oil, and

6566-615: The 1920s continued to have a lasting impact on how East Chicago’s demographic geography was assembled. Rich affluent whites were located in the cleaner renewed part of the city and minority communities were displaced to industrially contaminated land. A resident explained that “We call it environmental racism; we’ve been forced to live in the poisoned area”. Families of the WCHC were shocked to find out in 2016 that they had been living on land highly contaminated with lead and arsenic. However, these were not new findings. Research done by Kate Walz and Emily Coffey, Director of Litigation and Attorney for

6700-625: The 1920s following an influx of Hispanic and Black workers during World War I . The main entity responsible for the campaign was the Purdue University -led Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation. According to scholar Elizabeth Browning of the University of Oklahoma , the renewal plan brought in a combination of "racially restrictive covenants and other discriminatory practices." These practices forcibly displaced minority communities in an effort to "eliminate urban blight." To do so, it

6834-511: The 1960s, DuPont began tests to see if it could resist a lead bullet. This research would ultimately lead to the bullet-resistant vests that are used by police and military units. In 1962, DuPont applied for a patent on the explosion welding process, which was granted on June 23, 1964, under US Patent 3,137,937[123] and resulted in the use of the Detaclad trademark to describe the process. On July 22, 1996, Dynamic Materials Corporation completed

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6968-542: The 20th century. A 2006 study of the remains of the Australian racehorse Phar Lap determined that its 1932 death was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution ( Fowler's Solution ) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system." The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as

7102-670: The Anaconda Company site but also the ongoing pollution by the USS Lead site (until 1985) and the other surrounding active industries. 2018-2023 census data showed the continued majority of marginalized community in East Chicago, 38% of the population being Black and 54% being Hispanic. Almost 30% of the East Chicago community is considered to be in poverty. Due to this history of housing discrimination and unfair exposure to environmental hazards, scholar Sophie Rasof of Lake Forest College has deemed this WCHC crisis as an example of environmental racism. The discriminatory housing polices implemented in

7236-734: The Anaconda Facility, and the Chemours Company who owned the DuPont facility. Under the Administrative Settlement Agreement and Order on Consent (ASAOC), these responsible parties will reimburse the EPA “$ 18 million for its past cleanup costs at the site, and pay for future state and EPA oversight costs”. The EPA plans to enter into a Prospective Purchaser Agreement (PPA) with Industrial Development Advantage (IDA) of East Chicago LLC, who will continue

7370-521: The As ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds. Like germanium , selenium , and bromine , which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series , arsenic is much less stable in the +5 oxidation state than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony , and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers . Compounds of arsenic resemble, in some respects, those of phosphorus , which occupies

7504-745: The CDC’s Blood Level Reference Value for lead of 3.5 microgram per deciliter. There is no safe level of blood lead concentration, meaning all lead contamination should be taken seriously. Elevated lead blood levels can lead to numerous detrimental health effects. Children are especially susceptible to lead exposure due to their still developing bodies. Common health effects of lead blood levels below 10 micrograms per deciliter include affects to brain development, IQ reduction, reduced attention span, antisocial behavior, anemia, hypertension, renal impairment, immunotoxicity, decreased kidney function, increased blood pressure, or degenerative disorders of

7638-589: The CFO position. In November 2021, DuPont announced that it intended to acquire Rogers Corporation in a deal valued at $ 5.2 billion. While the deal had been approved by many other regulatory agencies, due to Chinese regulators prolonging the review, DuPont decided on November 1, 2022, to walk away from the deal. DuPont paid Rogers a termination fee of US$ 162.5 million. In May 2024, DuPont announced it would split into three publicly traded companies, separating its electronics and water businesses while continuing as

7772-475: The Clinton administration, Dan Glickman , and former Governor of Nebraska , Mike Johanns , by creating a single, independent, U.S.-based and – owned pure agriculture company, Dow and DuPont would be able to compete against their still larger global peers. The merger was not opposed by competition authorities around the world due to the view that it did not have noticeable impact on the global seed markets. On

7906-468: The EU's respective regulations. The Commission investigated whether the deal reduced competition in areas such as crop protection, seeds and petrochemicals. The closing date for the merger was repeatedly delayed due to these regulatory inquiries. Ed Breen said the companies were negotiating possible divestitures in their pesticide operations to win approval for the deal. As part of their EU counterproposal,

8040-552: The Greek term as arsenicum , which in French ultimately became arsenic , whence the English word "arsenic". Arsenic sulfides (orpiment, realgar ) and oxides have been known and used since ancient times. Zosimos ( c.  300 AD ) describes roasting sandarach (realgar) to obtain cloud of arsenic ( arsenic trioxide ), which he then reduces to gray arsenic. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning are not very specific,

8174-836: The Herculex I Insect Protection gene, which provides protection against various insects; the Herculex RW insect protection trait, which provides protection against other insects; the YieldGard Corn Borer gene, which provides resistance to another set of insects; and the Roundup Ready Corn 2 trait that provides crop resistance against glyphosate herbicides. DuPont had 150 research and development facilities located in China, Brazil, India, Germany, and Switzerland, with an average investment of $ 2 billion annually in

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8308-486: The II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide . A large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known. Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite . Cacodylic acid , which is of historic and practical interest, arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry. Cacodyl

8442-609: The Indiana Environmental Reporter: “The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency first found evidence of lead contamination from the U.S. Smelter and Lead Refinery Inc. site, located just across a street from the West Calumet Housing Complex, in 1980”. Further soil tests in 1985 revealed the area was beyond the “confines of the USS Lead facility site with more than 1,100 milligrams per kilogram of lead, an amount hundreds of times more than

8576-547: The Materials Science Committee. These Committees were intended to oversee their respective businesses, and would work with both CEOs on the scheduled separation of the businesses’ standalone entities. Announced in February 2018, DowDuPont's agriculture division is named Corteva Agriscience, its materials science division is named Dow, and its specialty products division is named DuPont. In March 2018, it

8710-487: The Shriver Center, found that in 1985, 53 children were found have lead poisoning. Further, in the 1990s it was found that 40% of children who lived in the WCHC had elevated blood lead levels. This knowledge and intentional refusal to address the problem is further supported by the 1990s EPA tests finding that the emissions of USS Lead at the time were 8 times higher than emission standards. The site includes part of

8844-569: The Third Reich from 1933 until 1943 when all of DuPont's assets in Germany were seized by the Nazi government along with those of all other American companies. Irénée du Pont , a descendant of Éleuthère Irénée du Pont and the president of the company during the buildup to World War II, was also a financial supporter of Nazi Führer Adolf Hitler and keenly followed Hitler since the 1920s. After

8978-520: The US. Both duopolies would become the "big two" industry dominators. DuPont has been awarded the National Medal of Technology four times: first in 1990, for its invention of "high-performance man-made polymers such as nylon, neoprene rubber , " Teflon " fluorocarbon resin, and a wide spectrum of new fibers, films, and engineering plastics"; the second in 2002 "for policy and technology leadership in

9112-430: The United States by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming. The biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite ( AsO 3− 3 ) is more soluble than arsenate ( AsO 3− 4 ) and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It

9246-504: The World Health Organization (WHO), children “and their age-appropriate hand-to-mouth behavior results in their mouthing and swallowing lead contaminating or lead coated object, such as contaminated soil or dust”. The WHO also says that children can “absorb 4-5 times as much ingested lead as adults from a given source”, increasing the likelihood of elevated lead blood levels. Lead pollution is easily transferable between

9380-464: The acquisition of DuPont's Detaclad operations for a purchase price of $ 5,321,850 (or about $ 10.34 million today). In 1981, DuPont acquired Conoco Inc. , a major American oil and gas producing company, which gave it a secure source of petroleum feedstocks needed for the manufacturing of many of its fiber and plastics products. The acquisition, which made DuPont one of the top ten U.S.-based petroleum and natural gas producers and refiners, came about after

9514-438: The analogous As 2 Te 3 is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite , and the anion As 2 Te is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes. All trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide, which is unknown. Arsenic pentafluoride (AsF 5 ) is the only important pentahalide, reflecting the lower stability of the +5 oxidation state; even so, it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent. (The pentachloride

9648-417: The area. Then the site was converted to a secondary smelter; where the facility began recovering lead from scrap metal and automotive batteries. The site had been owned by other similar companies prior to this that performed the same type of industrial work. There are two primary contaminants on the site, those contaminants are lead and arsenic. These contaminants are widespread across the area and are found in

9782-454: The central nervous system. Effects of lead blood levels above 15 micrograms per deciliter can be cardiovascular effects, nerve disorders and fertility problems. In extreme cases according to the WHO, “at high levels of exposure to lead, the brain and central nervous system can be severely damaged causing coma, convulsions and even death”. Findings by The CDC say that lead can be stored in the bones of

9916-516: The chemical through manufacturing and home use. DuPont introduced phenothiazine as an insecticide in 1935. DuPont ranked 15th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. As the inventor and manufacturer of nylon , DuPont helped produce the raw materials for parachutes , powder bags, and tires . DuPont also played a major role in the Manhattan Project in 1943, designing, building and operating

10050-459: The clean-up efforts of the site. The remediation starts with taking a sample of the soil and ground water, from there workers will dig up and remove contaminated soil, about 2 feet deep, and replace it with clean soil, including 6 inches of topsoil. Then they will put sod on the clean soil. The soil will then be taken to a licensed landfill for proper disposal. The sites will then be monitored for additional hazards. All work will be done at no cost to

10184-631: The cleanup of 171 former DuPont sites, which DuPont says will cost between $ 295 million and $ 945 million, was transferred to Chemours. In October 2015, DuPont sold the Neoprene chloroprene rubber business to Denka Performance Elastomers, a joint venture of Denka and Mitsui . On December 11, 2015, DuPont announced a merger with Dow Chemical Company, in an all-stock transaction. The combined company, DowDuPont, had an estimated value of $ 130 billion, being equally held by both companies’ shareholders, while also maintaining its two headquarters. The merger of

10318-468: The companies offered to dispose of a portion of DuPont's crop protection business and associated R&D, as well as Dow's acrylic acid copolymers and ionomers businesses. The remedy submission in turn delayed the commission's review deadline to April 4, 2017. The intended spins of the company businesses were expected to occur about 18 months after closing. According to the Financial Times ,

10452-542: The company. On May 1, 2012, DuPont announced that it had acquired from Bunge full ownership of the Solae joint venture, a soy-based ingredients company. DuPont previously owned 72 percent of the joint venture while Bunge owned the remaining 28 percent. In February 2013, DuPont Performance Coatings was sold to the Carlyle Group and rebranded as Axalta Coating Systems . In October 2013, DuPont announced that it

10586-465: The construction and design process in the building industry." In 2005, BusinessWeek magazine, in conjunction with the Climate Group, ranked DuPont as the best-practice leader in cutting their carbon gas emissions. DuPont reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by more than 65 percent from the 1990 levels while using 7 percent less energy and producing 30 percent more product. In 2012 DuPont

10720-534: The current state lead action level”. In 2014, two years before WCHC demolition, the EPA found some levels to be “as high as 91,000 parts per million of lead in the soil”, with the EPA threshold for cleanup being 400 parts per million. A 2021 report published by the National Library of Medicine found that the WCHC “had the widest range in concentration” of soil lead, “with 90% of samples containing soil lead concentrations classified as elevated as assessed using

10854-572: The environment. In 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey . Most arsenic refinement operations in the US and Europe have closed over environmental concerns. Arsenic is found in the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters, and

10988-591: The fields). The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in 21 deaths. From the late-18th century wallpaper production began to use dyes made from arsenic, which was thought to increase the pigment's brightness. One account of the illness and 1821 death of Napoleon I implicates arsenic poisoning involving wallpaper. Two arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery – Paris Green in 1814 and Scheele's Green in 1775. After

11122-642: The first industrial laboratories in the United States, where they began the work on cellulose chemistry, lacquers and other non-explosive products. DuPont Central Research was established at the DuPont Experimental Station , across the Brandywine Creek from the original powder mills. In 1914, Pierre S. du Pont invested in the fledgling automobile industry, buying stock in General Motors (GM). The following year he

11256-399: The first synthetic organometallic compound , was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide . In the Victorian era , women would eat "arsenic" (" white arsenic " or arsenic trioxide) mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler (to show they did not work in

11390-485: The former USS Lead facility along with nearby commercial, municipal, and residential areas. The site is made up of two areas called "operable units" (OU). Operable units are broken down based on how the land was used, in this case OU1 is residential and OU2 was industrial. OU1, is a 322-acre residential area that has East Chicago Avenue on the north, East 151st Street on the south, the Indiana Harbor Canal on

11524-570: The grey form, which has a metallic appearance, is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition ). Arsenic is a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices. It is also a component of the III–V compound semiconductor gallium arsenide . Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides , treated wood products, herbicides , and insecticides . These applications are declining with

11658-613: The groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia , have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat , Thailand, in 1987, and the Chao Phraya River probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of

11792-525: The homeowner. The site is expected to be finished cleaning by summer 2024. After demolition of the West Calumet Housing Complex in 2019, the City of East Chicago made an agreement with the IDA, calling for the development of a warehouse and transportation center. According to reporter Rebecca Thiele of NPR, to allow for this new development the zoning classification changed from residential to light industrial, meaning

11926-446: The human body and it can take decades for those stores to dissipate. The neurological and behavioral effects of lead are believed to be irreversible. Elevated arsenic blood levels according to the WHO, are associated with immediate effects such as vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea, numbness and tingling of extremities and muscle cramping. Skin pigmentation can change and skin lesions or hard patches can be observed, all of which may be

12060-456: The increasing recognition of the toxicity of arsenic and its compounds. Arsenic has been known since ancient times to be poisonous to humans. However, a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites . Trace quantities of arsenic have been proposed to be an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, and chickens. Research has not been conducted to determine whether small amounts of arsenic may play

12194-506: The intended guidance level of 150 mg/kg”. Blood testing done by the Indiana Childhood Lead Prevention Program in 1990 and 1997 on children living in the WCHC found that nearly 31% of children had blood levels higher than the 10 microgram per deciliter. Prior to 1992 it was also found that 40% of children under age 6 has the same blood level exceedance of 10 microgram per deciliter. This is well above

12328-494: The land. Exposing them to high levels of lead and causing a “myriad of disorders and health problems”.       41°37′03″N 87°27′49″W  /  41.61755°N 87.46355°W  / 41.61755; -87.46355 DuPont DuPont de Nemours, Inc. , commonly shortened to DuPont , is an American multinational chemical company first formed in 1802 by French-American chemist and industrialist Éleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours . The company played

12462-453: The loss of jobs and Medicaid coverage, as well as school changes for children. The forced removal of families from their homes only added to the health effects of elevated lead. Residents with mental and physical health problems only worsened from the stress. It was also found that relocation “can create problematic readjustment periods for children”, negatively affecting cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral development. The USS Lead site

12596-511: The merger as of April, 2017, although the decision was said to consist of over a thousand pages and was expected to take several months to be released publicly. As part of the approval, Dow must also sell off two acrylic acid co-polymers manufacturing facilities in Spain and the US. China conditionally cleared the merger in May, 2017. According to former United States Secretary of Agriculture during

12730-461: The merger was "on track for approval in March" 2017. Dow Chemical and DuPont postponed the planned deadline during late March, as they struck an $ 1.6 billion asset swap with FMC Corporation in order to win the antitrust clearances. DuPont acquired the corporation's health and nutrition business, while selling its herbicide and insecticide properties. The European Commission conditionally approved

12864-401: The minority residents did not have the political power needed to change this designation. According to Browning, “this strategic employment of zoning indirectly facilitated residential segregation – preserving much of the area for low-income African American and Latinx housing”. From 1970 to 2019 thousands of families lived in the WCHC, all being exposed not only to the remanent contamination of

12998-506: The other hand, if Monsanto and Bayer , the 1st and 3rd largest biotech and seed firms, together with Dow and DuPont being the 4th and 5th largest biotechnology and seed companies in the world respectively, both went through with the mergers, the so-called "Big Six" (including Syngenta and BASF ) in the industry would control 63 percent of the global seed market and 76 percent of the global agriculture chemical market. They would also control 95 percent of corn, soybeans, and cotton traits in

13132-481: The outdoors and indoors, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) says, “lead-contaminated soil particles can also be brought inside as lead dust or on shoes, clothing, or pets”. The lead contamination brought on by these refineries was known well before any action was taken to mitigate the effects on residents of the WCHC site and the eventual demolition and clean-up effort. According to scholar Enrique Saenz of

13266-429: The phaseout and replacement of chlorofluorocarbons ". DuPont scientist George Levitt was honored with the medal in 1993 for the development of sulfonylurea herbicides . In 1996, DuPont scientist Stephanie Kwolek was recognized for the discovery and development of Kevlar . In the 1980s, Dr. Jacob Lahijani, Senior Chemist at DuPont, invented Kevlar 149 and was highlighted in the "Innovation: Agent of Change. Kevlar 149

13400-408: The presence of mercury vapors. It is glassy and brittle. Black arsenic is also a poor electrical conductor. Arsenic sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure , converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at 887 K (614 °C). The triple point is at 3.63 MPa and 1,090 K (820 °C). Arsenic occurs in nature as one stable isotope , As, and

13534-438: The production of dynamite and smokeless powder . In 1902, DuPont's president, Eugene du Pont , died, and the surviving partners sold the company to three great-grandsons of the original founder. Charles Lee Reese was appointed as director and the company began centralizing their research departments. The company subsequently purchased several smaller chemical companies; in 1912 these actions generated government scrutiny under

13668-691: The project’s total costs. With this the Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation drafted two new projects: The Indiana Harbor Urban Renewal Project and the West Calumet Urban Renewal Project. The site chosen for the WCHC was the old industrial site of the Anaconda Company. The former industrial site was met with skepticism from the start with officials being unsure the site would “prove safe for any form of residential housing”.  Much of West Calumet had zoning designations for heavy industry, and

13802-889: The public uses bottled water . In Pakistan, more than 60 million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a 2017 report in Science . Podgorski's team investigated more than 1200 samples and more than 66% exceeded the WHO minimum contamination level. Since the 1980s, residents of the Ba Men region of Inner Mongolia, China have been chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking water from contaminated wells. A 2009 research study observed an elevated presence of skin lesions among residents with well water arsenic concentrations between 5 and 10 μg/L, suggesting that arsenic induced toxicity may occur at relatively low concentrations with chronic exposure. Overall, 20 of China's 34 provinces have high arsenic concentrations in

13936-444: The rate of decomposition. It oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water, and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen . Arsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides As 2 O 3 (" white arsenic ") and As 2 O 5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid and its salts, known as arsenates , are

14070-406: The same group (column) of the periodic table . The most common oxidation states for arsenic are: −3 in the arsenides , which are alloy-like intermetallic compounds, +3 in the arsenites , and +5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square As 3− 4 ions in the mineral skutterudite . In the +3 oxidation state , arsenic

14204-443: The same structure as the more well-known phosphorus compounds, and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride . Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid , arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid, and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid ; however, it does not react with water, alkalis, or non-oxidising acids. Arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides , though these are not ionic compounds containing

14338-626: The site were Lead and Arsenic. These metallic elements are easily dispersed to the environment, where they can then unknowingly enter the human body causing numerous health effects. Due to the refinery at the DuPont Site, Anaconda Copper Company and the USS Lead Plant, lead and arsenic were a consistent pollutant produced from these factories. According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, this pollution

14472-528: The site “won’t be cleaned up to stricter, residential standards and people who were forced to move out of the housing complex, can’t move back”. East Chicago had initially told residents of the WCHC that the site would become housing again after clean-up was finished. This has led to multiple lawsuits being filed in state and federal courts. Marilyn Odendahl of The Indiana Lawyer says the plaintiffs are “seeking damaged for physical and neurological injuries”. The plaintiffs “allege public and private officials knew about

14606-705: The soil and groundwater. Exposure to these can cause a series of health related issues, especially in children due to their size and that they are still developing. Arsenic : Arsenic affects numerous organs and systems including- Skin, nervous system, respiratory system, cardiovascular system, liver, kidney, bladder and prostate, immune system, endocrine system, developmental processes, and even death. Lead : Chronic lead exposure can result in- increased blood pressure, decreased fertility, cataracts, nerve disorders, muscle and joint pain, memory or concentration problems, and developmental disorders in children. There are no safe levels of lead The main types of contamination found on

14740-476: The stable As tend to decay by β decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay , with some exceptions. At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is As with a half-life of 111 seconds. Arsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter pnictogen congener phosphorus and therefore readily forms covalent molecules with most of

14874-637: The state where it is incorporated . DuPont was founded in 1802 by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont , using capital raised in France and gunpowder machinery imported from France. He started the company at the Eleutherian Mills , on the Brandywine Creek , near Wilmington, Delaware , two years after du Pont and his family left France to escape the French Revolution and religious persecution against Huguenot Protestants. The company began as

15008-575: The substance was frequently used for murder until the advent in the 1830s of the Marsh test , a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test .) Owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the "poison of kings" and the "king of poisons". Arsenic became known as "the inheritance powder" due to its use in killing family members in

15142-682: The time of divestment, DuPont retained the single-base nitrocellulose powders, while Hercules held the double-base powders combining nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine . DuPont subsequently developed the Improved Military Rifle (IMR) line of smokeless powders . In 1910, DuPont published a brochure entitled "Farming with Dynamite". The pamphlet was instructional, outlining the benefits to using their dynamite products on stumps and various other obstacles that would be easier to remove with dynamite as opposed to other more conventional and inefficient means. DuPont also established two of

15276-436: The toxic mess for years before telling the public”, a claim that is supported by the EPA findings in 1985 of elevated lead levels. Other claims include that the “manufacturing defendants failed to reveal the full extent of the contamination”. Residents of the WCHC are upset that the state continued to build the WCHC on land that was known to be contaminated, and despite this knowledge allowed residents and their children to live on

15410-456: The toxicity of arsenic became widely known, these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic byproduct of dye production, London Purple, was widely used. This was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime, and ferrous oxide, insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion But it was later replaced with Paris Green , another arsenic-based dye. With better understanding of

15544-451: The toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s. Arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of DDT in 1942. In small doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants , and were once popular as medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries; this use was especially prevalent for sport animals such as race horses or work dogs and continued into

15678-547: The two largest U.S. chemical companies closed on August 31, 2017. Both companies' boards of directors decided that following the merger DowDuPont would pursue a separation into three independent, publicly traded companies: an agriculture, a materials science, and a specialty products company. Advisory Committees were established for each of the businesses. DuPont CEO Ed Breen would lead the Agriculture and Specialty Products Committees, and Dow CEO Andrew Liveris would lead

15812-490: The war, DuPont continued its emphasis on new materials, developing Mylar , Dacron , Orlon , and Lycra in the 1950s, and Tyvek , Nomex , Qiana , Corfam , and Corian in the 1960s. DuPont has been the key company behind the development of modern body armor . In the Second World War , DuPont's ballistic nylon was used by Britain 's Royal Air Force to make flak jackets . With the development of Kevlar in

15946-427: The west and Parrish Avenue on the east. OU2 is the former USS Lead facility on 151st Street. At this time, the EPA has not begun remediation on OU2, but has come to an agreement with the company to perform a remedial investigation and feasibility study. The USS Lead site began as a facility that processed and refined metals and chemicals, including lead and arsenic, which are now the primary contaminants of concern for

16080-998: The world. Major manufacturing sites included the Spruance plant near Richmond, Virginia , (currently the company's largest plant), the Washington Works site in Washington, West Virginia , the Mobile Manufacturing Center (MMC) in Axis, Alabama , the Bayport plant near Houston , Texas, the Mechelen site in Belgium , and the Changshu site in China. Other locations included the Yerkes Plant on

16214-663: Was added to the Superfund National Priorities List in 2009, after years of proposals and testing.  According to the EPA, an agreement has been reached for the continued cleanup of the Site. The EPA and the State of Indiana have identified several responsible parties. The parties include United States Metals Refining Company who owned the USS Lead Facility, Atlantic Richfield Company who owned

16348-489: Was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees , but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in

16482-453: Was announced that Jeff Fettig would become executive chairman of DowDuPont on July 1, 2018, and Jim Fitterling would become CEO of Dow Chemical on April 1, 2018. In October 2018, the company's agricultural unit recorded a $ 4.6 billion loss in the third quarter after lowering its long-term sales and profits targets. In 2019, DuPont completed its spin off from DowDuPont and the company adapted its marketing and branding in order to establish

16616-662: Was believed that the " slums " had to be "completely eradicated". At this time, the United States Census found that nearly 80% of East Chicago's population was Latin American or African American, with 90% of the considered "subpar housing" being occupied by African Americans. A large advance in the urban renewal project occurred with the passing of the Housing Act of 1954. The act used federal funding to subsidize East Chicago’s renewal plans by almost two-thirds of

16750-451: Was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity. Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production , in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency , and prevent disease. An example is roxarsone , which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers. In 2011, Alpharma,

16884-495: Was indicated for syphilis , but has been superseded by modern antibiotics . However, arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis , since although these drugs have the disadvantage of severe toxicity, the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated. In 2000 the US Food and Drug Administration approved arsenic trioxide for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that

17018-532: Was invited to be on GM's board of directors and would eventually be appointed the company's chairman. The DuPont company would assist the struggling automobile company further with a $ 25 million purchase of GM stock ($ 752,960,526 in 2023 dollars ). In 1920, Pierre S. du Pont was elected president of General Motors. Under du Pont's leadership, GM became the number one automobile company in the world. However, in 1957, because of DuPont's influence within GM, further action under

17152-509: Was named to the Carbon Disclosure Project Global 500 Leadership Index. Inclusion is based on company performance on sustainability metrics, emissions reduction goals, and environmental performance transparency. In 2014 DuPont was the top scoring company in the chemical sector according to CDP, with a score of "A" or "B" in every evaluation area except for supply chain management. Arsenic Arsenic

17286-717: Was planning to spin off its Performance Chemicals business into a new publicly traded company in mid-2015. The company filed its initial Form 10 with the SEC in December 2014 and announced that the new company would be called The Chemours Company . The spin-off to DuPont shareholders was completed on July 1, 2015, and Chemours stock began trading on the New York Stock Exchange on the same date. DuPont then focused on production of GMO seeds, materials for solar panels , and alternatives to fossil fuels. Responsibility for

17420-458: Was possible because “lead in fumes from metal smelting, battery manufacturing, and some factories became airborne and then mixed with soil”. Lead gasoline was not banned until 1996 causing additional contamination, however the bulk of pollution came from the refineries just north of the WCHC site. As seen with the WCHC, children are much more susceptible to elevated lead blood levels and lead poisoning, simply due to their innate curiosity. According to

17554-420: Was the USS Lead plant, which smelted mined ore to refine it for various uses. In 1973 USS Lead switched from refining ore to salvaging lead out of batteries and scrap metal. In 1970, the Anaconda Company was demolished and replaced by the residential West Calumet Housing Complex (WCHC). The choice to construct housing on this contaminated land was a result of East Chicago's urban renewal campaign, which began in

17688-583: Was the first organometallic compound known (even though arsenic is not a true metal) and was named from the Greek κακωδία "stink" for its offensive, garlic-like odor; it is very toxic. Arsenic is the 53rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust , comprising about 1.5  parts per million  (0.00015%). Typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3 ng/m in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 400 μg/kg in vegetation; 10 μg/L in freshwater and 1.5 μg/L in seawater. Arsenic

17822-409: Was the largest producer of titanium dioxide in the world, primarily provided as a white pigment used in the paper industry . On January 9, 2011, DuPont announced that it had reached an agreement to buy Danish company Danisco for US$ 6.3 billion. On May 16, 2011, DuPont announced that its tender offer for Danisco had been successful and that it would proceed to redeem the remaining shares and delist

17956-1020: Was widely criticised and subsequently refuted by independent researcher groups. Arsenic may be an essential trace mineral in birds, involved in the synthesis of methionine metabolites, with feeding recommendations being between 0.012 and 0.050 mg/kg. Some evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in mammals. However, the biological function is not known. Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes , heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence . These include DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA interference. Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53 , thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis . These epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)

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