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124-489: The United Secession Church was founded in 1820 by the union of various churches which had previously seceded from the established Church of Scotland . The First Secession had been in 1732, and the resultant Associate Presbytery grew to include 45 congregations. A series of disputes, in 1747 over the burgesses oath, and in the late 18th century over the Westminster confession , led to further splits, but in 1820 two of

248-645: A 1933 referendum for secession from the Federation of Australia passed with a two-thirds majority. The referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament , which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution . The Principality of Hutt River claimed to have seceded from Australia in 1970, although its status was not recognised by Australia or any other country. After being liberated by

372-815: A Bangabhumi /separate homeland for Bengali Hindus in the People's Republic of Bangladesh . The group is led by Kalidas Baidya. The Shanti Bahini ( Bengali : শান্তি বাহিনী , "Peace Force") is the name of the military wing of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti - the United People's Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts aims are to create an indigenous Buddhist orientated Chacomas state within SE Bangladesh . On August 25, 1830, during

496-561: A Relief Synod was formed in 1773, which in 1847 had under its jurisdiction 136 congregations. The Relief Church issued no distinctive testimonies, and a certain breadth of view was shown in the formal declaration of their terms of communion, first made in 1773, which allowed occasional communion with those of the episcopal and independent persuasions. In 1794, the Relief Church adopted as its hymn book Patrick Hutchison 's Sacred Songs and Hymns on Various Passages of Scripture , and it

620-803: A case that the moral status of the seceding state is unrelated to the issue of secession itself. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason ("Choice Theory") while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices ("Just Cause Theory"). Some theories do both. A list of justifications may be presented supporting the right to secede, as described by Allen Buchanan, Robert McGee, Anthony Birch , Jane Jacobs , Frances Kendall and Leon Louw , Leopold Kohr , Kirkpatrick Sale , Donald W. Livingston and various authors in David Gordon's "Secession, State and Liberty", includes: Political scientist Aleksander Pavkovic describes five justifications for

744-552: A clear majority of the province and a constitutional amendment confirmed by all participants in the Canadian federation could allow secession. The European Union is not a sovereign state but an association of sovereign states formed by treaty; as such, leaving it, which is possible by simply denouncing the treaty, is not secession. Nonetheless, the 2003 draft of the European Union Constitution allowed for

868-496: A consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with

992-424: A discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum . These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano Esposte ( The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed ). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of

1116-645: A general right of secession within liberal political theory: Allen Buchanan, who supports secession under limited circumstances, lists arguments that might be used against secession: Secession theorists have described a number of ways in which a political entity (city, county, canton, state) can secede from the larger or original state: Most sovereign states do not recognize the right to self-determination through secession in their constitutions. Many expressly forbid it. However, there are several existing models of self-determination through greater autonomy and through secession. In liberal constitutional democracies

1240-462: A mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces". High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in Late Baroque architecture . The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and

1364-562: A military crackdown, including cutting the internet in the English-speaking regions. In response, the people of Southern Cameroon declared on October 1, 2017, the restoration of their UN state of Southern Cameroons, which they called the " Federal Republic of Ambazonia ". Throughout Canada's history, there has been tension between English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians . Under the Constitutional Act of 1791 ,

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1488-586: A month beforehand, tensions had escalated into open warfare between separatists and the Cameroon Armed Forces . The conflict, known as the "Anglophone Crisis", is deeply rooted in the October 1, 1961 incomplete decolonization of the former British Southern Cameroons (UNGA Resolution 1608). On January 1, 1960, French Cameroon was granted independence from France as the Republic of Cameroon and

1612-589: A new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century in Western Europe , when an expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti in 1751 and led by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce

1736-664: A new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union , the Napoleonic Wars , and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins 's winning design for the public competition for Downing College, Cambridge , that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of

1860-610: A part of China but rather an occupied country, so it does not view independence from China as "secession" but rather "decolonization". The Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong has a secessionist movement in the city that the Chinese Communist Party has placed on the national security agenda in 2017 which is called the Hong Kong independence movement . In 1960, the State of Katanga declared independence from

1984-440: A range of different forms of indigenous sovereignty and have the right of self-determination , but under current understanding of international law they have a mere "remedial" right to secession in extreme cases of abuse of their rights, because independence and sovereign statehood is a territorial and diplomatic claim and not one of self-determination and self-government , respectively, generally leaving rights to secession to

2108-416: A series of "revival" styles, such as Greek , Renaissance , or Italianate . Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style that was decelerated with the advent of Modernism . Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in

2232-514: A symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include the Monument to Sir Alexander Ball (1810), RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now-destroyed Royal Opera House, Valletta (1866). Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during

2356-695: Is Wellington Church , near the University of Glasgow , which was built in 1883–84 by the architect Thomas Lennox Watson. This preference for neoclassical architecture contrasts strongly with the prevailing mid-Victorian taste for Gothic Revival in most of the other Scottish churches. Most U.P. churches were, however, far more modestly built than Wellington. The famous architect Alexander "Greek" Thomson (1817–1875) designed three striking UP church buildings in Glasgow at Caledonia Road Church (1856), St Vincent Street Church (1859), and Queen's Park (1867). Of

2480-634: Is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the islands of Poros and Syros (especially in the capital Ermoupoli ). The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác . In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in

2604-569: Is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy , France and Germany . It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world . The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries, Renaissance architecture and Baroque architecture , already represented partial revivals of

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2728-535: Is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge by William Tierney Clark . Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes

2852-534: Is expressed in the Louis XV style of architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel ( Petit Trianon , 1762–1768); the second phase, in the styles called Directoire and Empire , might be characterized by Jean Chalgrin 's severe astylar Arc de Triomphe (designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures of Robert Adam , the second by those of Sir John Soane . The interior style in France

2976-405: Is no consensus on the definition of political secession despite many political theories on the subject. According to the 2017 book Secession and Security, by political scientist Ahsan Butt , states respond violently to secessionist movements if the potential state poses a greater threat than the would-be secessionist movement. States perceive a future war with a potential new state as likely if

3100-483: Is the formal withdrawal of a group from a political entity . The process begins once a group proclaims an act of secession (such as a declaration of independence ). A secession attempt might be violent or peaceful, but the goal is the creation of a new state or entity independent of the group or territory from which it seceded. Threats of secession can be a strategy for achieving more limited goals. Notable examples of secession, and secession attempts, include: There

3224-706: The goût grec ("Greek taste"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette , his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen [...] seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another". A new phase in neoclassical design

3348-461: The Baroque , or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in

3472-654: The Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa built between 1540–1844 by Lucas Poblete . Brazil , which became the seat of the court of the Portuguese monarchy , gaining independence from its metropolis as the Empire of Brazil , also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in the Académie royale d'architecture . To this period belong

3596-480: The Beaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the commonwealth . The centre of Polish-Lithuanian Neoclassicism was Warsaw and Vilnius under the rule of the last Polish king and Lithuanian grand duke, Stanisław August Poniatowski . Vilnius University

3720-562: The Classical architecture of ancient Rome and ancient Greek architecture , but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer, more complete, and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes. The development of archaeology and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there

3844-655: The Commonwealth of Australia only upon vote of a majority of the country as a whole; the previous two-thirds majority vote for secession via referendum in Western Australia was insufficient. The Chinese Communist Party followed the Soviet Union in including the right of secession in its 1931 constitution in order to entice ethnic nationalities and Tibet into joining. However, the Party eliminated

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3968-836: The Democratic Republic of the Congo . United Nations troops crushed it in Operation Grand Slam . In 1974, Greek irredentists launched a coup d'état in Cyprus , in an attempt to annex the island with Greece . Almost immediately, the Turkish Army invaded northern Cyprus to protect the interests of the ethnic Turkish minority , who in the following year formed the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus and in 1983 declared independence as

4092-571: The International Monetary Fund , World Bank , and the United Nations . Alberto Alesina and Enrico Spolaore argue that greater levels of free trade and peace have reduced the benefits of being part of a larger state, thus motivating nations within larger states to seek secession. Woodrow Wilson 's proclamations on self-determination in 1918 created a surge in secessionist demands. The political philosophy of

4216-644: The National Library of Greece (1888), the third building of the trilogy being the National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843), which was designed by his brother Christian Hansen . Also he designed the Zappeion Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion of Heinrich Schliemann , Iliou Melathron (1880). The city of Nauplio

4340-544: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Dominik Merlini , Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer , Szymon Bogumił Zug , Jakub Kubicki , Antonio Corazzi , Efraim Szreger , Chrystian Piotr Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen . In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to Saint Petersburg architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in

4464-576: The Province of Quebec (including parts of what are today Quebec , Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador ) was divided in two: Lower Canada (which retained French law and institutions and is now part of the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador ) and Upper Canada (a new colony intended to accommodate the many new English-speaking settlers, including the United Empire Loyalists , and now part of Ontario ). The intent

4588-619: The Quebec sovereignty movement in the latter half of the 20th century. Other occasional secessionist movements have included anti-Confederation movements in the 19th century Atlantic Canada (see Anti-Confederation Party ), the North-West Rebellion of 1885, and various small separatist movements in Alberta particularly (see Alberta separatism ) and Western Canada generally (see, for example, Western Canada Concept ). After

4712-564: The Red Army and the U.S. Army , Austria seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945. This took place after seven years under Nazi rule , which began with the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. The secession only took place once Nazi Germany had been defeated by the Allies. The Banga Sena ( Bangabhumi ) is a separatist Hindu organisation, which supports the making of

4836-699: The Treaty of Lisbon entered into force on 1   December 2009, no provision in the treaties or law of the European Union outlined the ability of a state to voluntarily withdraw from the EU. The European Constitution did propose such a provision and, after the failure to ratify the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe , that provision was then included in the Lisbon Treaty. The treaty introduced an exit clause for members who wish to withdraw from

4960-590: The Treaty on European Union included Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union , establishing a mechanism for withdrawal from the EU. As a result of the successful constitutional referendum held in 2003, every municipality in the Principality of Liechtenstein has the right to secede from the Principality by a vote of a majority of the citizens residing in that municipality. Indigenous peoples have

5084-555: The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus , recognized only by Turkey . The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (also known as East Timor) has been described as having "seceded" from Indonesia . After Portuguese sovereignty was terminated in 1975, East Timor was occupied by Indonesia . However, the United Nations and the International Court of Justice refused to recognize this incorporation. Therefore,

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5208-596: The United Provinces , which led to a stagnated war between both, as they were both weakened, lacking manpower and politically fragile. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay 's independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River. Three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará , Bahia, and Maranhão, where

5332-638: The Venetian Republic , building one of the first lapidariums in Europe in Verona , in the Doric style (1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced to Tuscany by architect Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey , the court architect of Francis Stephen of Lorraine . On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed by Gaspare Maria Paoletti , transforming Florence into

5456-777: The restoration of the Republic and the subsequent stability of the Pax Porfiriana that Mexico saw a significant number of new neoclassical buildings. The Academy of San Carlos saw a renewal of neoclassicism ideals under director Francesco Saverio Cavallari . During the Porfiriato, the predominant architectural taste favored Eclecticism . Buildings such as the Teatro Juárez , Museo Nacional de Arte and Palacio de Bellas Artes , are eclectic buildings that combine different architectural styles and are not solely neoclassical. An important unfinished neoclassical building

5580-525: The voluntary withdrawal of member states from the union , although the representatives of the member-state which wanted to leave could not participate in the withdrawal discussions of the European Council or of the Council of Ministers. There was much discussion about such self-determination by minorities before the final document underwent the unsuccessful ratification process in 2005. In 2007

5704-495: The " Union of Myanmar "). Burma still allows "local autonomy under central leadership". As of 1996, the constitutions of Austria , Ethiopia , France , and Saint Kitts and Nevis have express or implied rights to secession. Switzerland allows for the secession from current and the creation of new cantons . In the case of proposed Quebec separation from Canada , the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 ruled that only both

5828-428: The 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton 's excavations at Pompeii and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour , and the work of William Chambers and Robert Adam , were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann . The style

5952-469: The 1760s. Also the work of a French architect, Jean-Charles-Alexandre Moreau , is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria). The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were Mihály Pollack and József Hild . Pollack's major work is the Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of Eger and Esztergom . The Reformed Great Church of Debrecen

6076-516: The 1823 collapse of the First Mexican Empire , the former Captaincy-General of Guatemala was organized into a new Federal Republic of Central America . In 1838, Nicaragua seceded. The Federal Republic was formally dissolved in 1840, all but one of the states having seceded amidst general disorder. Taiwan has long sought sovereignty from mainland China. It maintains its own currency and military, despite no longer being recognized internationally. The Anti-Secession Law , passed in 2005, formalized

6200-455: The 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland (with Bowen as a potential colonial capital) in the 1870s. Other secession (or territorial separation) movements arose and these advocated the secession of New England in northern central New South Wales , Deniliquin in the Riverina district also in NSW, and Mount Gambier in the eastern part of South Australia . Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia (WA), where

6324-480: The 18th century in Germany, in what was then Prussia . Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many notable buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center. Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe

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6448-430: The 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales (NSW) was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria (Vic) was formed in 1851 and Queensland (Qld) in 1859. However, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century; particularly in central Queensland (centered in Rockhampton ) in

6572-421: The 20th century, such as the Domvs Romana museum (1922), and the Courts of Justice building (Valletta) (1965–1971). Neoclassical architecture in Mexico had two main eras, the first was toward the end of Spanish colonial rule and the second phase was during independent Mexico beginning in the mid-19th century. As part of the Spanish Enlightenment 's cultural impact on the Kingdom of New Spain (Mexico),

6696-416: The Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the Royal High School, Edinburgh (1823–1829). At the same time the Empire style in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon I in the First French Empire , where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and

6820-409: The Church Synod passing a declaratory act on the subject in 1879. On such points as that of the six days ' creation, it was made clear that freedom was allowed; but when David Macrae of Gourock claimed that it should also be allowed on the question of eternal punishment , he was at once declared to be no longer a minister of the church. He left behind him many who sympathized with his position, and in

6944-474: The Dutch West India Company and tried to secede from the Portuguese and Brazilian Empires. In each attempt, the rebels were crushed, the leaders shot and their territory divided. Nevertheless, they kept revolting until Pernambuco's territory was a little fraction of what it was before. In the Ragamuffin War , the Province of Rio Grande do Sul was undergoing a (at that time common) liberal vs conservative "cold" war. After Emperor Pedro II of Brazil favoured

7068-426: The Empire agreed to aid Santa Catarina's economy by taxing Argentina 's products (like dry meat), the rebels reunited with the Empire and joined its military ranks. In modern times, the South Region of Brazil has been the centre of a secessionist movement led by an organization called The South is My Country since the 1990s. Reasons cited for Southern Brazil's secession movement are taxation, due to it being one of

7192-405: The European Union on January 31, 2020. This is informally known as Brexit . Finland successfully and peacefully seceded from the newly-formed and unstable Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1917. The latter was led by Lenin , who had sought refuge in Finland during the Russian Revolution . Unsuccessful attempts at greater autonomy or peaceful secession had already been made during

7316-427: The French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleonstil in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into

7440-682: The Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland . The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio . The Baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture: Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell (1715), Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura ( The Four Books of Architecture , 1715), De re aedificatoria by Leon Battista Alberti (first published in 1452) and The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs (1727). The most popular

7564-434: The Republic of Cameroon, but they did so without a formal Treaty of Union on record at the UN. In 1972, Cameroon used its majority population to abolish the federation and implement a system which resulted in the occupation of the former South Cameroons territory by French-speaking Cameroon administrators. In 1984, Cameroon heightened tensions by returning to its name at independence, "Republic of Cameroun", which did not include

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7688-418: The Union. This formalised the procedure by stating that a member state may notify the European Council that it wishes to withdraw, upon which withdrawal negotiations begin; if no other agreement is reached, the treaty ceases to apply to the withdrawing state two years after such notification. On June 23, 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union in a non-binding referendum, and finally left

7812-421: The United Presbyterian Church again made advances, which were promptly met, and on 31 October 1900 the United Free Church of Scotland came into existence. The final moderator (1899/1900) of the UP was Very Rev. Alexander Mair (1834-1911). The United Presbyterian Church constructed a number of notable buildings, the largest of which often used a neoclassical design with a portico. A particularly fine example

7936-510: The adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque. Two more Classical criteria belong, in Chile , the La Moneda Palace (1784–1805) and the Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral (1748–1899), both works by the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca . In Ecuador, the Quito's Palacio de Carondelet (Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611–1801 by Antonio García. At

8060-442: The architecture. However, a style of its own was not conceived, but the Classical canon was introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from French Classicism ; which lasted until the 20th century. Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of

8184-422: The best preferred architecture in the Spanish East Indies , manifested in churches, civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styled Bahay na bato and Bahay kubo . When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of

8308-405: The borders of previous administrative units. Several scholars argue that changes in the international system have made it easier for small states to survive and prosper. Tanisha Fazal and Ryan Griffiths link increased numbers of secessions to an international system that is more favorable for new states. For example, new states can obtain assistance from international organizations such as

8432-486: The buildings and develop his functional style. From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture from the Palladian architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal. James 'Athenian' Stuart 's work The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece was very influential in this regard, as were Robert Wood 's Palmyra and Baalbec . A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment

8556-425: The classical architectural vocabulary. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore,

8680-411: The conservatives, the liberals took the Capital and declared an independent Republic , fighting their way to the Province of Santa Catarina and declaring the Juliana Republic . Eventually they were slowly forced back, and made a reunification peace with the Empire. This was not considered a secessionist war, even if it could have resulted in an independent republic if the Empire had been defeated. After

8804-411: The construction of major neoclassical buildings came to an end as a result of interruptions to the operation of the Academy of San Carlos and economic turmoil caused by the War of Independence. The economic slump was worsened by a succession of wars, including the Spanish reconquest attempts , First French Intervention , First American Intervention and Reform War . It was not until the late 1860s, with

8928-644: The crown established the Academy of San Carlos in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsular Gerónimo Antonio Gil . The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture, but also, for some monuments, from the Aztec and Maya architectural traditions. The preeminent Neoclassical architect in Mexico

9052-851: The dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced in New Granada by Marcelino Pérez de Arroyo . Later, in Colombia , the Capitolio Nacional was built in Bogotá between 1848–1926 by Thomas Reed , trained at the Berlin Bauakademie ; the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá (1807–1823), designed by Friar Domingo de Petrés ; and in Peru

9176-804: The decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of Chippendale , George Hepplewhite and Robert Adam , Wedgwood 's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases , and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine the Great in Saint Petersburg . Indoors, neoclassicism made

9300-436: The eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and Edmund Burke 's conception of the sublime . Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to architecture parlante ("speaking architecture"). From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through

9424-530: The ethnic group driving the secessionist struggle has deep identity division with the central state, and if the regional neighborhood is violent and unstable. According to political scientist Bridget L. Coggins, the academic literature contains four potential explanations for the drastic increase in secessions during the 20th century: Other scholars have linked secession to resource discoveries and extraction. David B. Carter, H. E. Goemans, and Ryan Griffiths find that border changes among states tend to conform to

9548-574: The exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work of Etienne-Louis Boullée , it was highly abstract and geometrically pure. Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used

9672-765: The final years of Hospitaller rule . Early examples include the Bibliotheca (1786), the De Rohan Arch (1798) and the Hompesch Gate (1801). However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to serve as

9796-616: The first Greek building in England, the garden temple at Hagley Hall (1758–59). A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, including Joseph Bonomi the Elder and John Soane , but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century. Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded

9920-761: The forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington ; in 1729, he and William Kent designed Chiswick House . This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra "La Rotonda" , but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture, Holkham Hall in Norfolk . The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicizing vein

10044-552: The form of New Classical architecture and even in Gentrification and Historicism Architecture , the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when Postmodern architecture is dominant throughout the world. A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the Rococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in

10168-728: The groups united to form the United Associate Synod of the Secession Church, also known as the United Secession Church. The Presbytery of Relief was constituted in 1761 by three ministers of the Church of Scotland, one of whom was Thomas Gillespie , who had been deposed by the assembly in 1752 for refusing to take part in the intrusion of unacceptable ministers. The number of congregations under its charge increased with considerable rapidity, and

10292-549: The importance of public buildings. Many of these urban planning patterns found their way into the first modern planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include Karlsruhe , Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified by Brasília , the Garden city movement , and levittowns . The first phase of neoclassicism in France

10416-519: The internal legislation of sovereign states. National secessionist movements advocate for the claim that a population within a state is a nation that has the right to form its own nation-state. Movements that work towards political secession may describe themselves as being autonomy , separatist , independence , self-determination , partition , devolution , decentralization , sovereignty , self-governance or decolonization movements instead of, or in addition to, being secession movements. During

10540-581: The long-standing policy of the People's Republic of China to use military means against Taiwan independence in the event peaceful means become otherwise impossible. Western regions of Xinjiang ( East Turkistan ) and Tibet are the focus of secessionist calls by the Tibetan independence movement and East Turkestan Independence Movement . The East Turkistan Government in Exile does not view East Turkistan as

10664-490: The medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival . Although several European cities – notably Saint Petersburg , Athens , Berlin and Munich – were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public. Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during

10788-734: The most important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden (1808–1809), the General Post Office (1824–1829) and the British Museum (1823–1848), Wilkins University College London (1826–1830) and the National Gallery (1832–1838). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance;

10912-527: The most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also in Turin , Milan ( Giuseppe Piermarini ) and Trieste ( Matteo Pertsch ). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the ruling Habsburg enlightened monarchs. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to

11036-518: The people were unhappy with the Empire (these provinces were Portuguese bastions in the Independence War). The Malê Revolt , in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt. These three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. The Pernambuco was one of the most nativist of all Brazilian regions. Over a series of five revolts (1645–1654, 1710, 1817, 1824, 1848), the province ousted

11160-667: The portal of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro made in 1826 and the Imperial Palace of Petrópolis built between 1845–1862. Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power was sought that transmitted the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course

11284-593: The preceding Russian Empire but had been denied by the Russian emperor. However, with the country still at war and under great pressure, Lenin allowed Finland to secede. Its peripheral location made it difficult to defend and less strategically important than Russia's other territories, so he conceded sovereignty to the Finns rather than try to defend it. Neoclassical architecture Neoclassical architecture , sometimes referred to as Classical Revival architecture,

11408-569: The preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses. The Works in Architecture illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams. From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave

11532-688: The principle of majority rule has dictated whether a minority can secede. In the United States Abraham Lincoln acknowledged that secession might be possible through amending the United States Constitution . The Supreme Court in Texas v. White held secession could occur "through revolution, or through consent of the States". The British Parliament in 1933 held that Western Australia could secede from

11656-1109: The reference to pomegranates in 2 Chronicles 4:13 and the furnishings mentioned in 1 Kings 6:15-36. 1. John Brown - Professor of Exegetical Theology - 1847-1858 2. William Lindsay - Professor of Sacred Languages and Criticism - 1847-1866 3. Neil M'Michael - Professor of History of Doctrines - 1847-1874 4. John Eadie - Professor of Hermeneutics and Evidences - 1847-1859, Professor of Biblical Literature - 1859-1876 5. James Harper - Professor of Systematic and Pastoral Theology - 1847-1876, Professor of Systematic Theology and Apologetics (jointly with John Cairns) 1876-1879. 6. John Ker - Pastoral Training (without professorial status) - 1876-1886 7. John Cairns - Professor of Apologetical Theology - 1867-1876 - Professor of Systematic Theology and Apologetics, (jointly with James Harper, 1876-1879) 1876- 8. James A. Paterson - Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Literature and Exegesis - 1876- 9. David Duff - Professor of Church History - 1876-1890 10. Robert Johnstone - Professor of New Testament Literature and Exegesis - 1876- Secede Secession

11780-969: The reign of William I , the nationalistic opera La muette de Portici was performed in Brussels . Soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Kingdom of the Netherlands . In 1825, soon after the Empire of Brazil managed to defeat the Cortes-Gerais and the Portuguese Empire in an Independence War , the Platinean nationalists in Cisplatina declared independence and joined

11904-569: The remaining part of the 19th century the United Presbyterian Church came fully to share the forward movement of thought of the other Scottish churches. Doctrinally, little distinguished the United Presbyterian Church and the Free Church of Scotland , and between 1863 and 1873 negotiations took place on a union, which however proved fruitless due to different views on the relationship between state and church. But in 1896,

12028-451: The rest of Brazil is a multicultural melting pot . The South Region in 2016 voted in an unofficial referendum called "Plebisul" in which 95% of voters supported secession and the creation of an independent South Region. There is also a push for secession movement in the state of São Paulo , which seeks to become a country independent from the rest of Brazil. In October 2017, Ambazonia declared its independence from Cameroon . Less than

12152-689: The resulting civil war and eventual 1999 East Timorese vote for complete separation are better described as an independence movement. Following the May 1991 victory of Eritrean People's Liberation Front forces against the communist Derg regime during the Eritrean War of Independence , Eritrea (formerly known as " Medri Bahri ") gained de facto independence from Ethiopia. Following the United Nations observation 1993 Eritrean independence referendum , Eritrea gained de jure independence. Before

12276-645: The right to secession in later years, and had anti-secession clause written into the Constitution before and after the founding the People's Republic of China . The 1947 Constitution of the Union of Burma contained an express state right to secede from the union under a number of procedural conditions. It was eliminated in the 1974 constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma (officially

12400-729: The rights and moral justification for secession began to develop as recently as the 1980s. American philosopher Allen Buchanan offered the first systematic account of the subject in the 1990s and contributed to the normative classification of the literature on secession. In his 1991 book Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce From Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec , Buchanan outlined limited rights to secession under certain circumstances, mostly related to oppression by people of other ethnic or racial groups, and especially those previously conquered by other people. In his collection of essays from secession scholars, Secession, State, and Liberty , professor David Gordon challenges Buchanan, making

12524-408: The style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze -like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style,

12648-565: The style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament. In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called New Classical architecture or New Classicism. Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the Enlightenment , empiricism , and the study of sites by early archaeologists. Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of

12772-558: The territory of the former British Southern Cameroons or Ambazonia. For more than fifty years the English-speaking people of the Former British Southern Cameroons made multiple attempts both nationally and internationally to get the Cameroon government to address these issues and possibly return to the previously agreed federation at independence. In 2016, after all these attempts failed, Cameroon engaged in

12896-553: The three, only St Vincent Street survives intact, Caledonia Road Church being an empty shell and Queen's Park destroyed by World War II bombing. Alexander Thomson was a member of the United Presbyterian Church. His architectural style was often eclectic; it cannot be described as truly neoclassical (he never managed to visit Greece ), but he frequently used Egyptian and other Middle Eastern motifs. His interior designs and colour schemes for churches were strongly influenced by Biblical descriptions of King Solomon's Temple, for example

13020-470: The time. It is particularly evident in Dublin , which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city. After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto I , commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan. The Old Royal Palace

13144-547: The unique Hiko Shrine  [ ja ] which is a Shinto shrine based on Greek temples . It later developed into the Imperial Crown Style which contains elements of both Eastern and Western design Roofs are notably distinctly Asian in this style and it was used heavily by the Japanese Empire in its colonies. Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during

13268-591: The wealthiest regions in the country; political disputes with the northernmost states of Brazil; 2016 scandal revolving around the Workers' Party 's involvement in a kickback scheme with state-owned oil company Petrobras ; and the impeachment of then- President Dilma Rousseff . Additionally, there is an ethnic divide as the South Region is predominately European , populated primarily by Germans , Italians , Portuguese and other European groups. In contrast,

13392-916: Was Manuel Tolsá . Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the New Spanish Baroque , and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the Palacio de Minería in Mexico City, the Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato , all built in the late colonial era. Following Independence ,

13516-548: Was Hutchison who established the first systematic definition of the Relief Church's beliefs. A Relief theological hall was instituted in 1824. In 1847, a union formed between all the congregations of the United Secession Church and 118 out of 136 of the Relief Churches , in what then became the United Presbyterian Church. It was the first presbyterian body to relax the stringency of subscription ,

13640-453: Was Italy, especially Naples , where by the 1730s court architects such as Luigi Vanvitelli and Ferdinando Fuga were recovering classical, Palladian and Mannerist forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead, Giovanni Antonio Medrano began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period, Alessandro Pompei introduced neoclassicism to

13764-606: Was admitted into the United Nations. The more advanced democratic and self-ruling people of British Cameroon were instead limited to two choices. Through a UN plebiscite , they were directed to either join the federation of Nigeria or the independent Republic of Cameroon as a federation of two equal states. While the Northern Cameroons voted to join Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons voted to integrate into

13888-409: Was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the Adam brothers , James Wyatt , Sir William Chambers , George Dance the Younger , James Gandon , and provincially based architects such as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of Chester . In Scotland and the north of England, where the Gothic Revival

14012-440: Was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia . International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel 's buildings, especially the Altes Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane 's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House and Capitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascent American Republic . The style was international. The Baltimore Basilica , which

14136-399: Was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the Louvre Colonnade . This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran . By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece . An early centre of neoclassicism

14260-440: Was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of Greek Revival architecture . This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French Empire style . The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of

14384-400: Was another important centre of Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architecture Marcin Knackfus , Laurynas Gucevičius and Karol Podczaszyński . The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory , Vilnius Cathedral and the town hall . The best-known architects and artists, who worked in

14508-545: Was designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world . A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the First French Empire . In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style , and the second in the styles called Directoire and Empire . Its major proponents were Percier and Fontaine , court architects who specialized in interior decoration. In

14632-442: Was inaugurated by Robert and James Adam , who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitled The Works in Architecture in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the Rococo and Baroque styles which had been fashionable in

14756-495: Was initially a Parisian style, the " Goût grec " ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young King Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774 did Marie Antoinette , his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux . The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates

14880-442: Was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of William Henry Playfair . The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric. In Ireland , where Gothic Revival was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of James Gandon and other architects working at

15004-433: Was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century, Theophil Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil Hansen designed his first building, the National Observatory of Athens , and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely the Academy of Athens (1859) and

15128-439: Was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work of Inigo Jones , but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain. At

15252-435: Was the planned Palacio Legislativo Federal by Émile Bénard . Construction was halted by the Mexican Revolution and it was eventually turned into the Monumento a la Revolución . The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of Spain and Portugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or Criollo architects trained in the academies of the metropolis . There are also examples of

15376-570: Was to provide each group with its own colony. In 1841, the two Canadas were merged into the Province of Canada . The union proved contentious, however, resulting in a legislative deadlock between English and French legislators. The difficulties of the union, among other factors, led in 1867 to the formation of the Canadian Confederation , a federal system that united the Province of Canada , Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (later joined by other British colonies in North America ). The federal framework did not eliminate all tensions, however, leading to

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