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128-578: Indeed, "Ural-Altaic" may be preferable to "Altaic" in this sense. For example, J. Janhunen states that "speaking of 'Altaic' instead of 'Ural-Altaic' is a misconception, for there are no areal or typological features that are specific to 'Altaic' without Uralic." Originally suggested in the 18th century, the genealogical and racial hypotheses remained debated into the mid-20th century, often with disagreements exacerbated by pan-nationalist agendas. The Ural-Altaic hypothesis had many proponents in Britain. Since

256-417: A major power into the early 20th century. Austria-Hungary collapsed after World War I , and the subsequent Treaty of Trianon in 1920 established Hungary's current borders, resulting in the loss of 71% of its historical territory, 58% of its population, and 32% of its ethnic Hungarians . In the interwar period , after initial turmoil, Miklós Horthy ascended as a determining politician, representing

384-596: A " Boreal languages  [ ru ] " hypothesis linking the Indo-European , Uralic , and Altaic (including Korean in his later papers) language families. Andreev also proposed 203 lexical roots for his hypothesized Boreal macrofamily. After Andreev's death in 1997, the Boreal hypothesis was further expanded by Sorin Paliga (2003, 2007). Angela Marcantonio (2002) argues that there is no sufficient evidence for

512-995: A "higher" pan-national (all-inclusive) identity, based on various common denominators. Pan-nationalism can occur as a specific variant of all common forms of nationalism. In relation to classical state nationalism , pan-nationalism manifests itself through various political movements that advocate the formation of "higher" (pan-national) forms of political identity, based on a regional or continental grouping of national states (for examples: Pan-Americanism , Pan-Africanism , Pan-Arabism , Pan-Iranism , Pan-Turkism , Pan-Slavism ). In terms of ethnic nationalism , pan-nationalism can also manifest itself through specific ethnic movements that advocate setting up "higher" (pan-national) forms of common identity that are based on ethnic grouping (for example: Pan-Germanism or Pan-Slavism ). Other forms of nationalism also have their pan-national variants. Some forms of pan-nationalism, such as Pan-Germanism , manifest themselves on two levels: wider - relating to

640-493: A Finno-Ugric or Uralic group connecting the Finno-Permic and Ugric languages , and suggests that they are no more closely related to each other than either is to Turkic, thereby positing a grouping very similar to Ural–Altaic or indeed to Castrén's original Altaic proposal. This thesis has been criticized by mainstream Uralic scholars. There is general agreement on several typological similarities being widely found among

768-520: A Ural-Altaic language family, though he does not claim linguistic affinity between any of the six groups. Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask described what he called "Scythian" languages in 1834, which included Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Samoyedic, Eskimo, Caucasian, Basque and others. The Ural-Altaic hypothesis was elaborated at least as early as 1836 by W. Schott and in 1838 by F. J. Wiedemann . The "Altaic" hypothesis, as mentioned by Finnish linguist and explorer Matthias Castrén by 1844, included

896-581: A bilineal descendant of the Árpád dynasty – successfully restored royal power and defeated oligarch rivals, the so-called "little kings". The second Angevin Hungarian king, Louis the Great (1342–1382), led many successful military campaigns from Lithuania to southern Italy ( Kingdom of Naples ) and was also King of Poland from 1370. After King Louis died without a male heir, the country was stabilised only when Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387–1437) succeeded to

1024-448: A category of South Slavs , the prefix "jugo" means "south". After 1945, it did recognise separate internal nations, with their own governments. Other large states are difficult to classify as pan-national. Around 1942 Nazi Germany controlled a vast collection of annexed territories, German-administered civilian entities, puppet states, collaborationist states, and front-line areas run by the military. The conquests were partly inspired by

1152-664: A considerable effect on the development of linguistic research, especially in German-speaking countries. In his book An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia , published in 1730, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg , Swedish prisoner-of-war and explorer of Siberia, who accompanied Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt on his expeditions, described Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Samoyedic, Mongolic, Tungusic and Caucasian peoples as sharing linguistic and cultural commonalities. 20th century scholarship has on several occasions incorrectly credited him with proposing

1280-717: A current variation on the theme. Pan-Arabism favors the unification of the countries of the Arab world , from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea . Pan-Islamism favors the unification of all Muslims, unlike most traditional pan-nationalist movements this is not based on race or ethnicity because it has been revitalised with religion at its core. Thomas Hegghammer of the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment has outlined

1408-667: A destabilisation of the Soviet bloc. On 4 November, reinforcements of more than 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks entered the country from the Soviet Union. Nearly 20,000 Hungarians were killed resisting the intervention, while an additional 21,600 were imprisoned afterward for political reasons. Some 13,000 were interned and 230 brought to trial and executed. Nagy was secretly tried, found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed by hanging in June 1958. Because borders were briefly opened, nearly

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1536-461: A greater Germany can be created, including Austrians and other German speakers. These pan-nationalistic movements embraced the European intellectual discourses on race particularly those about the preservation of the racial unit. This gave the concept a mantle of permanence because it called upon a biological connection that bound a "Volk" together. Pan-nationalism implies that the national group

1664-747: A just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates. Under his rule, in 1479, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield . Abroad he defeated the Polish and German imperial armies of Frederick at Breslau ( Wrocław ). Matthias' mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary , was an unusually large army for its time, and it conquered Vienna as well as parts of Austria and Bohemia . King Matthias died without lawful sons, and

1792-465: A lesser extent even within Uralic. One alleged Ural-Altaic similarity among this data are the Hungarian ( három ) and Mongolian ( ɣurban ) numerals for '3'. According to Róna-Tas (1983), elevating this similarity to a hypothesis of common origin would still require several ancillary hypotheses: The following consonant correspondences between Uralic and Altaic are asserted by Poppe (1983): Regardless of

1920-641: A list of 12 demands . Under Governor and President Lajos Kossuth and Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány , the House of Habsburg was dethroned. The Habsburg ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, into rebelling against the Hungarian government, though the Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of

2048-579: A long history of significant contributions to arts , music , literature , sports , science and technology . It is a popular tourist destination in Europe, drawing 24.5 million international tourists in 2019. It is a member of numerous international organisations, including the Council of Europe , European Union , NATO , United Nations , World Health Organization , World Trade Organization , World Bank , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , and

2176-565: A mercenary commander. He was elected governor, then regent. He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks , one of his greatest victories being the siege of Belgrade in 1456. The last strong king of medieval Hungary was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), son of John Hunyadi. His election was the first time that a member of the nobility mounted to the Hungarian royal throne without dynastic background. He

2304-456: A new policy line, according to which the people were no longer compelled to profess loyalty to the party if they tacitly accepted the socialist regime as a fact of life. Kádár introduced new planning priorities in the economy, such as allowing farmers significant plots of private land within the collective farm system ( háztáji gazdálkodás ). The living standard rose as consumer goods and food production took precedence over military production, which

2432-435: A possible common origin or lack thereof, Uralic-Altaic languages can be spoken of as a convergence zone . Although it has not yet been possible to demonstrate a genetic relationship or a significant amount of common vocabulary between the languages other than loanwords, according to the linguist Juha Jahunen, the languages must have had a common linguistic homeland. The Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages have been spoken in

2560-426: A quarter of a million people fled the country by the time the revolution was suppressed. After a second, briefer period of Soviet military occupation, János Kádár , Nagy's former minister of state, was chosen by the Soviet leadership to head the new government and chair the new ruling Socialist Workers' Party . Kádár quickly normalised the situation. In 1963, the government granted a general amnesty. Kádár proclaimed

2688-582: A severe decline in living standards. In imitation of Stalin's KGB , the Rákosi government established a secret political police, the ÁVH , to enforce the regime; approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were imprisoned or executed from 1948 to 1956. Many freethinkers, democrats, and Horthy-era dignitaries were secretly arrested and extrajudicially interned in domestic and foreign gulags . Some 600,000 Hungarians were deported to Soviet labour camps, where at least 200,000 died. After Stalin's death in 1953,

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2816-491: A significant Romani minority . Hungarian is the official language and Budapest is the country's capital and largest city . Prior to the foundation of the Hungarian state, various peoples settled in the territory of present-day Hungary, most notably the Celts , Romans , Huns , Germanic peoples , Avars and Slavs . The Principality of Hungary was established in the late 9th century by Álmos and his son Árpád through

2944-535: Is a landlocked country in Central Europe . Spanning 93,030 square kilometres (35,920 sq mi) of the Carpathian Basin , it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to the west. Hungary has a population of 9.5 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and

3072-450: Is dispersed over several existing states. It is not identical to irredentism – nationalist claims on adjoining territories on the grounds that they form part of the national homeland. Scale is a factor here, however. Greater Albania , even in the largest version, would still be a small country. An irredentist Greater Germany, even if it is limited to contiguous German-speaking regions, would have about 100 million inhabitants. Pan-nationalism

3200-732: Is not the same as diaspora nationalism, such as Zionism , which implies the concentration of a dispersed group on an ancestral homeland. Colonies (other than settler colonies ) fall outside most definitions of a nation, since both coloniser and colonised recognise that they share no ethnicity, culture, and language. Nationalist movements in large nations, such as the German and Russian nations, are therefore difficult to distinguish from pan-nationalist movements, and often there are explicitly pan-nationalist elements. Aside from these cases, however, most pan-nationalist movements failed. Specifically pan-national states are rare. Yugoslavia attempted to unify

3328-497: Is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri . The first element magy is likely from Proto-Ugric * mäńć- 'man, person', also found in the name of the Mansi people ( mäńćī, mańśi, måńś ). The second element eri , 'man, men, lineage', survives in Hungarian férj 'husband', and is cognate with Mari erge 'son', Finnish archaic yrkä 'young man'. The Roman Empire conquered

3456-625: Is to Indo-European (for example Greenberg ). To demonstrate the existence of a language family, it is necessary to find cognate words that trace back to a common proto-language. Shared vocabulary alone does not show a relationship, as it may be loaned from one language to another or through the language of a third party. There are shared words between, for example, Turkic and Ugric languages, or Tungusic and Samoyedic languages, which are explainable by borrowing. However, it has been difficult to find Ural–Altaic words shared across all involved language families. Such words should be found in all branches of

3584-479: The 2015 migrant crisis , the government built a border barrier on the Hungarian-Croatian and Hungarian-Serbian borders to prevent illegal migration. The Hungarian government also criticised the official European Union policy for not dissuading migrants from entering Europe. From 17 October 2015 onward, thousands of migrants were diverted daily to Slovenia instead. Migration became a key issue in

3712-746: The 2018 parliamentary elections , which Fidesz won with a supermajority. In the late 2010s, Orbán's government came under increased international scrutiny over alleged rule-of-law violations. In 2018, the European Parliament voted to act against Hungary under the terms of Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union . Hungary has and continues to dispute these allegations. The coronavirus pandemic significantly impacted Hungary. The first cases were announced in Hungary on 4 March 2020; on 18 March 2020, surgeon general Cecília Müller announced that

3840-573: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . Hungary is a landlocked country . Its geography has traditionally been defined by its two main waterways, the Danube and Tisza rivers. The common tripartite division— Dunántúl ("beyond the Danube", Transdanubia ), Tiszántúl ("beyond the Tisza"), and Duna–Tisza köze ("between the Danube and Tisza")—is a reflection of this. The Danube flows north–south through

3968-413: The Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled a provisory end to most campaigns on foreign territories, at least towards the west. In 972, the ruling prince ( Hungarian : fejedelem ) Géza of the Árpád dynasty officially started to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe. His son Saint Stephen I became the first King of Hungary after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány . Under Stephen, Hungary

Ural-Altaic languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

4096-799: The Finno-Ugrian theory , they originated from an ancient Uralic -speaking population that formerly inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains . However, genetic and linguistic evidence suggests that the Hungarians’ origins lie east of the Southern Urals , in Western Siberia . The Hungarians arrived in the Carpathian Basin as a frame of a strong centralized steppe-empire under

4224-499: The Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic , grouped as "Chudic", and Turkic , Mongolic , and Tungusic , grouped as "Tataric". Subsequently, in the latter half of the 19th century, Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic came to be referred to as Altaic languages , whereas Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic were called Uralic . The similarities between these two families led to their retention in a common grouping, named Ural–Altaic. Friedrich Max Müller ,

4352-482: The Hungarian Democratic Forum , a major conservative opposition group, was elected to the head of a coalition government. József Antall became the first democratically elected prime minister since World War II. With the removal of state subsidies and rapid privatisation in 1991, Hungary was affected by a severe economic recession. The Antall government's austerity measures proved unpopular, and

4480-761: The Hunnic Empire ( c.  370 –469). The most powerful ruler of the Hunnic Empire was Attila the Hun (434–453), who later became a central figure in Hungarian mythology. After the disintegration of the Hunnic Empire, the Gepids , an Eastern Germanic tribe, who had been vassalised by the Huns, established their own kingdom in the Carpathian Basin. Other groups which reached the Carpathian Basin during

4608-692: The Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south. The highest point of the area is the Írott-kő in the Alps, at 882 metres (2,894 ft). The Little Hungarian Plain ( Kisalföld ) is found in northern Transdanubia. Lake Balaton and Lake Hévíz , the largest lake in Central Europe and the largest thermal lake in the world, respectively, are in Transdanubia as well. The Duna–Tisza köze and Tiszántúl are characterised mainly by

4736-581: The Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic groups; within Altaic most of the Tungusic family as well as Siberian Turkic and Buryat (Mongolic); as well as Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Eskimo–Aleut, Nivkh , and Yeniseian . The Altaic language family was generally accepted by linguists from the late 19th century up to the 1960s, but since then has been in dispute. For simplicity's sake, the following discussion assumes

4864-486: The Paleo-Siberian languages , including Eskimo–Aleut , are also descended. He posits that this ancestral language, together with Indo-European and Kartvelian , descends from a " Eurasiatic " protolanguage some 12,000 years ago, which in turn would be descended from a "Borean" protolanguage via Nostratic . In the 1980s, Russian linguist N. D. Andreev  [ ru ] (Nikolai Dmitrievich Andreev) proposed

4992-644: The Pan-Slavism movement, which developed among various Slavic nations within the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish empires. At the heart of this development was Ján Kollár , who maintained that the Slavs as a fundamentally single people, sharing the same cultural heritage. This was later followed by the Pan-German thought, which assumed a somewhat similar view, with a goal of German unification where

5120-683: The Principality of Transylvania , under Ottoman (and later Habsburg) suzerainty . The remaining central area, including the capital Buda, was known as the Pashalik of Buda. In 1686, the Holy League's army, containing over 74,000 men from various nations, reconquered Buda from the Turks. After some more crushing defeats of the Ottomans in the next few years, the entire Kingdom of Hungary

5248-644: The Revolutions of 1989 , Hungary peacefully transitioned into a democratic parliamentary republic , joining the European Union in 2004 and being part of the Schengen Area since 2007. Since the election of Viktor Orbán in 2010, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding becoming an illiberal democracy and hybrid regime . Hungary is a high-income economy with universal health care and tuition-free secondary education . Hungary has

Ural-Altaic languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

5376-646: The Visegrád Group . The "H" in the name of Hungary is most likely derived from historical associations with the Huns , who had settled Hungary prior to the Avars . The rest of the word comes from the Latinised form of Byzantine Greek Oungroi ( Οὔγγροι ). The Greek name might be borrowed from Old Slavonic ągrinŭ , in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur ('ten [tribes of the] Ogurs'). Onogur

5504-422: The conquest of the Carpathian Basin . King Stephen I ascended the throne in 1000, converting his realm to a Christian kingdom . The medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a European power, reaching its height in the 14th–15th centuries . After a long period of Ottoman wars , Hungary's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mohács and its capital was captured in 1541, opening roughly a 150 years long period when

5632-423: The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties , Hungary was again reduced to its immediate post-Trianon borders. The war left Hungary devastated, destroying over 60% of the economy and causing significant loss of life . In addition to the over 600,000 Hungarian Jews killed, as many as 280,000 other Hungarians were raped, murdered and executed or deported for slave labour. After German occupation, Hungary participated in

5760-490: The 1960s, the proposed language family has been widely rejected. A relationship between the Altaic, Indo-European and Uralic families was revived in the context of the Nostratic hypothesis, which was popular for a time, with for example Allan Bomhard treating Uralic, Altaic and Indo-European as coordinate branches. However, Nostratic too is now rejected. The concept of a Ural-Altaic ethnic and language family goes back to

5888-546: The Communist Party's legal and political heir, the Socialist Party , won the subsequent 1994 elections . This abrupt shift in the political landscape was repeated in 1998 and 2002 ; in each electoral cycle, the governing party was ousted and the erstwhile opposition elected. Like most other post-communist European states, however, Hungary broadly pursued an integrationist agenda, joining NATO in 1999 and

6016-530: The Czechoslovak front, Kun's forces were ultimately unable to resist the Romanian invasion; by August 1919, Romanian troops occupied Budapest and ousted Kun. In November 1919, rightist forces led by former Austro-Hungarian admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest; exhausted by the war and its aftermath, the populace accepted Horthy's leadership. In January 1920, parliamentary elections were held, and Horthy

6144-565: The European Union in 2004 . As a NATO member, Hungary was involved in the Yugoslav Wars . In 2006, major nationwide protests erupted after it was revealed that Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány had claimed in a closed-door speech that his party "lied" to win the recent elections . The popularity of left-wing parties plummeted in the ensuing political upheaval, and in 2010, Viktor Orbán 's national-conservative Fidesz party

6272-935: The German Orientalist and philologist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian languages in 1855. In his work The Languages of the Seat of War in the East , he called these languages " Turanian ". Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the Southern Division, and the Northern Division. In the long run, his evolutionist theory about languages' structural development, tying growing grammatical refinement to socio-economic development, and grouping languages into 'antediluvian', 'familial', 'nomadic', and 'political' developmental stages, proved unsound, but his Northern Division

6400-566: The German war machine. By October 1944, the Soviets had reached the river Tisza, and despite some losses , succeeded in encircling and besieging Budapest in December. On 13 February 1945, Budapest surrendered; by April, German troops left the country under Soviet military occupation. 200,000 Hungarians were expelled from Czechoslovakia in exchange for 70,000 Slovaks living in Hungary. 202,000 ethnic Germans were expelled to Germany, and through

6528-678: The Holocaust , deporting nearly 440,000 Jews, mainly to Auschwitz . Nearly all of them were murdered. The Horthy government's complicity in the Holocaust remains a point of controversy and contention. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to front the Stalinisation of the country, and Rákosi de facto ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956. His government's policies of militarisation, industrialisation, collectivisation, and war compensation led to

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6656-541: The Hungarian army, and Prime Minister Batthyány in October 1849. Kossuth escaped into exile. Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Because of external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable, and major military defeats of Austria forced the Habsburgs to negotiate the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , by which the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary

6784-545: The Hungarian magnates procured the accession of the Pole Vladislaus II (1490–1516), supposedly because of his weak influence on Hungarian aristocracy. Hungary's international role declined, its political stability was shaken, and social progress was deadlocked. In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa , which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles , led by John Zápolya . The resulting degradation of order paved

6912-725: The Japhetic and the Aramaic. The Japhetic family split even further, into Scythian and Celtic branches. The members of the Scythian family were: the Greek language, the family of Sarmato-Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech, Dalmatian, Bulgar, Slovene, Avar and Khazar), the family of Turkic languages (Turkish, Cuman , Kalmyk and Mongolian), the family of Finno-Ugric languages (Finnish, Saami, Hungarian, Estonian, Liv and Samoyed). Although his theory and grouping were far from perfect, they had

7040-431: The Kingdom of Hungary spent little time defending the actual territory of Hungary, with the exceptions of the Brusilov offensive in June 1916 and a few months later when the Romanian army made an attack into Transylvania, both of which were repelled. The Central Powers conquered Serbia. Romania declared war. The Central Powers conquered southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest . In 1916 Franz Joseph died, and

7168-399: The Kuruc forces surrendered. During the Napoleonic Wars and afterward, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the emperor was forced to convene the Diet, which marked the beginning of a Reform Period (1825–1848, Hungarian : reformkor ). The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged and focused on providing for

7296-418: The Manchurian region, and there is little chance that a similar structural typology of Uralic languages could have emerged without close contact between them. The languages of Turkish and Finnish have many similar structures, such as vowel harmony and agglutination , and it has been suggested by Edward Vajda that Early Turkic may have loaned palatal harmony from Uralic. Similarly, according to Janhunen,

7424-405: The Migration Period were the Goths , Vandals , Lombards , and Slavs . In the 560s, the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state that maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries. The Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Avars in a series of campaigns during the 790s. Between 804 and 829, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the lands east of the Danube and took over

7552-426: The Nazis rewarded Hungary's staunchly pro-Germany foreign policy in the First and Second Vienna Awards , peacefully restoring ethnic-Hungarian-majority areas lost after Trianon. In 1939, Hungary regained further territory from Czechoslovakia through force . Hungary formally joined the Axis powers on 20 November 1940 and in 1941 participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia , gaining some of its former territories in

7680-430: The River Don in January 1943. Learning of the planned defection, German troops occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944 to guarantee Horthy's compliance. In October, as the Soviet front approached, and the government made further efforts to disengage from the war, German troops ousted Horthy and installed a puppet government under Szálasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party . Szálasi pledged all the country's capabilities in service of

7808-519: The Roman province Moesia in 6 BC. An area east of the river Tisza became the Roman province of Dacia in 106 AD, which included today's east Hungary. It remained under Roman rule until 271. From 235, the Roman Empire went through troubled times, caused by revolts, rivalry and rapid succession of emperors. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure. This period brought many invaders into Central Europe, beginning with

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7936-489: The Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers. In July 1849 the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws of ethnic and minority rights in the world. Many members of the nationalities gained the coveted highest positions within the Hungarian Army, like János Damjanich and Józef Bem . The Hungarian forces ( Honvédség ) defeated Austrian armies. To counter

8064-419: The Soviet Army and the ÁVH; the roughly 3,000-strong resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails and machine-pistols. Though the preponderance of the Soviets was immense, they suffered heavy losses, and by 30 October 1956, most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrison the countryside. For a time, the Soviet leadership was unsure how to respond but eventually decided to intervene to prevent

8192-432: The Soviet Union pursued a programme of de-Stalinisation that was inimical to Rákosi, leading to his deposition. The following political cooling saw the ascent of Imre Nagy to the premiership. Nagy promised market liberalisation and political openness. Rákosi eventually managed to discredit Nagy and replace him with the more hard-line Ernő Gerő . Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, as societal dissatisfaction with

8320-427: The Soviet Union. As a result of this relatively high standard of living , a more liberalised economy, a less censored press, and less restricted travel rights, Hungary was generally considered one of the more liberal countries in which to live in Central Europe during communism. In 1980, Hungary sent a Cosmonaut into space as part of the Interkosmos . The first Hungarian astronaut was Bertalan Farkas . Hungary became

8448-493: The Uralic and Altaic trees and should follow regular sound changes from the proto-language to known modern languages, and regular sound changes from Proto-Ural–Altaic to give Proto-Uralic and Proto-Altaic words should be found to demonstrate the existence of a Ural–Altaic vocabulary. Instead, candidates for Ural–Altaic cognate sets can typically be supported by only one of the Altaic subfamilies. In contrast, about 200 Proto-Uralic word roots are known and universally accepted, and for

8576-417: The Ural–Altaic hypothesis as "an idea now completely discarded". There are, however, a number of hypotheses that propose a larger macrofamily including Uralic, Altaic and other families. None of these hypotheses has widespread support. In Starostin's sketch of a " Borean " super-phylum, he puts Uralic and Altaic as daughters of an ancestral language of c. 9,000 years ago from which the Dravidian languages and

8704-419: The centre of contemporary Hungary, and the entire country lies within its drainage basin . Transdanubia, which stretches westward from the centre of the country towards Austria, is a primarily hilly region with a terrain varied by low mountains. These include the very eastern stretch of the Alps , Alpokalja , in the west of the country, the Transdanubian Mountains in the central region of Transdanubia, and

8832-452: The claimed mega-state. Pan-Slavism is another notable example of an influential ideal that never resulted in the corresponding mega-state – if Russian territory was included, it would extend from the Baltic to the Pacific (west to east) and right down to central Asia and the Caucasus/Black Sea/Mediterranean in the south. Pan-Americanism as an ideal was influential around the time of the independence movements in Latin America . However,

8960-476: The common agglutinating features may have arisen independently. Beginning in the 1960s, the hypothesis came to be seen even more controversial, due to the Altaic family itself also falling out universal acceptance. Today, the hypothesis that Uralic and Altaic are related more closely to one another than to any other family has almost no adherents. In his Altaic Etymological Dictionary , co-authored with Anna V. Dybo and Oleg A. Mudrak, Sergei Starostin characterized

9088-550: The common typology of the Altaic languages can be inferred as a result of mutual contacts in the past, perhaps from a few thousand years ago. Pan-nationalism Pan-nationalism (from Ancient Greek πᾶν ( pân )  'all' and French nationalisme  'nationalism') is a specific term, used mainly in social sciences as a designation for those forms of nationalism that aim to transcend (overcome, expand) traditional boundaries of basic or historical national identities in order to create

9216-537: The conflict and invaded Croatia in 1091. The Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1102 with the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in 1102 in Biograd . The most powerful and wealthiest king of the Árpád dynasty was Béla III , who disposed of the equivalent of 23 tonnes of silver per year, according to a contemporary income register . This exceeded

9344-554: The country from three sides— Romania invaded Transylvania , Czechoslovakia annexed Upper Hungary (today's Slovakia), and a joint Serb - French coalition annexed Vojvodina and other southern regions. In March 1919, communists led by Béla Kun ousted the Károlyi government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic ( Tanácsköztársaság ), followed by a thorough Red Terror campaign. Despite some successes on

9472-551: The country was divided into three parts: Royal Hungary , loyal to the Habsburgs ; Ottoman Hungary ; and the largely independent Principality of Transylvania . The reunited Hungary came under Habsburg rule at the turn of the 18th century, fighting a war of independence in 1703–1711, and a war of independence in 1848–1849 until a compromise allowed the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1867,

9600-507: The country, who were fleeing the Mongols. Over the centuries, they were fully assimilated. After the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols returned to Hungary in 1285, but the newly built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force

9728-464: The dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónod , took power provisionally as the ruling prince for the wartime period, but refused the Hungarian crown and the title "king". The uprisings lasted for years. The Hungarian Kuruc army, although taking over most of the country, lost the main battle at Trencsén (1708). Three years later, because of the growing desertion, defeatism, and low morale,

9856-432: The disarmament of the Hungarian army. Disarmament meant that Hungary was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost control over approximately 75% of its pre-war territories (325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi)) without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation. The Little Entente , sensing an opportunity, invaded

9984-482: The divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, John Zápolya and Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty . With the conquest of Buda by the Turks in 1541, Hungary was divided into three parts and remained so until the end of the 17th century. The north-western part, termed as Royal Hungary , was annexed by the Habsburgs who ruled as kings of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom became independent as

10112-525: The economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organised by leftist and pacifist movements) and uprisings in the army had become common. In the capital cities, the Austrian and Hungarian leftist liberal movements and their leaders supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918. In October 1918, Hungary's union with Austria

10240-523: The emergence of "macro-nationalism" in the late Cold War era, which kept a low profile until the September 11 attacks . Hegghammer traces the origins of modern macro-nationalism to both the Western counter-jihad movement and Islamist terrorist organisations such as al-Qaeda . In the aftermath of the 2011 Norway attacks , he described the ideologies of perpetrator Anders Behring Breivik as "not fitting

10368-472: The established categories of right-wing ideology, like white supremacism , ultranationalism or Christian fundamentalism ", but more akin to a "doctrine of civilisational war that represents the closest thing yet to a Christian version of Al-Qaeda". Hungary – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green)  –  [ Legend ] Hungary

10496-431: The idea of Lebensraum , but that is not in itself a pan-nationalist concept. The Soviet Union had a Soviet identity, but no "Soviet" ethnicity, culture, or language. It was influenced by pan-Russian ideas, but also by other geopolitical ideals which implied a large territory. China has a long tradition of cultural and administrative unity. (The fact that both China and India annexed territories does not necessarily make

10624-788: The income of the French king (estimated at 17 tonnes) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. Andrew II issued the Diploma Andreanum which secured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and is considered the first autonomy law in the world. He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217, setting up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades. His Golden Bull of 1222

10752-522: The languages considered under Ural–Altaic: Such similarities do not constitute sufficient evidence of genetic relationship all on their own, as other explanations are possible. Juha Janhunen has argued that although Ural–Altaic is to be rejected as a genealogical relationship, it remains a viable concept as a well-defined language area , which in his view has formed through the historical interaction and convergence of four core language families (Uralic, Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic), and their influence on

10880-424: The latter are to each other. This distinction is often overlooked but is fundamental to the genetic classification of languages. Some linguists indeed maintain that Uralic and Altaic are related through a larger family, such as Eurasiatic or Nostratic , within which Uralic and Altaic are no more closely related to each other than either is to any other member of the proposed family, for instance than Uralic or Altaic

11008-624: The leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád : founders of the Árpád dynasty , the Hungarian ruling dynasty and the Hungarian state. The Árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila the Hun. The Hungarians took possession of the area in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862 and 895. The rising Principality of Hungary ("Western Tourkia" in medieval Greek sources) conducted successful fierce campaigns and raids , from Constantinople to as far as today's Spain. The Hungarians defeated three major East Frankish imperial armies between 907 and 910. A defeat at

11136-517: The linguistic theories of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ; in his opinion there was no better method for specifying the relationship and origin of the various peoples of the Earth, than the comparison of their languages. In his Brevis designatio meditationum de originibus gentium ductis potissimum ex indicio linguarum , written in 1710, he originates every human language from one common ancestor language. Over time, this ancestor language split into two families;

11264-597: The minority. The contradiction between Hungarian linguists' convictions and the lack of clear evidence eventually provided motivation for scholars such as Aurélien Sauvageot and Denis Sinor to carry out more detailed investigation of the hypothesis, which so far has failed to yield generally accepted results. Nicholas Poppe in his article The Uralo-Altaic Theory in the Light of the Soviet Linguistics (1940) also attempted to refute Castrén's views by showing that

11392-565: The modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Prime Minister István Tisza and his cabinet tried to avoid the outbreak and escalating of a war in Europe, but their diplomatic efforts were unsuccessful. Austria-Hungary drafted over 4 million soldiers from the Kingdom of Hungary on the side of Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The troops raised in

11520-720: The monarchy as regent in place of the Habsburgs. Hungary joined the Axis powers in World War II , suffering significant damage and casualties. As a result, the Hungarian People's Republic was established as a satellite state of the Soviet Union . Following the failed 1956 revolution , Hungary became comparatively freer , but still remained a repressed member of the Eastern Bloc . In 1989, concurrently with

11648-464: The more marginal Korean and Japonic. Contrasting views on the typological situation have been presented by other researchers. Michael Fortescue has connected Uralic instead as a part of an Uralo-Siberian typological area (comprising Uralic, Yukaghir , Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo–Aleut ), contrasting with a more narrowly defined Altaic typological area; while Anderson has outlined a specifically Siberian language area, including within Uralic only

11776-722: The new monarch Charles IV sympathised with the pacifists. With great difficulty, the Central Powers stopped and repelled the attacks of the Russian Empire. The Eastern Front of the Allied ( Entente ) Powers completely collapsed. The Austro-Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries. Despite great success on the Eastern Front, Germany suffered complete defeat on the Western Front . By 1918,

11904-510: The new nation-states soon diverged in policy and interests, and no federation emerged. The term acquired another meaning, namely U.S.-led co-operation among the separate nation-states, with a connotation of U.S. hegemony . That is why there is a pan-Latin-Americanism which proposes inter-Americanism with the United States . An important exponent of this philosophy is Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre , from Peru, while Bolivarianism represents

12032-463: The official language of administration. King Saint Ladislaus completed the work of King Saint Stephen , consolidating the Hungarian state's power and strengthening Christianity . His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted in the termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The wife of the Croatian king Demetrius Zvonimir was Ladislaus's sister. At Helen's request, Ladislaus intervened in

12160-497: The passage of antisemitic laws and, because of the continued isolation of the Little Entente, economic and then political gravitation towards Italy and Germany . The Great Depression further exacerbated the situation, and the popularity of fascist politicians increased, such as Gyula Gömbös and Ferenc Szálasi , promising economic and social recovery. Horthy's nationalist agenda reached its apogee in 1938 and 1940, when

12288-666: The peasantry. Lajos Kossuth emerged as a leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernisation even though the Habsburg monarchs obstructed all important liberal laws relating to civil and political rights and economic reforms. Many reformers ( Lajos Kossuth , Mihály Táncsics ) were imprisoned by the authorities. On 15 March 1848, mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through

12416-565: The popularity of the "Ural-Altaic" hypothesis—the idea of the Ural–Altaic relationship remained widely implicitly accepted in the late 19th and the mid-20th century, though more out of pan-nationalist than linguistic reasons, and without much detailed research carried out. Elsewhere the notion had sooner fallen into discredit, with Ural–Altaic supporters elsewhere such as the Finnish Altaicist Martti Räsänen being in

12544-578: The proto-languages of the Altaic subfamilies and the larger main groups of Uralic, on the order of 1000–2000 words can be recovered. Some linguists point out strong similarities in the personal pronouns of Uralic and Altaic languages, although the similarities also exist with the Indo-European pronouns as well. The basic numerals , unlike those among the Indo-European languages (compare Proto-Indo-European numerals ), are particularly divergent between all three core Altaic families and Uralic, and to

12672-560: The regime swelled. Following the firing on peaceful demonstrations by Soviet soldiers and secret police, and rallies throughout the country on 23 October 1956, protesters took to the streets in Budapest, initiating the 1956 Revolution . In an effort to quell the chaos, Nagy returned as premier, promised free elections, and took Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact. The violence nonetheless continued as revolutionary militias sprung up against

12800-633: The revision of the treaty quickly rose to the top of the national political agenda, the Horthy government was not willing to resort to military intervention to do so. The initial years of the Horthy regime were preoccupied with putsch attempts by Charles IV , the Austro-Hungarian pretender ; continued suppression of communists; and a migration crisis triggered by the Trianon territorial changes. The government's actions continued to drift right with

12928-701: The right") "right wing". This points to the idea that the Magyar Union before the Conquest formed the "right wing" (= western wing) of the Khazar military forces. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország , composed of magyar ('Hungarian') and ország ('country'). The name "Magyar", which refers to the people of the country, more accurately reflects the name of the country in some other languages such as Turkish , Persian and other languages as Magyaristan or Land of Magyars or similar. The word magyar

13056-710: The rule of the local Slavic tribes and remnants of the Avars. By the mid-9th century, the Balaton Principality , also known as Lower Pannonia, was established west of the Danube as part of the Frankish March of Pannonia . Foundation of the Hungarian state is connected to the Hungarian conquerors , who arrived from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as a confederation of seven tribes . According to

13184-459: The seventh nation to be represented in space by him. In the 1980s, however, living standards steeply declined again because of a worldwide recession to which communism was unable to respond. By the time Kádár died in 1989, the Soviet Union was in steep decline and a younger generation of reformists saw liberalisation as the solution to economic and social issues. Hungary's transition from communism to capitalism ( rendszerváltás , "regime change")

13312-591: The south. Hungary formally entered World War II as an Axis power on 26 June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union after unidentified planes bombed Kassa , Munkács , and Rahó . Hungarian troops fought on the Eastern Front for two years. Despite early success at the Battle of Uman , the government began seeking a secret peace pact with the Allies after the Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at

13440-471: The state pan-national in character.) The general failure of the pan-nationalist movements is illustrated by several examples, which had a clear idea of their ideal state, but never got anywhere near achieving it. Modern Turkey is the former core area of the Ottoman Empire . The present state is closely modelled on the classic European nation state, and was a deliberate break with that empire. Beside

13568-461: The successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph I asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe", Tsar Nicholas I , whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. This made Artúr Görgey surrender in August 1849. The leader of the Austrian army, Julius Jacob von Haynau , became governor of Hungary for a few months and ordered the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad , leaders of

13696-644: The territory between the Alps and the area west of the Danube River from 16 to 15 BC, the Danube being the frontier of the empire. In 14 BC, Pannonia , the western part of the Carpathian Basin , which includes the west of today’s Hungary, was recognised by emperor Augustus in the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as part of the Roman Empire. The area south-east of Pannonia was organised as

13824-475: The throne, who in 1433 also became Holy Roman Emperor . The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For half a year in 1437, there was an antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords, thanks to his capabilities as

13952-439: The unity of all Germanic peoples - and narrower - relating to the unity of all ethnic Germans , also including (on either of those two levels) German-speaking Austrians and German-speaking Swiss people , many of who may not self-identify as strictly "German", while still belonging to the wider family of contemporary Germanic peoples. Pan-nationalism emerged from the nineteenth-century European nationalism , beginning with

14080-430: The validity of the Altaic language family. Two senses should be distinguished in which Uralic and Altaic might be related. In other words, showing a genetic relationship does not suffice to establish a language family, such as the proposed Ural–Altaic family; it is also necessary to consider whether other languages from outside the proposed family might not be at least as closely related to the languages in that family as

14208-528: The very strong Turkish nationalism there are three pan-nationalisms. In ascending order of scale: pan-Turkism , a sometimes distinct pan-Turkic ideology referring to the Turkic peoples , and pan- Turanism , which covers most of central Asia and even Finland and Hungary. As in Turkey, pan-nationalist movements often operate on the margin of a more limited "standard-nationalist" movement, in the existing core area of

14336-448: The virus had spread to every part of the country. In February 2021, after Hungary became the first EU country and one of the first in the former Warsaw Pact to authorize Russian and Chinese vaccines , it briefly enjoyed one of the highest vaccination rates in Europe. Relations between Hungary and its Western partners have strained, because Orbán's government has maintained relations with Russia despite sanctions against Russia after

14464-529: The way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (today's Belgrade , Serbia), fell to the Turks . The early appearance of Protestantism further worsened internal relations in the country. After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, where King Louis II died while fleeing. Amid political chaos,

14592-728: Was elected to a parliamentary supermajority . The legislature consequently approved a new constitution , among other sweeping governmental and legal changes including the establishment of new parliamentary constituencies, decreasing the number of parliamentarians, and shifting to single-round parliamentary elections. Since Orbán's election, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding and has been characterized as an illiberal democracy , hybrid regime , kleptocracy , dominant-party system , and mafia state . Orbán has publicly embraced illiberalism, and has characterized Hungary as an "illiberal Christian democracy". It has also received criticism regarding LGBT rights in Hungary . During

14720-719: Was a successful military leader and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana , was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library . Items from the Bibliotheca Corviniana were inscribed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register in 2005. The serfs and common people considered him

14848-407: Was crowned as King of Hungary . The era witnessed impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialised by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained dominant until 1890. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda were officially united with Pest , creating the new metropolis of Budapest. Many of the state institutions and

14976-425: Was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV . As with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force. The Kingdom of Hungary reached one of its greatest extents during the Árpádian kings, yet royal power was weakened at the end of their rule in 1301. After a destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary –

15104-555: Was dissolved. Following the First World War, Hungary underwent a period of profound political upheaval, beginning with the Aster Revolution in 1918, which brought the social-democratic Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister. The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers when Károlyi was installed. Károlyi yielded to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson 's demand for pacifism by ordering

15232-550: Was formed. This empire had the second largest area in Europe (after the Russian Empire ), and it was the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire ). The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capital cities, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph I

15360-607: Was peaceful and prompted by economic stagnation, domestic political pressure, and changing relations with other Warsaw Pact countries. Although the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party began Round Table Talks with various opposition groups in March 1989, the reburial of Imre Nagy as a revolutionary martyr that June is widely considered the symbolic end of communism in Hungary. Free elections were held in May 1990 , and

15488-628: Was proclaimed regent of the reestablished Kingdom of Hungary , inaugurating the so-called "Horthy era" ( Horthy-kor ). The new government worked quickly to normalise foreign relations while turning a blind eye to a White Terror that swept through the countryside; extrajudicial killings of suspected communists and Jews lasted well into 1920. On 4 June 1920, the Treaty of Trianon established new borders for Hungary. The country lost 71% of its territory and 66% of its pre-war population, as well as many sources of raw materials and its sole port at Fiume . Though

15616-492: Was recognised as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom . Applying to Pope Sylvester II , Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including probably a part of the Holy Crown of Hungary ) from the papacy. By 1006, Stephen consolidated his power and started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a Western-style feudal state . The country switched to using Latin for administration purposes, and until as late as 1844, Latin remained

15744-599: Was reduced to one-tenth of prerevolutionary levels. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism introduced free-market elements into the socialist command economy. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern bloc. During the latter part of the Cold War Hungary's GDP per capita was fourth only to East Germany , Czechoslovakia , and

15872-444: Was removed from Ottoman rule by 1718. The last raid into Hungary by the Ottoman vassals Tatars from Crimea took place in 1717. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. The ethnic composition of Hungary was fundamentally changed as a consequence of the prolonged warfare with the Turks. A large part of the country became devastated, population growth

16000-424: Was renamed and re-classed as the "Ural-Altaic languages". Between the 1850s and 1870s, there were efforts by Frederick Roehrig to including some Native American languages in a "Turanian" or "Ural-Altaic" family, and between the 1870s and 1890s, there was speculation about links with Basque. In Hungary , where the national language is Uralic but with heavy historical Turkic influence—a fact which by itself spurred

16128-430: Was stunted, and many smaller settlements perished. The Austrian-Habsburg government settled large groups of Serbs and other Slavs in the depopulated south, and settled Germans (called Danube Swabians ) in various areas, but Hungarians were not allowed to settle or re-settle in the south of the Carpathian Basin. Between 1703 and 1711, there was a large-scale war of independence led by Francis II Rákóczi , who after

16256-457: Was the collective name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. Peter B. Golden also considers the suggestion of Árpád Berta that the name derives from Khazar Turkic ongar (oŋ "right", oŋar- "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋgar-  "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋaru "towards

16384-542: Was the first constitution in Continental Europe . The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament ( parlamentum publicum ). In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) invasion . Up to half of Hungary's population of 2 million were victims of the invasion. King Béla IV let Cumans and Jassic people into

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