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111-572: The town's full Croatian name means 'white town on the sea' in the local Ikavian dialect. The name Biograd means 'white city' and semantically corresponds to several other Slavic toponyms, including Beograd (Belgrade), Belgorod , Białogard , and Belogradchik . The name was mentioned in the mid-10th century as a town founded in the Kingdom of Croatia . It was rendered in Latin as Alba Maritima , meaning 'white maritime (one)'. Biograd na Moru

222-505: A "hyper-Ijekavism") in Croatia in 1399. Partial attestation can be found in earlier texts (for instance, Ikavian pronunciation is found in a few Bosnian documents from the latter half of the 13th century), but philologists generally accept the aforementioned dates. In the second half of the 20th century, many vernaculars with unsubstituted yat are found. The intrusion of the vernacular into Church Slavic grew in time, to be finally replaced by

333-487: A + o gave ā /aː/ ( kā instead of kao , rekā for rekao ), like in other seaside vernaculars. Elsewhere, more common is ao > ō . Also called Older Ekavian , is spoken by Serbs, mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo ( Kosovo Valley with Kosovska Mitrovica and also around Peć ), in Ibar Valley with Kraljevo , around Kruševac , Trstenik and in Župa, in the part of Toplica Valley ( Kuršumlija ) in

444-458: A 1042 charter in which a certain ban "S", most probably Stjepan Praska, founded by himself a monastery of Chrysogoni Jaderæ granting it land, taxation, wealth, cattle, peasants, and that he attained the Byzantine imperial title of protospatharios . This imperial title, somehow related to that of a ban, was given to provincial governors and foreign rulers, and most probably was used to highlight

555-782: A decade or two before 1400. In the next two centuries Shtokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adriatic cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and Bosnian Muslim vernacular aljamiado literature – the first example being " Chirvat-türkisi " or "Croatian song", dated 1589. Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical sound changes , accentual changes, changes in inflection , morphology and syntax . Some of these isoglosses are not exclusive and have also been shared by neighboring dialects, and some of them have mostly but not completely spread over

666-626: A first (Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian) and second (Eastern Shtokavian, Torlakian). As noted by Ranko Matasović , "the Shtokavian dialect, on the other hand, was from the earliest times very non-unique, with the Western Shtokavian dialects leaning towards Kajkavian, and the Eastern Shtokavian to Torlakian ". According to isoglosses, and presumed end of existence of the common Southwestern Slavic language around

777-472: A long tradition of Shtokavian vernacular literacy and literature. It took almost four and half centuries for Shtokavian to prevail as the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard. In other periods, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects, as well as hybrid Chakavian–Kajkavian–Shtokavian interdialects "contended" for the Croatian national koine – but eventually lost, mainly due to historical and political reasons. By

888-421: A military term used by the troops who had Germanic or fought against Germanic peoples. Bali considered that the Croatian rulers possibly were influenced by the Byzantine model in the organization of the territory and borrowed the terminology and that such thesis can be related to Sokol's arguing of Western influence. Sources from the earliest periods are scarce, but existing show that since Middle Ages "ban"

999-456: A single ban was resumed. The title of ban persisted in Croatia even after 1527 when the country became part of the Habsburg monarchy , and continued all the way until 1918. In the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government as well Court ( Tabula Banalis ), effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. At

1110-487: Is a loss of the /v/ sound apparent, seen in čo'ek or đa'ola . The loss of distinction between /ʎ/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on a substratum . The word pljesma is a hypercorrection (instead of pjesma ) because many vernaculars have changed lj to j. All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: pjevat 'sing'). This feature is also present in most vernaculars of East Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars. The group

1221-539: Is accurate for all historical bans . In Croatia a ban reigned in the name of the ruler, he is the first state dignitary after King, the King's legal representative, and had various powers and functions. In South Slavic languages, the territory ruled by a ban was called Banovina (or Banat ), often transcribed in English as Banate or Bannate , and also as Banat or Bannat . The earliest mentioned Croatian ban

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1332-556: Is borrowed from the Turks. Erich Berneker wrote that became by contraction from bojan , which was borrowed from Mongolian-Turkic bajan ("rich, wealthy"), and noted Bajan is a personal name among Mongols, Avars, Bulgars, Altaic Tatars, and Kirghiz. Đuro Daničić decided for an intermediate solution; by origin is Avar or Persian from bajan (duke). J. B. Bury derived the title from the name of Avar khagan Bayan I, and Bulgarian khagan Kubrat 's son Batbayan , with which tried to prove

1443-569: Is divided into two subdialects : southern (Posavian / posavski ) and northern (Podravian / podravski ). The Slavonian dialect has mixed Ikavian and Ekavian pronunciations. Ikavian accent is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian subdialect enclave of Derventa , whereas Ekavian accent is predominant in Podravina . There are enclaves of one accent in the territory of

1554-458: Is generally argued to be a borrowing from a Turkic language, but such a derivation is highly criticized by the modern historians who rather argue Western European origin. The title's origin among medieval Croats is not completely understood, and it is hard to determine the exact source and to reconstruct the primal form of the Turkic word it is derived from. According to mainstream theory it

1665-604: Is generally explained as a derivation from the personal name of the Pannonian Avars ruler, Bayan , which is a derivation of the Proto-Turkic root *bāj- "rich, richness, wealth; prince; husband". The Proto-Turkic root *bāj- is sometimes explained as a native Turkic word; however, it could also be a borrowing from the Iranian bay (from Proto-Iranian * baga- "god; lord"). The title word ban

1776-647: Is impossible it directly originated from a personal name of an Avar ruler because the title needs a logical continuity. He doubted its existence among Slavic tribes during the great migration, and within early South Slavic principalities. He strongly supported the Šafárik thesis about Avar descendants in Lika, now dismissed by scholars, and concluded that in that territory they had a separate governor whom they called bajan , from which after Avar assimilation, became Croatian title ban . The thesis of alleged Avar governor title Šišić based on his personal derivation of bajan from

1887-594: Is located 28 km south of the county capital, Zadar . It is located on small peninsula between two small bays: Soline to the south and Bošana to the north. To the west are the islands Planac and Sveta Katarina. Average temperature in January is 7.3 °C and 23.9 °C in July. The only settlement in the Town is Biograd na Moru itself. A three-naved basilica was built on the basis of an older 6th-century church during

1998-460: Is mentioned as a "royal city" ( urbe regia ) for the first time in surviving documents. The expanded name Belgradum supra mare (Biograd na Moru) is also for the first time attested during this period. Around the year 1115, the city was acquired by the Republic of Venice, which then tore down the city walls towards the sea, so it would "for all times ( per tutti tempi ) remain in the possession of

2109-482: Is not a straight out rule). The IETF language tags have assigned the variants sr-ekavsk and sr-ijekavsk to Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations, respectively. During the first half of the 19th century, protagonists of nascent Slavic philology were, as far as South Slavic dialects were concerned, embroiled in frequently bitter polemic about "ethnic affiliation" of native speakers of various dialects. This, from contemporary point of view, rather bizarre obsession

2220-923: Is primarily a result of the migrations resulting from the spread of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans . Migratory waves were particularly strong in the 16th–18th century, bringing about large-scale linguistic and ethnic changes in the Central South Slavic area (see also Great Serb Migrations ). By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina , who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia , large swathes of Croatia ( Banovina , Kordun , Lika , parts of Gorski kotar , continental parts of northern Dalmatia , some places north of Kupa , parts of Slavonia , southeastern Baranya etc.). This

2331-792: Is sometimes classified as a subdialect of the Kosovo-Resava dialect but is also considered to be a separate dialect as it the represents mixed speech of Šumadija–Vojvodina and Kosovo–Resava dialects. Also called Western Ikavian . The majority of its speakers are Croats who live in Lika , Kvarner , Dalmatia , Herzegovina , and of north Bačka around Subotica in Serbia and south Bács-Kiskun of Hungary, and in Molise in Italy. The minority speakers of it include Bosniaks in western Bosnia, mostly around

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2442-759: Is spoken in Serbia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina , much of Croatia , and the southern part of Austria 's Burgenland . The primary subdivisions of Shtokavian are based on three principles: one is different accents whether the subdialect is Old-Shtokavian or Neo-Shtokavian, second is the way the old Slavic phoneme jat has changed (Ikavian, Ijekavian or Ekavian), and third is presence of Young Proto-Slavic isogloss (Schakavian or Shtakavian). Modern dialectology generally recognises seven Shtokavian subdialects. The early medieval Slavs who later spoke various Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian dialects migrated across Moldavia and Pannonia . According to Frederik Kortlandt ,

2553-464: Is spoken in central Croatia, most of Slavonia, southern Dalmatia, most of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, as well as some parts of western Serbia. The following are some generic examples: Long ije is pronounced as a single syllable, [jeː] , by many Ijekavian speakers, especially in Croatia. However, in Zeta dialect and most of East Herzegovina dialect, it is pronounced as two syllables , [ije] , which

2664-503: Is supported by the Chronicle of Duklja; Latin redaction; Unaquaque in provincia banum ordinavit, id est ducem, ex suis consanguineis fratribus ([Svatopluk] in every province allocated a ban, and they were duke's consanguin brothers); Croatian redaction defines that all bans need to be by origin native and noble. Tadija Smičiklas and Vatroslav Jagić thought that the title should not derive from bajan , but from bojan , as thus how it

2775-596: Is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian and Montenegrin standards. It is a part of the South Slavic dialect continuum . Its name comes from the form for the interrogative pronoun for "what" što (Western Shtokavian; it is šta in Eastern Shtokavian). This is in contrast to Kajkavian and Chakavian ( kaj and ča also meaning "what"). Shtokavian

2886-427: Is the Croatian official standard too, but seldom actually practiced. This distinction can be clearly heard in first verses of national anthems of Croatia and Montenegro —they're sung as " L'je-pa [two syllables] na-ša do-mo-vi-no " and " Oj svi-je-tla [three syllables] maj-ska zo-ro " respectively. The Ikavian pronunciation is the only one that is not part of any standard variety of Serbo-Croatian today, though it

2997-627: Is the reason Eastern Herzegovinian is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why its name is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played a pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations. Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with elements of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the charter of Ban Kulin , regulating the commerce between Bosnia and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like Gršković's and Mihanović's fragments , c.  1150 , in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts' opinions are divided with regard to

3108-526: Is used for Shtokavian accents: The following table shows the examples of Neo-Shtokavian retraction: As result of this process, the following set of rules emerged, which are still in effect in all standard variants of Serbo-Croatian: In practice, influx of foreign words and formation of compound words have loosened these rules, especially in spoken idioms (e.g. paradȁjz , asistȅnt , poljoprȉvreda ), but they are maintained in standard language and dictionaries. The transitional dialects stretch southwest from

3219-463: Is written in the Greek historical records ( boan , boean ). Vjekoslav Klaić pointed out that the title before 12th century is documented only among Croats, and did not consider a problem that Bajan was a personal name and not a title, as seen in the most accepted derivation of Slavic word *korljь (kral/lj, krol). He mentioned both thesis (from Turkic-Persian, and Slavic "bojan, bojarin"), as well

3330-499: The Balkan language area : declension has all but disappeared, the infinitive has yielded to subjunctives da -constructions, and adjectives are compared exclusively with prefixes. The accent in the dialect group is a stress accent, and it falls on any syllable in the word. The old semi-vowel has been retained throughout. The vocalic l has been retained ( vlk = vuk ), and some dialects don't distinguish ć/č and đ/dž by preferring

3441-601: The Croatian War of Independence . The town and the settlement itself have a population of 5,569 (2011 census). The majority are Croats (95%). Biograd na Moru is twinned with: 43°56′20.60″N 15°26′50.82″E  /  43.9390556°N 15.4474500°E  / 43.9390556; 15.4474500 Ikavian Shtokavian or Štokavian ( / ʃ t ɒ ˈ k ɑː v i ə n , - ˈ k æ v -/ ; Serbo-Croatian Latin : štokavski / Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic : штокавски , pronounced [ʃtǒːkaʋskiː] )

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3552-600: The Morava Valley ( Jagodina , Ćuprija , Paraćin , Lapovo ), in Resava Valley ( Svilajnac , Despotovac ) and northeastern Serbia ( Smederevo , Požarevac , Bor , Majdanpek , Negotin , Velika Plana ) with one part of Banat (around Kovin , Bela Crkva and Vršac ). This dialect can be also found in parts of Banatska Klisura (Clisura Dunării) in Romania, in places where Romanian Serbs live (left bank of

3663-590: The Pannonian Basin between the Danube and the Tisza rivers, now in Romania, Serbia and Hungary. In the toponymys Bando , Bandola , Banj dvor and Banj stol and Banovo polje in Lika , In Bosnia and Herzegovina numerous toponyms exist, such as Banbrdo , village Banova Jaruga , city Banovići , and possibly Banja Luka . The term ban is still used in the phrase banski dvori ("ban's court") for

3774-473: The Quran , where this phoneme is the carrier of specific semantic value. The Ekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Eastern, is spoken primarily in Serbia, and in small parts of Croatia. The Ikavian pronunciation, sometimes called Western, is spoken in western and central Bosnia, western Herzegovina, some of Slavonia and the major part of Dalmatia in Croatia. The Ijekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Southern,

3885-601: The Serenissima ". It was eventually reconquered by Stephen II of Hungary in 1124. In 1125, after it again fell to the Venetian hands, it was destroyed on the orders of the Venetian doge because of it vicinity to Zadar. According to the Historia Ducum Veneticorum, only the citizens of Biograd na Moru "... dared resist the doge and his army ...", during his reconquest of Dalmatia but "... their city

3996-594: The Timok Valley near the Bulgarian border to Prizren . There is disagreement among linguists whether these dialects belong to the Shtokavian area, because there are many other morphological characteristics apart from rendering of što (also, some dialects use kakvo or kvo , typical for Bulgarian), which would place them into a "transitional" group between Shtokavian and Eastern South Slavic languages ( Bulgarian and Macedonian ). The Timok-Prizren group falls to

4107-403: The 12th century, but the specific writing about bans is dated to the late 13th and early 14th century, a transcript of an older document. It mentions that there existed seven bans and they were elected by the six of Twelve noble tribes of Croatia , where the title is written as banus and bani . The Late Proto-Slavic word *banъ is considered to not be of native Slavic lexical stock and

4218-569: The 1650s it was fairly obvious that Shtokavian would become the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard, but this process was finally completed in the 1850s, when Neo-Shtokavian Ijekavian, based mainly on Ragusan (Dubrovnik), Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Slavonian literary heritage became the national standard language. Ban (title) Ban ( / ˈ b ɑː n / ) was the title of local rulers or officeholders, similar to viceroy , used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between

4329-484: The 19th century which avoided any association with Germanization and German heritage. According to him, the title and its functions directly derive from a Germanic medieval term ban or bannum , the royal power of raising of armies and the exercise of justice later delegated to the counts, which was widely used in Francia . Archaeologist Vladimir Sokol (2007) independently came to a very similar conclusion relating it to

4440-512: The 21st century, historians like Mladen Ančić (2013) and Neven Budak (2018) in their research and synthesis of Croatian history concluded that the Avar linguistic argumentation is unconvincing and the historical sources poorly support such a thesis, emphasizing rather the Frankish origin of the title. Ančić emphasized that Avarian derivation is related to cultural and political ideologization since

4551-478: The 7th and 20th centuries. The most common examples have been found in medieval Croatia and medieval regions ruled and influenced by the Kingdom of Hungary . They often ruled as the king's governmental representatives, supreme military commanders and judges, and in 18th century Croatia, even as chief government officials. In the Banate of Bosnia they were always de facto supreme rulers. The first known mention of

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4662-510: The 8th-9th century, the formation of the Proto-Western Shtokavian and Proto-Eastern Shtokavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 9th-10th century (Proto-Western Shtokavian closer to Proto-Chakavian, while Proto-Eastern Shtokavian shared an old isogloss with Bulgarian). According to Ivo Banac in the area of today's Slavonia , Bosnia and Herzegovina (west of Brčko , Vlasenica and Neretva line) and on

4773-687: The Bulgarian-Avar (Turkic) theory on the origin of early medieval Croats. Historian Franjo Rački did not discard the possibility South Slavs could obtain it from Avars, but he disbelieved it had happened in Dalmatia, yet somewhere in Pannonia, and noticed the existence of bân ("dux, custos") in Persian language. He also observed that ban could only be someone from one of the twelve Croatian tribes according to Supetar cartulary. This viewpoint

4884-511: The Croatian title "ban" in Bosnia indicates that political ties with the Croatian world was from the earliest times, while supreme leader of the Serbs has always been called the Grand Prince ( Veliki Župan ) and never the "ban". The meaning of the title changed with time: the position of a ban can be compared to that of a viceroy or a high vassal such as a hereditary duke , but neither

4995-853: The Croatians Vatroslav Jagić and Ante Starčević . The dispute was primarily concerned with who can, philologically, be labelled as "Slovene", "Croat" and "Serb" with the aim of expanding one's national territory and influence. Born in the climate of romanticism and national awakening, these polemical battles led to increased tensions between the aforementioned nations, especially because the Shtokavian dialect cannot be split along ethnic lines in an unequivocal manner. However, contemporary native speakers, after process of national crystallization and identification had been completed, can be roughly identified as predominant speakers of various Shtokavian subdialects. Because standard languages propagated through media have strongly influenced and altered

5106-643: The Croats had a similar organization when they were living northeast of the Carpathian Mountains". Stjepan Krizin Sakač emphasized that the word bajan is never mentioned in historical sources as a title, the title ban is never mentioned in such a form, and there's no evidence that Avars and Turks ever used a title closely related to the title ban . Sakač connected the Croatian bân with statements from two Persian dictionaries (released 1893 and 1903);

5217-564: The Danube). Substitution of jat is predominantly Ekavian accent even on the end of datives ( žene instead of ženi ), in pronouns ( teh instead of tih ), in comparatives ( dobrej instead of dobriji ) in the negative of biti ( nesam instead of nisam ); in Smederevo – Vršac dialects, Ikavian forms can be found ( di si instead of gde si? ). Smederevo–Vršac dialect (spoken in northeastern Šumadija, Lower Great Morava Valley and Banat)

5328-494: The German-Gothic theory derivation from banner and power of ban and King's ban . Gjuro Szabo shared similar Klaić's viewpoint, and emphasized the widespread distribution of a toponym from India to Ireland, and particularly among Slavic lands, and considered it as an impossibility that had derived from a personal name of a poorly known khagan, yet from a prehistoric word Ban or Pan . Ferdo Šišić considered that

5439-561: The Neo-Shtokavian dialect as it was formalized in SFR Yugoslavia . However, it must be stressed that standard variants, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension—but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was reinstated in the standard language. Croatian has had

5550-529: The Slavic name Bojan. His thesis would be later endorsed by many historians, and both South Slavic titles ban and župan were asserted as Avars official titles, but it had more to do with the scholar's ideology of the time than actual reality. Franz Miklosich wrote that the word, of Croatian origin, probably was expanded by the Croats among the Bulgarians and Serbs, while if it is Persian, than among Slavs

5661-637: The Venetian- Turkish wars, the city was gravely damaged, and on two occasions, in 1521 and in 1646, it was destroyed and burned. In the 16th and 17th century, the Croatian militia formed in Biograd na Moru and had much involvement in the wars against the Ottomans. In recent history, the Yugoslavian forces inflicted considerable damage by long-range bombardment in the period 1991-1993 during

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5772-568: The administration of Danube Banovina (1929–1941). Banovina is also the colloquial name of the city hall building in Split , and of the administrative building (rectorate and library) of the University of Niš . In Croatian Littoral banica or banić signified "small silver coins", in Vodice banica signified "unknown, old coins". The Banovac was a coin struck between 1235 and 1384. In

5883-558: The anti- Ottoman defensive system were formed: In 1921 temporarily existed Lajtabánság in Burgenland (Austria). The title ban was also awarded in the Second Bulgarian Empire on few occasions, but remained an exception. One example was the 14th-century governor of Sredets ( Sofia ) Ban Yanuka . Ban was also used in the 19th century Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. Ban

5994-419: The ban βοάνος ( Boános ), καὶ ὁ βοάνος αὐτῶν κρατεῖ (rules over) τὴν Κρίβασαν ( Krbava ), τὴν Λίτζαν ( Lika ) καὶ (and) τὴν Γουτζησκά ( Gacka ). In the 31st chapter, describing the military and naval force of Croatia, " Miroslav , who ruled for four years, was killed by the βοεάνου ( boéánou ) Πριβουνία ( Pribounía , i.e. Pribina )", and after that followed a temporary decrease in

6105-542: The beginning Bosnian status as a de facto independent state fluctuated, depending on era, in terms of its relations with the Kingdom of Hungary and Byzantine Empire . Its rulers were called bans, and their territory banovina . Nevertheless, the Bosnian bans were never viceroys, in the sense as their neighbors in the west in Croatia, appointed by the king. Earliest mentioned Bosnian bans were Borić (1154–1163) and Kulin (1163–1204). The Bosnian medieval dynasties who used

6216-546: The better or weaker preservation of former West Shtokavian features in some dialects of the unique Shtokavian group of dialects". As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. The modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular)

6327-901: The buildings that host high government officials. The Banski dvori in Zagreb hosts the Croatian Government , while the Banski dvor in Banja Luka hosted the President of Republika Srpska (a first-tier subdivision of Bosnia and Herzegovina) until 2008. The building known as Bela banovina ("the white banovina") in Novi Sad hosts the parliament and government of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia. The building received this name because it previously hosted

6438-468: The central area of the subdialect, the diphthong uo exists in some words instead of the archaic l and more common u like vuok or stuop , instead of the standard modern vuk and stup . Also known as Đekavian-Ijekavian , it is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in Podgorica and Cetinje , around the city of Novi Pazar in eastern Raška in Serbia, and by descendants of Montenegrin settlers in

6549-708: The city of Bihać , and also in central Bosnia where Croats and Bosniaks (e.g. Travnik , Jajce , Bugojno , Vitez ) used to speak this dialect. Exclusively Ikavian accent, Bosnian and Herzegovinian forms use o in verb participle, whereas those in Dalmatia and Lika use -ija or ia like in vidija/vidia . Local form of Bačka was proposed as the base for the Danubian branch of the Bunjevac dialect of Bunjevac Croats ( Bunjevci ) in Vojvodina , Serbia. Also known as Western Ijekavian , in earlier centuries, this subdialect

6660-416: The connection between the Croatian and Byzantine royal court. After 1102, as Croatia entered personal union with Hungarian kingdom , the title of ban was appointed by the kings. Croatia was governed by the viceroys as a whole between 1102 and 1225, when it was split into two separate banovinas: Slavonia and Croatia, and Dalmatia . Two different bans were appointed until 1476, when the institution of

6771-606: The extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary Shtokavian vernacular. Numerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman Bosnia , Hum , Serbia , Zeta , and southern Dalmatia , especially Dubrovnik are mainly Shtokavian, with elements of Church Slavic. The first major comprehensive vernacular Shtokavian text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book , written in Dubrovnik

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6882-464: The following: As can be seen from the list, many of these isoglosses are missing from particular Shtokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Shtokavian dialects. There exist three main criteria for the division of Shtokavian dialects: The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects. The primary distinction is the accentuation system: although there are variations, "old" dialects preserve

6993-447: The history of historiography to prove ideological assumptions on Avars, and specific theories on the origin of early medieval Croats . The starting point of the debate was year 1837, and the work of historian and philologist Pavel Jozef Šafárik , whose thesis has influenced generations of scholars. In his work Slovanské starožitnosti (1837), and later Slawische alterthümer (1843) and Geschichte der südslawischen Literatur (1864),

7104-410: The influence of Franks during their control of Istria and Liburnia . In 2013, historian Tomislav Bali noted the possible connection of the title with the military and territorial administrative unit bandon of the Byzantine Empire . The unit term derives, like the Greek bandon (from the 6th century) and Latin bandus and bandum (from the 9th century; banner ), from the Gothic bandwō ,

7215-551: The inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch. Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones. They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings. The following notation

7326-420: The latter, postalveolar variants. Some subdialects preserve l at the end of words (where otherwise it has developed into a short o) – došl , znal , etc. (cf. Kajkavian and Bulgarian ); in others, this l has become the syllable ja . Torlakian is spoken in Metohija , around Prizren , Gnjilane and Štrpce especially, in Southern Serbia around Bujanovac , Vranje , Leskovac , Niš , Aleksinac , in

7437-425: The littoral between the Bay of Kotor and Cetina , medieval Croats spoke an old West Shtokavian dialect, which, some believe, stemmed from Chakavian , while medieval Serbs spoke two dialects, old East Shtokavian and Torlakian. Many linguists noted a close connection between Chakavian and Western Shtokavian, for example Pavle Ivić saw Chakavian as an arhaic peripheral zone of Shtokavian, while Dalibor Brozović saw

7548-405: The majority of Chakavian dialects as derived from the same accentological core as Western Shtokavian. Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by a three-accent system, whereas Eastern Shtokavian was mostly marked by a two-accent system. Western Shtokavian covered the major part of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and part of Southern Dalmatia in Croatia . Eastern Shtokavian

7659-485: The majority of settlers came from Torlakian speaking village Veliki Izvor near Zajecar. Few centuries ago, before settlers from Kosovo and Metohija brought Kosovo-Resava speeches to Eastern Serbia (to Bor and Negotin area), Torlakian speech had been overwhelmingly represented in this region. Also called the Archaic Šćakavian , it is spoken by Croats who live in some parts of Slavonia , Bačka , Baranja , Syrmia , in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. It

7770-403: The military force of the Croatian Kingdom. In 1029, a Latin charter was published by Jelena, sister of ban Godemir, in Obrovac, for donation to the monastery of St. Krševan in Zadar . In it she is introduced as " Ego Heleniza, soror Godemiri bani ...". Franjo Rački noted that if it is not an original, then it is certainly a transcript from the same 11th century. In the 12th century,

7881-404: The monasteries of St. John the Evangelist and St. Thomas in 1059 and 1066, both of them being three-naved basilicas. The nearby 9th century Cathedral was also expanded with a belltower and by adding the southern part of the walls. The function of prior (head of city elected by its commune in Dalmatia ) is attested. The city was also a major port during the latter half of the 11th century. During

7992-609: The most of them left back to Zadar, after which the city was also referred to as Jadera Vetula ("Old Zadar") or Zara vecchia in Italian translation. During the 13th and 14th century the city was run by the dukes of Cetina , the Knights Templar of Vrana and the dukes of Bribir the Šubićes . It was acquired by the Venetian Republic in 1409 and would remain its property until its downfall in 1797. During

8103-585: The noun bàn (lord, master, illustrious man, chief), suffix bân (guard), and the Sasanian title merz-bân (مرزبان marz-bān, Marzban ). He considered that the early Croats originated from the Iranian-speaking Sarmatians probably Alans and Aorsi . The view of the possible Iranian origin (from ban ; keeper, guard), besides Avarian, was shared by the modern scholars like Vladimir Košćak, Horace Lunt and Tibor Živković . In

8214-455: The older accent system, which consists of two types of falling ( dynamic ) accents, one long and one short, and unstressed syllables, which can be long and short. Both long and short unstressed syllables could precede the stressed syllables. Stress placement is free and mobile in paradigms. In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian metatony " or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on

8325-461: The one hand from Shtokavian and Chakavian on the other. These are: Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun kaj (as opposed to što/šta used in Shtokavian), are: Characteristics distinguishing Chakavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ča , are: General characteristics of Shtokavian are

8436-598: The opposite, that Avars never lived in the area of the Roman province of Dalmatia (including Lika), and that statement occurred somewhere in Pannonia . Šafárik assumed that the Avars by the name word bayan called their governor, and in the end concluded that the title ban derives from the "name-title" Bayan, which is also a Persian title word (see Turkish bey for Persian bag/bay ), and neglected that it should derive from

8547-577: The other, as well as mixed Ekavian–Ikavian and Jekavian–Ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary, the original yat is preserved. Local variants can widely differ in the degree of Neo-Shtokavian influences. In two villages in Posavina , Siče and Magića Male, the l , as in the verb nosil , has been retained in place of the modern nosio . In some villages in the Podravina, čr is preserved instead of

8658-473: The part of Toplica Valley around Prokuplje , in Eastern Serbia around Pirot , Svrljig , Soko Banja , Boljevac , Knjaževac ending up with the area around Zaječar , where the Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. It has been recorded several exclaves with Torlakian speeches inside Kosovo-Resava dialect area. One is the most prominent and preserved, like village Dublje near Svilajnac, where

8769-475: The personal name was a possible misinterpretation of a title, but Bayan already had a title of khagan, and the name, as well its derivation, are well confirmed. The title ban among the Avars has never been attested to in the historical sources, and as such the Avarian etymological derivation is unconvincing. The title's etymological and functional origins are unknown. It was used as "evidence" throughout

8880-581: The previously mentioned villages in Podravina. Some vernaculars have a very open /ɛ/ or /æ/ as their reflex of ь/ъ, very rare in other Shtokavian vernaculars ( sæn and dæn instead of san and dan ). Other phonetic features include sounds like ʑ in iʑesti instead of izjesti , ɕ as in ɕekira instead of sjekira . However these sounds are known also to many in East Herzegovina like those in Konavle , and are not Zeta–Raška specific . There

8991-430: The reign of Duke Branimir in the 9th century. The building later became the cathedral of the bishop of Biograd. One of the very significant characteristics of this building is the semi-circular buttresses , found only on the buildings in Croatia at that time. The city was first mentioned as Biogradon in the mid-10th-century chronicle De Administrando Imperio as one of the populated towns in "christened Croatia". It

9102-565: The ruins of Biograd also attest the bishop's palace beside the cathedral, as well as stone buildings and residences. It was another capital of most Croatian regnants such as Stephen Držislav and Peter Krešimir IV , as well as an important religious place. In 1202, when the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade occupied Zadar , many of its citizens took refuge in Biograd na Moru, then noted as Jadra Nova ("New Zadar"). Two years later,

9213-526: The shared innovations originate from a "Trans-Carpathian" homeland, and by the 4th and 6th century, "the major dialect divisions of Slavic were already established". Dialectologists and Slavists maintain that when the separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups, more specifically two, one Slovene and a second Serbo-Croatian with four divergent groups - Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian. The latter group can be additionally divided into

9324-560: The single village of Peroj in Istria . The majority of its speakers are Serbs and Montenegrins and Muslims from Serbia and Montenegro. Together with the dominant Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations like djete–deteta (Jekavian–Ekavian) around Novi Pazar and Bijelo Polje , dite–đeteta (Ikavian–Jekavian) around Podgorica and dete–đeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) in the village of Mrkojevići in southern Montenegro. Mrkojevići are also characterised by retention of čr instead of cr as in

9435-462: The situation in the 19th century, the following attribution must be treated with necessary caution. The distribution of Old-Shtokavian speakers along ethnic lines in present times is as follows: Generally, the Neo-Shtokavian dialect is divided as follows with regard to the ethnicity of its native speakers: The standard Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , and Serbian variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language are all based on

9546-868: The standard as a vernacular can be. The dialect presents a base for the Ekavian variant of the Serbian standard language. Also called Eastern Herzegovinian or Neo-Ijekavian . It encompasses by far the largest area and the number of speakers of all Shtokavian dialects. It is the dialectal basis of the standard literary Croatian , Bosnian , Serbian , and Montenegrin languages. Micro groups: The Proto-Slavic vowel jat (ѣ in Cyrillic or ě in Latin ) has changed over time, coming to be pronounced differently in different areas. These different reflexes define three "pronunciations" ( izgovori ) of Shtokavian: Historically,

9657-569: The succession crisis in 1096, the Norman princess Felicia of Sicily disembarked in the port of the city to marry the Hungarian king Coloman. It was the city where Coloman of Hungary was crowned in 1102 by the Biograd bishop Bono, as the crown of Croatia was passed to the Hungarians. In the subsequent years its rule was exchanged between Venice and the Árpád family . At this point, the city

9768-525: The title ban is in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , in the work De Administrando Imperio , in the 30th and 31st chapter "Story of the province of Dalmatia" and "Of the Croats and of the country they now dwell in", dedicated to the Croats and the Croatian organisation of their medieval state. In the 30th chapter, describing in Byzantine Greek , how the Croatian state was divided into eleven ζουπανίας ( zoupanías ; župas ),

9879-415: The title "ban" until the rulers adopted the use of the title "king" under the Kingdom of Bosnia , with Ban Stephen's II successor Tvrtko I being the first who inaugurate the title "king". Regions ruled and influenced by Kingdom of Hungary , besides those in Croatia and Bosnia, were also formed as banates usually as frontier provinces in today's Serbia , Romania and Bulgaria . It includes: As part of

9990-431: The title Ban from the 12th until the end of 14th century includes Borić , Kulinić with Ban Kulin and Matej Ninoslav being most prominent member, and Kotromanić dynasty . Some of the most prominent bans from the 12th until the end of 13th centuries includes Ban Borić , Ban Kulin , Ban Stephen Kulinić , Ban Matej Ninoslav , Prijezda I , Prijezda II , Stephen I and Stephen II . The Bosnian medieval state used

10101-402: The title khagan. Nada Klaić advocated the same claims of Avars descendants in Lika, and considered bans and župans as Avar officials and governors. Francis Dvornik on the other hand, although mentioned Šišić's argumentation, considered to be of common Indo-European root (an Czechs and Poles have pan meaning "master") or Iranian-Sarmatian origin, and "we are fully entitled to suppose that

10212-629: The title was mentioned by an anonymous monk of Dioclea and in the Supetar Cartulary . The Byzantine Greek historian John Kinnamos wrote the title in the Greek form μπάνος ( mpanos ). In the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , which is dated to 12th and 13th century, in the Latin redaction is written as banus , banum , bano , and in the Croatian redaction only as ban . The Supetar Cartulary includes information until

10323-413: The town of Vukovar . It is predominately Ekavian (Ikavian forms are of morphophonological origin). In some parts of Vojvodina the old declension is preserved. Most Vojvodina dialects and some dialects in Šumadija have an open e and o . However the vernaculars of western Serbia, and in past to them connected vernaculars of (old) Belgrade and southwestern Banat (Borča, Pančevo , Bavanište) are as close to

10434-773: The usual cr , for example in črn instead of crn . Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian. Also called Jekavian-Šćakavian , Eastern Bosnian dialect has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo , Tuzla , and Zenica , and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area ( Vareš , Usora , etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj dete–djeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica djete–diteta (Jekavian–ikavian). In

10545-456: The vernacular idiom. This process took place for Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks independently and without mutual interference until the mid-19th century. Historical linguistics, textual analysis and dialectology have dispelled myths about allegedly "unspoilt" vernacular speech of rural areas: for instance, it is established that Bosniaks have retained phoneme "h" in numerous words (unlike Serbs and Croats), due to elementary religious education based on

10656-407: The whole Shtokavian area. The differences between Shtokavian and the unrelated, neighboring Bulgarian – Macedonian dialects are mostly clear-cut, whereas the differences with the related Serbo-Croatian dialects of Chakavian and Kajkavian are much more fluid, and the mutual influence of various subdialects plays a more prominent role. The main bundle of isoglosses separates Slovenian and Kajkavian on

10767-578: The yat reflexes had been inscribed in Church Slavic texts before the significant development of Shtokavian dialect, reflecting the beginnings of the formative period of the vernacular. In early documents it is predominantly Church Slavic of the Serbian or Croatian recension (variant). The first undoubted Ekavian reflex ( beše 'it was') is found in a document from Serbia dated 1289; the first Ikavian reflex ( svidoci 'witnesses') in Bosnia in 1331; and first Ijekavian reflex ( želijemo 'we wish',

10878-437: Was Pribina in the 10th century, followed by Godemir (969–995), Gvarda or Varda (c. 995–1000), Božeteh (c. 1000–1030), Stjepan Praska (c. 1035–1058), Gojčo (c. 1060–1069), and later Dmitar Zvonimir (c. 1070–1075) and possibly Petar Snačić (c. 1075–1091) who would become the last native Croatian king. The fairly late mid-10th century mention, because is not mentioned in older inscriptions and royal charters, indicates it

10989-536: Was a variant used for a significant literary output between the 15th and 18th centuries. This has led to a reduction in its use and an increase in the use of Ijekavian in traditionally Ikavian areas since the standardization. For example, most people in formerly fully Ikavian Split, Croatia today use both Ikavian and Ijekavian words in everyday speech, without a clearly predictable pattern (usually more emotionally charged or intimate words are Ikavian and more academic, political, generally standardised words Ijekavian, but it

11100-495: Was also derived from the name Bojan , and there were additionally proposed Iranian, and Germanic, language origin. The Avar nameword bajan , which some scholars trying to explain the title's origin interpreted with alleged meaning of "ruler of the horde", itself is attested as the 6th century personal name of Avar khagan Bayan I which led the raids on provinces of the Byzantine Empire. Some scholars assume that

11211-461: Was dominant in Serbia , easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro . From the 12th century, both dialects started separating further from Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. According to research of historical linguistics, Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees. However, the ultimate development of Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian

11322-575: Was mentioned as a castle, and its citizens subsequently swore an oath of fealty to the Doge , who installed Vitale Michiel as a governor. During the 1050s, it is for the first time mentioned as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Alba Maritima , a suffragan of Salona , until its 1226 suppression, when its territory was merged into the nearby Diocese of Skradin . The city flourished during this time. King Peter Krešimir IV founded

11433-771: Was motivated primarily by political and national interests that prompted philologists-turned-ideologues to express their views on the subject. The most prominent contenders in the squabble, with conflicting agenda, were the Czech philologist Josef Dobrovský , the Slovak Pavel Šafárik , the Slovenes Jernej Kopitar and Franz Miklosich , the Serb Vuk Karadžić , the Croat of Slovak origin Bogoslav Šulek , and

11544-532: Was not divergent (like in the case of Chakavian and Kajkavian), but convergent . It was the result of migrations (particularly of Neoshtokavian-Eastern Shtokavian speakers), political-cultural border change and also caused by the Ottoman invasion (since the 16th century). Initially two separate proto-idioms started to resemble each other so greatly that, according to Brozović (1975), "[today] we can no longer speak of an independent Western Shtokavian, but only about

11655-461: Was not preserved from the period of Avar Khaganate as was previously presumed in historiography. It rather indicates to the influence of the expansion of the Northern border by King Tomislav of Croatia , after the conquest of Slavonia by the Hungarians, making the position of ban similar to that of a margrave defending a frontier region. That the ban was significant almost as a king is seen in

11766-465: Was razed to its foundations." The city core, consisting of the royal palace, ban 's court, as well as monasteries and churches, was plundered. Much of the local monks fled to the nearby islands of Tkon and Pašman and the Biograd bishopric was abolished; its territories were added to the Bishopric of Zadar. The population, along with the bishop, moved to Skradin . A 15th-century drawing that depicts

11877-521: Was the centre of the county ( županija ) of Sidraga. There are allegations that the bishopric was founded during this time based on a charter whose authenticity is disputed. Thus, this is not universally accepted by historians. During the wars between Kingdom of Croatia and the Republic of Venice in 1000, the town was captured for a brief time by the Venetians. During this time the Biograd na Moru

11988-529: Was the first to connect the ruler title of ban , obviously not of Slavic lexical stock, which ruled over župas of today's region of Lika , with the Pannonian Avars. He concluded how Avars lived in that same territory, basing his thesis on a literal reading of the statement from Constantine VII's 30th chapter, "there are still descendants of the Avars in Croatia, and are recognized as Avars". However, modern historians and archaeologists until now proved

12099-764: Was the independent subdialect of Western Shtokavian dialect. The Dubrovnik dialect has mixed Jekavian and Ikavian pronunciations or mixed Shtokavian and Chakavian vocabulary. Some vocabulary from Dalmatian , older Venetian and modern Italian are also present. Also known as Younger Ekavian , is one of the bases for the standard Serbian language . It is spoken by Serbs across most of Vojvodina (excluding easternmost parts around Vršac), northern part of western Serbia , around Kragujevac and Valjevo in Šumadija , in Mačva around Šabac and Bogatić , in Belgrade and in predominantly ethnically Serbian villages in eastern Croatia around

12210-455: Was the title of the governor of each province (called banovina ) of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. The weight of the title was far less than that of a medieval ban's feudal office. The word ban is preserved in many modern toponym and place names, in the regions where bans once ruled, as well as in the personal names. A region in central Croatia, south of Sisak , is called Banovina or Banija. The region of Banat in

12321-516: Was the title used for local land administrators in the areas of Balkans where South Slavic population migrated around the 7th century, namely in Duchy of Croatia (8th century–c. 925), Kingdom of Croatia , Croatia in union with Hungary (1102–1526), and many regions ruled and influenced by Kingdom of Hungary like Banate of Bosnia (1154–1377), Banate of Severin (1228–1526), Banate of Macsó (1254–1496) and else. According to Noel Malcolm , usage of

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