The ushnisha ( Sanskrit : उष्णीष , romanized : uṣṇīṣa ) is a three-dimensional oval on top of the head. In Pali scriptures, it is the crown of Buddha, the symbol of his Enlightenment and Enthronement.
155-476: The Ushnisha is the thirty-second of the 32 major marks of the Buddha. The thirty-second of these is that the Buddha has a fleshy or cranial protuberance at the top of his head. Later sets elaborate that this is covered with hairs that curl in the direction of the sun. Later on a second definition of Ushnisha was added, which was a flame that ascends from the middle of this protuberance. The first representations of
310-715: A tribe mentioned in the Rigveda , the Atharvaveda , and later Vedic texts. A Persian form of the name, Gandara , mentioned in the Behistun inscription of Emperor Darius I , was translated as Paruparaesanna ( Para-upari-sena , meaning "beyond the Hindu Kush") in Babylonian and Elamite in the same inscription. The geographical location of Gandhara has undergone alterations throughout history, with
465-440: A "hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and
620-412: A Buddhist Avadana , Aspavarma and a Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of Buddhism . A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of Gondophares nephew, Abdagases I , and Aspavarma , describing
775-592: A bulwark against the expansion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. Therefore, following Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with
930-410: A figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with Gondophares , was succeeded by Sasan , after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following Abdagases I . The Kushan ruler Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of Sasan , whilst
1085-422: A form called uṣṇīṣin "wearing a turban/hair binding", wielding the mudras for "nonviolent cakravartin rule". A bull figurine excavated from Lakhan-jo-Daro from Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization has a similar Ushnisha styled knob above its head, its a unique feature and not applied to any other bull figurine indicating intelligence insignia. Gandhara Gandhara ( IAST : Gandhāra )
1240-715: A fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II , disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles , son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River . The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas , from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing
1395-782: A group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into
1550-682: A knot concealing the ushnisha. In Early Buddhism , the uṣṇīṣa was represented differently. The Mahāvastu (1.259f) and the Divyāvadāna , as well as the Theravadin Milindapañha , describe the marks of the cakravartin , an idealised world-ruler: uṣṇīṣa or patka turban , chhatra parasol, "horn jewel" or vajra , whisk and sandals . These were the marks of the kshatriya . The plastic art of early Mahayana Buddhism in Mathura presents bodhisattvas in
1705-770: A monk after becoming a disciple of the Buddha . The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of Darius the Great did the region between the Indus River and the Jhelum River become annexed. However Megasthenes Indica , states that the Achaemenids never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the Massagetae , it further states that
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#17327808086741860-467: A more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms , and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the Kuru Kingdom 's codification of orthodox sacrificial ritual . During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, of Greater Magadha . The end of
2015-522: A numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of Kujula Kadphises It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of Nahapana of the Western Satraps , this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE. It was noted by Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between
2170-633: A purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda - samhita , i.e. the oldest layer of the Vedas , which was composed c. 1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to
2325-493: A rebellion among the locals of Taxila to which according to the Ashokavadana , he dispatched Ashoka to quell the uprising. Upon entering the city, the populace conveyed that their rebellion was not against Ashoka or Bindusara but rather against oppressive ministers. In Ashoka's subsequent tenure as emperor, he appointed his son as the new governor of Taxila . During this time, Ashoka erected numerous rock edicts in
2480-668: A role in the Kurukshetra War . In the 6th century BCE, King Pukkusāti governed the region and was most notable for defeating the Kingdom of Avanti though Gandhara eventually succumbed as a tributary to the Achaemenids. During the Wars of Alexander the Great , the region was split into two factions with Taxiles , the king of Taxila , allying with Alexander the Great , while the Western Gandharan tribes, exemplified by
2635-483: A small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the door step of modern-day West Bengal ), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura . To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi . The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions. The end of
2790-406: A smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding
2945-544: A year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of varna , the division of Vedic society in Brahmins , Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra . The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by
3100-477: Is also noted by Kalhana that Brahmins of Gandhara accepted from Mihirakula gifts of Agraharams . Kalhana also noted in his Rajatarangini how Mihirakula oppressed local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India and states that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir. The Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara until 843 CE when they were overthrown by
3255-475: Is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine Agni —into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. Vedic people believed in
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#17327808086743410-559: Is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a complex chiefdom , as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in ancient Hawaii and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it
3565-411: Is doing the portrayal. The Sri Lankan Tamrashatiya school, which would later give rise to Theravada , portrayed him as bald and having an ushnisha extending into the sky and beyond the possibility of measurement. The Gandharan school of Buddhism, however, never portrayed Śākyamuni with the protuberance on the skull, but with the long wavy hair drawn up on the top of the head in a cluster of curls or in
3720-450: Is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware. Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as
3875-401: Is heard"). The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices ( Yajna ) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant ), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras ( Yajus ). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna
4030-418: Is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rigveda , but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas . Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that ayas in
4185-513: Is mentioned negatively, with the royal family of Gandhāra during this period following non-Brahmanical religious traditions. According to the Jain Uttarādhyayana-sūtra , Nagnajit, or Naggaji, was a prominent king who had adopted Jainism and was comparable to Dvimukha of Pāñcāla , Nimi of Videha , Karakaṇḍu of Kaliṅga , and Bhīma of Vidarbha ; Buddhist sources instead claim that he had achieved paccekabuddhayāna . By
4340-541: Is named, is attested in the Rigveda ( c. 1500 – c. 1200 BCE ), while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian Avesta as Vaēkərəta , the seventh most beautiful place on earth created by Ahura Mazda . The Gāndhārī king Nagnajit and his son Svarajit are mentioned in the Brāhmaṇa s , according to which they received Brahmanic consecration, but their family's attitude towards ritual
4495-454: Is presumed to have gained the throne in c. 2 BCE after succeeding Visnuvarma, with a reign of three decades lasting til c. 32 CE before being succeeded by his son Indravasu and then further by Indravasu's grandson Indravarma II in c. 50 CE. The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from Central Asia into South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to
4650-682: The Atharvaveda , the Gandhārīs are mentioned alongside the Mūjavants, the Āṅgeyas and the Māgadhīs in a hymn asking fever to leave the body of the sick man and instead go those aforementioned tribes. The tribes listed were the furthermost border tribes known to those in Madhyadeśa , the Āṅgeyas and Māgadhīs in the east, and the Mūjavants and Gandhārīs in the north. The Gandhara tribe , after which it
4805-638: The Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati , were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism . Ethics in
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4960-825: The Apracharajas , retained governance during this period until the ascent of the Kushan Empire . The zenith of Gandhara's cultural and political influence transpired during Kushan rule, before succumbing to devastation during the Hunnic Invasions . However, the region experienced a resurgence under the Turk Shahis and Hindu Shahis . Gandhara was known in Sanskrit as Gandhāraḥ ( गन्धारः ) and in Avestan as ' Vaēkərəta . In Old Persian , Gandhara
5115-740: The Aśvaka around the Swat valley , resisted. Following the Macedonian downfall, Gandhara became part of the Mauryan Empire with Chandragupta Maurya receiving an education in Taxila under Chanakya and later assumed control with his support. Subsequently, Gandhara was successively annexed by the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians though a regional Gandharan kingdom, known as
5270-596: The Bactrians . Herodotus states that during the battle they were led by the Achamenid general Artyphius . Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals. The Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ). It
5425-549: The Gita of Mahabharata , are essential parts of these later developments. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the Indus Valley Civilisation , but
5580-745: The Hindu Shahis . The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana in Gandhara. The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it was during his reign that the region of Kabul was lost to the Persianate Saffarid empire . Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing
5735-550: The Indus River . This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the Hydaspes River , in modern-day Punjab , a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who
5890-472: The Jhelum River based on arachaeological Gandharan art discoveries however further evidence is needed to support this, though during the rule of Alexander the Great the kingdom of Taxila stretched to the Hydaspes (Jhelum river). The term Greater Gandhara describes the cultural and linguistic extent of Gandhara and its language, Gandhari . In later historical contexts, Greater Gandhara encompassed
6045-512: The Kabul River and Taxila had coinage of Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe Taxila as being the same size as Nineveh , being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus . Following an exchange with
6200-708: The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between
6355-670: The Puranas , envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the seven rishis thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of Vaivasvata Manu , the Manu of the current kalpa (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The Kurukshetra War , the background-scene of the Bhagavad Gita , which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at
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6510-603: The Rigveda refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or śyāma ayas , literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda , and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a Bronze Age culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron Age culture. The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated
6665-399: The Rigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement ( dasa , dasi ) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly
6820-431: The Rigveda , such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: O, Indra, fond of soma , would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma , would you impart to me endless wealth. The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in
6975-451: The Rigveda . Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn. Soma and sura were popular drinks in
7130-662: The Seleucid Greeks . This engagement is corroborated by Polybius , who records an instance where Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush , becoming king shortly after his victory. His empire survived him in
7285-578: The Sintashta culture , from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent Bactria – Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan ) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture at c. 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c. 800 BCE. Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed
7440-404: The Upanishads , the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent śramaṇa movements, and the end of
7595-550: The Vedas ( c. 1500 –900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent , between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation , which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. The Vedas are liturgical texts which formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the Kuru Kingdom , a tribal union of several Indo-Aryan tribes . The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute
7750-421: The Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta . Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of
7905-436: The Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of " Hindu synthesis ". Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan material culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture , the Gandhara grave culture , the black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW). The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after
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#17327808086748060-445: The rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies). Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace. In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states,
8215-592: The transmigration of the soul , and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharvaveda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma , Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas . The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra , Agni (the sacrificial fire ), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra – Varuna , Aryaman , Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind) and Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of
8370-550: The valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom. Due to this important position, Buddhist texts listed the Gandhāra kingdom as one of the sixteen Mahājanapada s ("great realms") of Iron Age South Asia. It was the home of Gandhari , the princess and her brother Shakuni the king of Gandhara Kingdom . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King Pukkusāti . According to Buddhist accounts, he had forged diplomatic ties with Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of
8525-426: The "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery
8680-427: The 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura . The first Indo-Scythian king Maues established Saka hegemony by conquering Indo-Greek territories. Some Aprachas are documented on the Silver Reliquary discovered at Sirkap, near Taxila , designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to Senapati , such as that of Indravarma who
8835-408: The 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Vahika and Gandhara regions spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush . After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and
8990-454: The Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi. The Kushans conquered Bactria after having been defeated by the Xiongnu and forced to retreat from the Central Asian steppes. The Yuezhi fragmented the region of Bactria into five distinct territories, with each tribe of
9145-408: The Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi,
9300-447: The Buddha in the 1st century CE in the art of Gandhara also represent him with a topknot, rather than just a cranial knob. It is thought that the interpretation of the ushnisha as a supernatural cranial protuberance happened at a later date, as the representation of the topknot became more symbolic and its original meaning was lost. Portrayal of Śākyamuni Buddha with an ushnisha has varied throughout history and depended on which school
9455-419: The Great encountered a young Chandragupta Maurya in the Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the Nanda Empire . This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and Kambojas , as documented in the Mudrarakshasa . Bindusaras reign witnessed
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#17327808086749610-551: The Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus . In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great 's military campaign progressed to Arigaum, situated in present-day Nawagai , marking the initial encounter with the Aspasians . Arrian documented their implementation of a scorched earth strategy, evidenced by the city ablaze upon Alexander's arrival, with its inhabitants already fleeing. The Aspasians fiercely contested Alexander's forces, resulting in their eventual defeat. Subsequently, Alexander traversed
9765-402: The Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery
9920-416: The Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ( "Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" (" Shah " or "King")). It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and South Asian mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but
10075-472: The Kidarites into northern India. Their last ruler in Gandhara was Kandik, c. 500 CE . Around 430 King Khingila , the most notable Alchon ruler, emerged and took control of the routes across the Hindu Kush from the Kidarites. Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and Mehama were found at the Buddhist monastery of Mes Aynak , southeast of Kabul , confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450–500 CE. The numismatic evidence as well as
10230-411: The Kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians . This period culminated with the Kushan and Gupta Empire , which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis". While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or castes was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes . Political hierarchy
10385-458: The Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha Sukta visualised the four varnas as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions." Household became an important unit in
10540-474: The Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to
10695-431: The Kushans with Kujula Kadphises son Vima Takto succeeding the Apracharaja Sases in Taxila and further conquering Tianzhu (India) before installing a general as a satrap. According to the Xiyu Zhuan, the inhabitants residing in the upper reaches of the Kabul River were extremely wealthy and excelled in commerce, with their cultural practices bearing resemblance to those observed in Tianzhu (India) . However,
10850-413: The North West. Chanakya , a prominent figure in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire , played a key role by adopting Chandragupta Maurya , the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years. Plutarch's accounts suggest that Alexander
11005-410: The Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of Alexander the Great , but they never entered their armies into the region of Gandhara. During the reign of Xerxes I , Gandharan troops were noted by Herodotus to have taken part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece and were described as clothed similar to that of
11160-669: The River Guraeus in the contemporary Dir District , engaging with the Asvakas , as chronicled in Sanskrit literature. The primary stronghold among the Asvakas, Massaga , characterized as strongly fortified by Quintus Curtius Rufus , became a focal point. Despite an initial standoff which led to Alexander being struck in the leg by an Asvaka arrow, peace terms were negotiated between the Queen of Massaga and Alexander. However, when
11315-861: The Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and
11470-625: The Valleys of Dir , Kunar , Chitral , and Peshawar . It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Backwards projections, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat culture people mixed with a population coming from Inner Asia Mountain Corridor , which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE. According to Rigvedic tradition , Yayati
11625-832: The Vedic Period, which was followed by the Mahajanapada period. According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple chiefdoms , with the Kurukshetra district itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society. Economy in
11780-425: The Vedic era texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras important to later Hindu culture were completed. The Kuru Kingdom , the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals. Two key figures in this process of
11935-524: The Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit . Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst,
12090-411: The Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and agriculture. There are references, in the Rigveda , to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( bali ) and priests ( dana ), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold
12245-460: The Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called mahajanapadas ) as well as śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism ) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy , and around the beginning of the Common Era,
12400-432: The Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute ( vana ), lute ( vina ), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes. The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society
12555-597: The Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing
12710-571: The Yuezhi assuming dominion over a separate kingdom. However, a century after this division, Kujula Kadphises of the Kushan tribe emerged victorious by destroying the other four Yuezhi tribes and consolidating his reign as king. Kujula then invaded Parthia and annexed the upper reaches of the Kabul River before further conquering Jibin . In 78 CE the Indo-Parthians seceded Gandhara to
12865-530: The banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi ). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas , led by their chief Sudas , against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati , while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab . Division of
13020-607: The capital of the great empire stretching from Central Asia to Northern India with Gandhara being in the midst of it. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith; Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia , where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha
13175-469: The collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation , which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley . The Indo-Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in
13330-496: The commandments of gods ( avrata ). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into
13485-502: The culture. Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and
13640-460: The defenders had vacated the fort, a fierce battle ensued when Alexander broke the treaty. According to Diodorus Siculus , the Asvakas, including women fighting alongside their husbands, valiantly resisted Alexander's army but were ultimately defeated. During the Mauryan era, Gandhara held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with Taxila serving as the provincial capital of
13795-456: The development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya , transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India . The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for
13950-834: The economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements ( krishna–ayas or shyama–ayas , literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but
14105-514: The establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury". The Puranic chronology , the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata , the Ramayana and
14260-411: The evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda . Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of
14415-436: The exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include
14570-575: The famous Vedic philosopher Uddālaka Āruṇi was among the famous students of Takṣaśila, and the Setaketu Jātaka claims that his son Śvetaketu also studied there. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad , Uddālaka Āruṇi himself favourably referred to Gāndhārī education to the Vaideha king Janaka . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west Iron Age South Asia, with
14725-648: The following millennium, coinciding with the Indo–Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to
14880-549: The four Vedas , but the Brahmanas , Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Śrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas . The rishis , the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda , were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda , Śruti means "what
15035-509: The general understanding being the region situating between Pothohar in contemporary Punjab , the Swat valley , and the Khyber Pass also extending along the Kabul River . The prominent urban centres within this geographical scope were Taxila and Pushkalavati . According to a specific Jataka , Gandhara's territorial extent at a certain period encompassed the region of Kashmir . The Eastern border of Gandhara has been proposed to be
15190-582: The growth of Achaemenid power under the kings Cambyses II and Darius I . However, the presence of Gandhāra among the list of Achaemenid provinces in Darius's Behistun Inscription confirms that his empire had inherited this region from Cyrus. It is unknown whether Pukkusāti remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian satrap , although Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became
15345-651: The hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rigveda , while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan ) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It
15500-581: The increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states ( rajya ), oligarchical states ( gana or sangha ), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. According to Michael Witzel 's analysis of the Kuru Kingdom , it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, Robert Bellah observes that it
15655-685: The inhabitants riding on elephants in warfare. The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent. Gandhara's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka the Great (127 CE – 150 CE). The cities of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) at Sirsukh and Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar ) reached new heights. Purushapura along with Mathura became
15810-668: The joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its first ruler Gondophares . For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan ) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence, the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar . These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage
15965-510: The king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Uddalaka Aruni , and Gargi Vachaknavi ; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali . By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas . The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. Anga ,
16120-415: The king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom. Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along
16275-527: The kingdom of Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the downfall of the empire in 1026 CE. Vedic period The Vedic period , or the Vedic age ( c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE ), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including
16430-423: The kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox Śrauta rituals) to strengthen the emerging social hierarchy . The rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who
16585-751: The last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers was finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the Yeuh-Chi. The Apracharajas were a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of Menander II within the Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early Kushans . Renowned for their significant support of Buddhism , this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between Taxila and Bajaur . Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and
16740-562: The later Vedic period , the situation had changed, and the Gāndhārī capital of Takṣaśila had become an important centre of knowledge where the men of Madhya-desa went to learn the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge, with the Kauśītaki Brāhmaṇa recording that brāhmaṇa s went north to study. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Uddālaka Jātaka ,
16895-449: The later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati . The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in
17050-521: The later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishpala , who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads. Patrick Olivelle , in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests
17205-535: The main constituents of the " Hindu synthesis ". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like Yoga and Vedanta acknowledge the authority of the Vedas , but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman . Later texts such as the Upanishads and epics, namely
17360-557: The mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas at Taxila , a high centre of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. It is thought that the Kanishka stupa , one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity,
17515-419: The name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and
17670-583: The next most notable ruler, is most significant for vanquishing the Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests, his grand-daughter Didda was also the last ruler of the Lohara dynasty . Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed Ghaznavid Empire , however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala,
17825-617: The non-Vedic Salva tribe , and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges, under King Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and southeastern Nepal , reaching its prominence under
17980-466: The notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans . In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of
18135-434: The primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society
18290-407: The realm of Avanti . Pukkusāti 's kingdom was described as being 100 Yojanas in width, approximately 500 to 800 miles wide, with his capital at Taxila in modern day Punjab as stated in early Jatakas It is noted by R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the Achamenid king Cyrus the Great and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as
18445-505: The region attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the Kushan Empire which had their capital at Puruṣapura , ushering the period known as Pax Kushana . The history of Gandhara originates with the Gandhara grave culture , characterized by a distinctive burial practice. During the Vedic period Gandhara gained recognition as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas , or 'great realms', within South Asia playing
18600-678: The region in the Kharosthi script and commissioned the construction of a monumental stupa in Pushkalavati , Western Gandhara, the location of which remains undiscovered to date. According to the Taranatha , following the death of Ashoka , the northwestern region seceded from the Maurya Empire , and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors, Virasena's successor, Subhagasena , maintained relations with
18755-539: The region of Zabulistan . He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with Samkaravarman of the Utpala dynasty , resulting in his victory and the latter's death in Hazara and was the first Shahi noted by Kalhana . He is depicted as a great ruler with strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of Udabhanda , a change from the previous capital of Kabul . Bhimadeva,
18910-484: The reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology, Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding Vijayamitra . Indravarmas son Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II and Gondophares of the Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with
19065-426: The relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period." Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan . The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti . The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to
19220-472: The rulers of Oddiyana in modern-day Swat. The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Vijayakamitra, identified as a vassal to Menander II , according to the Shinkot casket . This epigraphic source further articulates that King Vijayamitra , a descendant of Vijayakamitra, approximately half a century subsequent to the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage. He
19375-560: The service of the higher varnas . The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over
19530-601: The so-called " Hephthalite bowl " from Gandhara, now in the British Museum , suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of Khingila . The Alchons undertook
19685-431: The sramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the Maurya Empire . Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of Cyrus and Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in
19840-516: The subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, a difference also noted by Samuel. Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda . Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of the Ten Kings , which took place on
19995-441: The surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing. Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that has been linked to
20150-470: The territories of Jibin and Oddiyana which had splintered from Gandhara proper and also extended into parts of Bactria and the Tarim Basin . Oddiyana was situated in the vicinity of the Swat valley , while Jibin corresponded to the region of Kapisa , south of the Hindu Kush . However during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Jibin was often considered synonymous with Gandhara. The Udichya region
20305-406: The text also characterizes them as weak and easily conquered with their political allegiance never being constant. Over time, the region underwent successive annexations by Tianzhu , Jibin , and Parthia during periods of their respective strength, only to be lost when these powers experienced a decline. The Xiyu Zhuan describes Tianzhu's customs as bearing similarities to that of the Yuezhi and
20460-494: The throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham , a noted historian and indologist , theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers ( sabhasad ) and chiefs of sects ( gramani ). The main responsibility of
20615-469: The two great cities of Massaga located around the Swat valley and Pushkalavati in modern day Peshawar. The sovereign of Taxila , Omphis , formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards Porus , who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River . Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among
20770-511: The waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru , after the war. After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with
20925-445: The writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks. The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art , became extinct around this period. When Xuanzang visited Gandhara in c. 630 CE , he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined in favour of Shaivism and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. It
21080-743: The Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha . In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were
21235-417: Was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture , including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma . The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices ( akratu ) or obey
21390-416: Was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance. During this period in
21545-403: Was a central location for the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia with many Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visiting the region. Gāndhārī , an Indo-Aryan language written in the Kharosthi script , acted as the lingua franca of the region and through Buddhism , the language spread as far as China based on Gandhāran Buddhist texts . Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art ,
21700-436: Was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja Vijayamitra . Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned Silver Reliquary from the Indo-Scythian monarch Kharahostes , which he subsequently re-dedicated as a Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during
21855-400: Was also during the Achaemenid Empire rule of Gandhara that the Kharosthi script, the script of Gandhari prakrit , was born through the Aramaic alphabet. According to Arrian 's Indica , the area corresponding to Gandhara situated between the Kabul River and the Indus River was inhabited by two tribes noted as the Assakenoi and Astakanoi whom he describes as 'Indian' and occupying
22010-422: Was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. The Kidarites conquered Peshawar and parts of the northwest Indian subcontinent including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410 from Kushan empire, around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I . It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed
22165-419: Was an ancient Indo-Aryan civilization centred in present-day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan . The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar and Swat valleys extending as far east as the Pothohar Plateau in Punjab , though the cultural influence of Greater Gandhara extended westwards into the Kabul valley in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the Karakoram range. The region
22320-411: Was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara. Gandhara's first recorded culture was the Grave Culture that emerged c. 1200 BCE and lasted until 800 BCE, and named for their distinct funerary practices. It was found along the Middle Swat River course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to
22475-411: Was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The Mankiala stupa was also vandalized during their invasions. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara. During the reign of Mihirakula , over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular,
22630-423: Was determined by rank, where rājan (tribal king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the viś (the common people) in the middle, and the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda , but they are not associated with the term varna . The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of
22785-493: Was divided into four social groups— Brahmanas , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas and Shudras . The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with
22940-428: Was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with
23095-526: Was known as Gadāra ( 𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼 , also transliterated as Ga dāra since the nasal "n" before consonants were omitted in Old Persian). In Chinese , Gandhara was known as Jiāntuóluó, kɨɐndala, Jìbīn , and Kipin. In Greek , Gandhara was known as Paropamisadae One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandhaḥ ( गन्धः ), meaning "perfume" and "referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they (the inhabitants) traded and with which they anointed themselves". The Gandhari people are
23250-436: Was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares , which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. During the dominion of the Indo-Parthians , Apracharaja Sasan , as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of Aspavarma , emerged as
23405-412: Was patriarchal and patrilineal . Early Indo-Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab , organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. Around c. 1200 –1000 BCE the Aryan culture spread eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain. Iron tools were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of forests and the adoption of
23560-432: Was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhist stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built the 400-foot Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks Faxian , Song Yun , and Xuanzang who visited the country. The stupa was built during the Kushan era to house Buddhist relics and
23715-449: Was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic." Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to structure social relations. The period of
23870-412: Was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya (Gandhara and Vahika tribes) and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the Madra , Kekaya , Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with the Gandhara kingdom. The first mention of the Gandhārīs is attested once in the Ṛigveda as a tribe that has sheep with good wool. In
24025-475: Was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). The rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering ( bali ) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with
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