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94-551: The Volunteer Army Ammunition Plant (VAAP) operated as a TNT (trinitrotoluene) manufacturing facility from 1942 to 1977 and supported a fertilizer production facility from 1962 to 1982. The United States Army Corps of Engineers built the original facilities to supply ammunition for Allied Forces during World War II . Initial operation began in July 1942 with the Hercules Powder Company of Wilmington Delaware as

188-473: A carbon dioxide plant was constructed at the CFI Lease Area and an industrial waste water system was built to treat and recycle ammonium nitrate wastewater (IT Corp 1994; USATHAMA 1978). By January 1975, all batch process lines stopped and, in 1977, TNT production at VAAP ceased altogether and the plant was placed on inactive status (Army 2003a). A total of 1,765 million lbs of TNT were produced for

282-516: A decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm. However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used. Similarly

376-611: A glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide . Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released. At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide . Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide: Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: Carbon dioxide

470-624: A lease on the old administration buildings at VAAP, renovating the facilities for their central office. Additional efforts to restore the site for industrial used were made. In 2006 the Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) constructed an interchange on nearby Interstate 75 and a connector road into the park. In July 2008, Volkswagen announced plans to locate an assembly plant in the park. The plant began operations in April 2011. An additional 2,800 acres (11 km) of land on

564-491: A mature forest will produce as much CO 2 from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks , helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in

658-477: A molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum : the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm (wavelength 4.25 μm) and the degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so

752-485: A new contract with Atlas was entered into with the Army (SI 1994). On January 6, 1972, Atlas merged into ICI America Incorporated (ICIA), and is currently called ICI Americas, Inc. (Army 2003a; USATHAMA 1978). In 1961, the government leased the "CFI Lease Area," an area along the western border of VAAP, to CFI (Bonds 1985). Previously the area had been used for nitric and sulfuric acid production (Army 2003a). In 1962, CFI used

846-532: A pollutant whose removal is a priority. The USEPA maintains that TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 milligrams per kilogram of soil and 0.01 milligrams per litre of water. Dissolution is a measure of the rate that solid TNT in contact with water is dissolved. The relatively low aqueous solubility of TNT causes solid particles to be continuously released to the environment over extended periods of time. Studies have shown that TNT dissolves more slowly in saline water than in freshwater. However, when salinity

940-410: A possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating . Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with CO 2 to give carboxylates : In metal carbon dioxide complexes , CO 2 serves as a ligand , which can facilitate the conversion of CO 2 to other chemicals. The reduction of CO 2 to CO

1034-422: A pressure wave from a starter explosive, called an explosive booster . Although blocks of TNT are available in various sizes (e.g. 250 g, 500 g, 1,000 g), it is more commonly encountered in synergistic explosive blends comprising a variable percentage of TNT plus other ingredients. Examples of explosive blends containing TNT include: Upon detonation , TNT undergoes a decomposition equivalent to

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1128-416: A study on the effects of the concentration of CO 2 in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO 2 declined to safe levels (0.2%). Poor ventilation

1222-501: A very limited amount of mineralization of TNT in a liquid culture, though not in soil. An organism capable of the remediation of large amounts of TNT in soil has yet to be discovered. Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO 2 . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It

1316-469: Is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone , where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales. Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO 2 when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated CO 2 levels cause increased growth reflected in

1410-581: Is 14.5 GJ/t (14.5 MJ/kg or 4.027 kWh/kg), which requires that the carbon in TNT fully react with atmospheric oxygen, which does not occur in the initial event. For comparison, gunpowder contains 3 MJ/kg, dynamite contains 7.5 MJ/kg, and gasoline contains 47.2 MJ/kg (though gasoline requires an oxidant , so an optimized gasoline and O 2 mixture contains 10.4 MJ/kg). Various methods can be used to detect TNT, including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from

1504-419: Is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid. This form of glass, called carbonia , is produced by supercooling heated CO 2 at extreme pressures (40–48  GPa , or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil . This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in

1598-417: Is a chemical compound with the formula C 6 H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 CH 3 . TNT is occasionally used as a reagent in chemical synthesis , but it is best known as an explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard comparative convention of bombs and asteroid impacts. In chemistry , TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts . TNT

1692-453: Is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421  parts per million (ppm) , or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%. Burning fossil fuels is the main cause of these increased CO 2 concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change . Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in

1786-447: Is a weak acid , because its ionization in water is incomplete. The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C: Hence, the majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as CO 2 molecules, not affecting the pH. The relative concentrations of CO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , and the deprotonated forms HCO − 3 ( bicarbonate ) and CO 2− 3 ( carbonate ) depend on

1880-461: Is a function of their ability to associate with the mobile phase (water) and a stationary phase (soil). Materials that associate strongly with soils move slowly through soil. The association constant for TNT with soil is 2.7 to 11 L/kg of soil. This means that TNT has a one- to tenfold tendency to adhere to soil particulates than not when introduced into the soil. Hydrogen bonding and ion exchange are two suggested mechanisms of adsorption between

1974-475: Is a major process that impacts the transformation of energetic compounds. The alteration of a molecule in photolysis occurs by direct absorption of light energy or by the transfer of energy from a photosensitized compound. Phototransformation of TNT "results in the formation of nitrobenzenes , benzaldehydes , azodicarboxylic acids, and nitrophenols , as a result of the oxidation of methyl groups , reduction of nitro groups , and dimer formation." Evidence of

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2068-737: Is a reactive molecule and is particularly prone to react with reduced components of sediments or photodegradation in the presence of sunlight. TNT is thermodynamically and kinetically capable of reacting with a wide number of components of many environmental systems. This includes wholly abiotic reactants, like hydrogen sulfide , Fe , or microbial communities, both oxic and anoxic and photochemical degradation. Soils with high clay contents or small particle sizes and high total organic carbon content have been shown to promote TNT transformation. Possible TNT transformations include reduction of one, two, or three nitro-moieties to amines and coupling of amino transformation products to form dimers . Formation of

2162-510: Is altered, TNT dissolves at the same speed. Because TNT is moderately soluble in water, it can migrate through subsurface soil, and cause groundwater contamination. Adsorption is a measure of the distribution between soluble and sediment adsorbed contaminants following attainment of equilibrium. TNT and its transformation products are known to adsorb to surface soils and sediments, where they undergo reactive transformation or remained stored. The movement or organic contaminants through soils

2256-415: Is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism . This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates , the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians ) or the gills (e.g., fish ), from where it dissolves in

2350-414: Is called sublimation . The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3  pm , noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of a typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls . Since it is centrosymmetric,

2444-452: Is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds . However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO 2 are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates is used in CO 2 scrubbers and has been suggested as

2538-421: Is consumed by the manufacturing process, but the diluted sulfuric acid can be reconcentrated and reused. After nitration, TNT can either be purified by crystallization from an organic solvent or stabilized by a process called sulfitation, where the crude TNT is treated with aqueous sodium sulfite solution to remove less stable isomers of TNT and other undesired reaction products. The rinse water from sulfitation

2632-451: Is found in the gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric CO 2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation , acting as a greenhouse gas . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater , lakes , ice caps , and seawater . It

2726-423: Is generally saturated with the maximum amount of TNT that will dissolve in water (about 150 parts per million (ppm).) However it has an indefinite composition that depends on the exact process; in particular, it may also contain cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) if the plant uses TNT/RDX mixtures, or HMX if TNT/HMX is used. Red water (also known as "Sellite water") is produced during the process used to purify

2820-408: Is known as red water and is a significant pollutant and waste product of TNT manufacture. Control of nitrogen oxides in feed nitric acid is very important because free nitrogen dioxide can result in oxidation of the methyl group of toluene. This reaction is highly exothermic and carries with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion. In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene

2914-451: Is likely to be lower "than TNT in subsurface environments where specific adsorption to clay minerals dominates the sorption process." Thus, the mobility of TNT and its transformation products are dependent on the characteristics of the sorbent. The mobility of TNT in groundwater and soil has been extrapolated from "sorption and desorption isotherm models determined with humic acids , in aquifer sediments, and soils". From these models, it

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3008-515: Is listed as a possible human carcinogen , with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments with rats, although effects upon humans so far amount to none (according to IRIS of March 15, 2000). Consumption of TNT produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as sometimes believed. Some military testing grounds are contaminated with wastewater from munitions programs, including contamination of surface and subsurface waters which may be colored pink because of

3102-602: Is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm (wavelength 7.20 μm), with a Fermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm . In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and

3196-632: Is one of the main causes of excessive CO 2 concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poor indoor air quality . Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO 2 concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person. Higher CO 2 concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation. ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if

3290-403: Is one of the most commonly used explosives for military, industrial, and mining applications. TNT has been used in conjunction with hydraulic fracturing (popularly known as fracking), a process used to acquire oil and gas from shale formations. The technique involves displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore shots using pelletized TNT. TNT

3384-410: Is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction: The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode . The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process. Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria ) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from CO 2 absorbed from

3478-404: Is predicted that TNT has a low retention and transports readily in the environment. Compared to other explosives, TNT has a higher association constant with soil, meaning it adheres more with soil than with water. Conversely, other explosives, such as RDX and HMX with low association constants (ranging from 0.06 to 7.3 L/kg and 0 to 1.6 L/kg respectively) can move more rapidly in water. TNT

3572-405: Is produced as a by-product. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase , commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO 2 and ribulose bisphosphate , as shown in the diagram at left. RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth. Phototrophs use

3666-427: Is produced by a two-step process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature. The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid. TNT

3760-510: Is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery . Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. Carbon dioxide cannot be liquefied at atmospheric pressure. Low-temperature carbon dioxide is commercially used in its solid form, commonly known as " dry ice ". The solid-to-gas phase transition occurs at 194.7 Kelvin and

3854-425: Is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate ( HCO − 3 ), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric CO 2 levels increase. Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess CO 2 emissions to

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3948-604: Is so insensitive that in 1910 it was exempted from the UK's Explosives Act 1875 and was not considered an explosive for the purposes of manufacture and storage. The German armed forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells in 1902. TNT-filled armour-piercing shells would explode after they had penetrated the armour of British capital ships , whereas the British Lyddite -filled shells tended to explode upon striking armour, thus expending much of their energy outside

4042-400: Is used as a reference point for many other explosives, including nuclear weapons, as their energy content is measured in equivalent tonnes (metric tons, t) of TNT. The energy used by NIST to define the equivalent is 4.184 GJ /t. For safety assessments, it has been stated that the detonation of TNT, depending on circumstances, can release 2.673–6.702 GJ/t. The heat of combustion however

4136-454: Is usually considered more problematic, as TNT has very low soil mobility. Red water is significantly more toxic and as such it has always been considered hazardous waste. It has traditionally been disposed of by evaporation to dryness (as the toxic components are not volatile), followed by incineration. Much research has been conducted to develop better disposal processes. Because of its suitability in construction and demolition, TNT has become

4230-493: Is valued partly because of its insensitivity to shock and friction, with reduced risk of accidental detonation compared to more sensitive explosives such as nitroglycerin . TNT melts at 80 °C (176 °F), far below the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate, allowing it to be poured or safely combined with other explosives. TNT neither absorbs nor dissolves in water, which allows it to be used effectively in wet environments. To detonate, TNT must be triggered by

4324-543: The Indian Institutes of Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT at the sub- zeptomolar (10 mol/m ) level. TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color. During the First World War , female munition workers who handled the chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which resulted in their acquiring

4418-638: The Korean War , and operated by the Atlas Chemical Industries of Wilmington Delaware until 1957. Approximately 283 million lbs of TNT were produced for the Korean War (IT Corp 1994). During this period the first Army studies were undertaken to examine methods of pollution control but VAAP was put on standby status before pollution strategies could be implemented (IT Corp 1994). VAAP was on standby status from 1957 until 1965 when it

4512-509: The Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis , which produces oxygen as a waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and CO 2 is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration . CO 2

4606-425: The carbonate ion ( CO 2− 3 ): In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase . In addition to altering its acidity, the presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated,

4700-467: The pH . As shown in a Bjerrum plot , in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter. Being diprotic , carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants ,

4794-475: The steric hindrance of the NO 2 group in the ortho position . Research has shown that in freshwater environments, with high abundances of Ca , the adsorption of TNT and its transformation products to soils and sediments may be lower than observed in a saline environment, dominated by K and Na . Therefore, when considering the adsorption of TNT, the type of soil or sediment and the ionic composition and strength of

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4888-426: The (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved CO 2 is present as carbonic acid, so that Since most of the dissolved CO 2 remains as CO 2 molecules, K a1 (apparent) has a much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true K a1 . The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into

4982-515: The 1990s, VAAP operated the burning ground to treat materials contaminated with TNT or TNT waste materials generated while VAAP was operational (EPA 2003a; IT Corp 1994, Public Comment 2004b) On September 5, 1995, approximately $ 5 million was awarded to ICIA to reactivate and modify one of the TNT lines at VAAP for production of commercial TNT. The contract was awarded under the Armament Retooling and Manufacturing Support Act of 1992, and

5076-527: The 20th century amatol , a mixture of TNT with ammonium nitrate , was a widely used military explosive. TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by efficient concussion. For many years, TNT used to be the reference point for the Figure of Insensitivity . TNT had a rating of exactly 100 on the "F of I" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more sensitive explosive called RDX , which has an F of I rating of 80. The energy density of TNT

5170-452: The Army decreased the number of acres in the original CFI lease area and took over the operation of some of the acid production equipment to increase nitric acid production and sulfuric acid concentration capacity. Therefore, in 1966, CFI constructed a new acid plant adjacent to the ammonia plant, and operated the existing acid plant in the lease area for the Army (Bonds 1985; Army 2003a). In February 1969, as VAAP began to upgrade facilities,

5264-584: The Vietnam War (IT Corp 1994). CFI produced commercial ammonium nitrate at the CFI Lease Area until 1982. From 1982 to 1985 the CFI Lease Area was inactive, and the CFI facilities were ultimately dismantled for salvage between 1985 and 1986 (IT Corp 1994). The Army acid facilities in the southern area were dismantled during the 1950s and 1960s. The northern acid facilities were dismantled by approximately 1997 (Army 2003a, IT Corp 1995, Public Comment 2004b). During

5358-439: The air and water: Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure , the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m , about 1.53 times that of air . Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm ). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa),

5452-443: The atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks . These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the CO 2 being released back into the atmosphere. CO 2 is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal , petroleum and natural gas . Nearly all CO2 produced by humans goes into the atmosphere. Less than 1% of CO2 produced annually

5546-458: The batch processing lines began to decrease (Report 123, 1978; Army 2003a). From July 1971 to 1975, six new CIL continuous process lines were built in an area where four old batch process lines were previously razed (Army 2003a). Lines 1, 2, and 3 were modernized by May 1974, and a contract for modernizing Lines 4, 5, and 6 was awarded in June 1974. However, from November 1974 to March 1977, only one of

5640-484: The conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid), which

5734-869: The condition. There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO 2 exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO 2 exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period. At this CO 2 concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption. Studies in animals at 0.5% CO 2 have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure. A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000   ppm) CO 2 likely due to CO 2 induced increases in cerebral blood flow. Another study observed

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5828-405: The crude TNT. It has a complex composition containing more than a dozen aromatic compounds, but the principal components are inorganic salts ( sodium sulfate , sodium sulfite , sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate ) and sulfonated nitroaromatics . Pink and red water are colorless at the time of generation; the color is produced by photolytic reactions under the influence of sunlight. Despite

5922-566: The dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by CO 2 emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo . The Swahili term for this phenomenon is mazuku . Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO 2 occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance

6016-644: The east side of the park was opened to the public as the Enterprise South Nature Park. The park opened to the public in December 2010. The park is for passive uses, including bicycling and walking. The land where the nature park is located was originally used for storing explosives manufactured at the VAAP, and most of the storage bunkers still remain. On October 14, 2010 it was announced that CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway would again serve

6110-541: The effects of blood acidification ( acidosis ). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine ) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis , adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse

6204-427: The existing acid facilities and built an ammonia plant on the 824-acre lease area to produce ammonium nitrate fertilizer, urea, and related products (Army 2003a). In 1963 a urea plant was put into operation, thereby doubling CFI's production capacity (IT Corp 1994). In 1965, VAAP was reactivated and ten TNT batch process lines were used to produce TNT for the Vietnam War (IT Corp 1994). Additionally, upon reactivation,

6298-516: The exudated liquid into the fuze screw thread can form fire channels , increasing the risk of accidental detonation. Fuze malfunction can also result from the liquid migrating into the fuze mechanism. Calcium silicate is mixed with TNT to mitigate the tendency towards exudation. Pink water and red water are two distinct types of wastewater related to trinitrotoluene. Pink water is produced from equipment washing processes after munitions filling or demilitarization operations, and as such

6392-410: The first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ( HCO − 3 ): This is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as where the denominator includes only covalently bound H 2 CO 3 and does not include hydrated CO 2 (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10 (or pK a1 = 6.38) is an apparent value calculated on

6486-469: The gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice . Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point

6580-432: The ground water are important factors. The association constants for TNT and its degradation products with clays have been determined. Clay minerals have a significant effect on the adsorption of energetic compounds. Soil properties, such as organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity have significant impacts on the adsorption coefficients. Additional studies have shown that the mobility of TNT degradation products

6674-601: The harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO 2 in FACE experiments. Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency . Studies using FACE have shown that CO 2 enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain

6768-403: The molecule has no electric dipole moment . As a linear triatomic molecule, CO 2 has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate , meaning that they have the same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When

6862-546: The most widely used explosive and thus its toxicity is the most characterized and reported. Residual TNT from manufacture, storage, and use can pollute water, soil, the atmosphere , and the biosphere . The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50 g/kg of soil, where the highest concentrations can be found on or near the surface. In September 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) declared TNT

6956-520: The names, red and pink water are not necessarily different shades; the color depends mainly on the duration of solar exposure. If exposed long enough, "pink" water may turn various shades of pink, red, rusty orange, or black. Because of the toxicity of TNT, the discharge of pink water to the environment has been prohibited in the US and many other countries for decades, but ground contamination may exist in very old plants. However, RDX and tetryl contamination

7050-400: The nickname " canary girls " or simply "canaries". People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene. There is evidence that TNT adversely affects male fertility . TNT

7144-514: The nitro functional groups and soil colloids. The number of functional groups on TNT influences the ability to adsorb into soil. Adsorption coefficient values have been shown to increase with an increase in the number of amino groups. Thus, adsorption of the TNT decomposition product 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene (2,4-DANT) was greater than that for 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), which was greater than that for TNT. Lower adsorption coefficients for 2,6-DNT compared to 2,4-DNT can be attributed to

7238-419: The operating contractor. Sixteen TNT batch process lines and associated nitric and sulfuric acid facilities operated until August 1945. Approximately 823 million pounds of TNT were produced for WWII at VAAP (IT Corp 1994). From January 1946 to the spring of 1952, VAAP was officially on standby status and operated and maintained by the government (USATHAMA 1978; Army 2003). VAAP was reactivated in 1952 for

7332-455: The photolysis of TNT has been seen due to the color change to pink of TNT-containing wastewaters when exposed to sunlight. Photolysis is more rapid in river water than in distilled water. Ultimately, photolysis affects the fate of TNT primarily in the aquatic environment but could also affect the fate of TNT in soil when the soil surface is exposed to sunlight. The ligninolytic physiological phase and manganese peroxidase system of fungi can cause

7426-409: The presence of TNT. Such contamination, called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to remedy . TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene when projectiles containing TNT are stored at higher temperatures in warmer climates. Exudation of impurities leads to formation of pores and cracks (which in turn cause increased shock sensitivity). Migration of

7520-499: The presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. CO 2 levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without

7614-496: The products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides , nucleic acids , and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales. A globally significant species of coccolithophore

7708-542: The reaction plus some of the reactions and The reaction is exothermic but has a high activation energy in the gas phase (~62 kcal/mol). The condensed phases (solid or liquid) show markedly lower activation energies of roughly 35 kcal/mol due to unique bimolecular decomposition routes at elevated densities. Because of the production of carbon , TNT explosions have a sooty appearance. Because TNT has an excess of carbon, explosive mixtures with oxygen-rich compounds can yield more energy per kilogram than TNT alone. During

7802-420: The same amount of protein. The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO 2 . Plants also emit CO 2 during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis , are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO 2 each year,

7896-647: The ship. The British started replacing Lyddite with TNT in 1907. The United States Navy continued filling armour-piercing shells with explosive D after some other nations had switched to TNT, but began filling naval mines , bombs , depth charges , and torpedo warheads with burster charges of crude grade B TNT with the color of brown sugar and requiring an explosive booster charge of granular crystallized grade A TNT for detonation. High-explosive shells were filled with grade A TNT, which became preferred for other uses as industrial chemical capacity became available for removing xylene and similar hydrocarbons from

7990-1163: The site following the completion of a $ 6.6 million project to provide dual rail service to the Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant . The newly completed yard was dedicated on April 6, 2011. Work included "the biggest rail overhaul in and around the Volunteer Army Ammunition Plant since the tracks were laid during World War II." Direct switching activities for the site is handled by the Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum 's wholly owned subsidiary Tyner Terminal Railway Company, which transfers railcars to NS and CSX trains. 35°05′N 85°08′W  /  35.09°N 85.14°W  / 35.09; -85.14 Trinitrotoluene Trinitrotoluene ( / ˌ t r aɪ ˌ n aɪ t r oʊ ˈ t ɒ lj u iː n / ), more commonly known as TNT (and more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene , and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene ),

8084-533: The six Canadian Industries Limited (CIL) lines was operated because plant operations ceased before the other five became operational (IT Corp 1994; USATHAMA 1978). In June 1970, the Army began to build the New Acid Area. The area included a Direct Strong Nitric (DSN) Acid Facility , an Ammonia Oxidation Process (AOP) Nitric Acid Facility , and Sulfuric Acid Regeneration (SAR) Facilities (used for oleum production ) (IT Corp 1994; USATHAMA 1978). In 1972,

8178-518: The toluene feedstock and other nitrotoluene isomer byproducts from the nitrating reactions. In industry, TNT is produced in a three-step process. First, toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum . Nitric acid

8272-472: The two monoamino transformation products, 2-ADNT and 4-ADNT, is energetically favored, and therefore is observed in contaminated soils and ground water. The diamino products are energetically less favorable, and even less likely are the triamino products. The transformation of TNT is significantly enhanced under anaerobic conditions as well as under highly reducing conditions. TNT transformations in soils can occur both biologically and abiotically. Photolysis

8366-535: The upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location. In humans, exposure to CO 2 at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis . Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in

8460-458: The water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of C O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CO_{2}} } , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C. The temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without CO 2 saturation is comparably low in relation to these data. CO 2 is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that

8554-546: The water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration. Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose , thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen

8648-525: The work was to be complete by July 31, 1996 (DOD 1995). This work was never completed and the ICIA contract expired on December 31, 1998. Tecumseh Professional Associates became the new contracting operator, however, the project remained and remains inactive. In the 1990s, portions of the site began to be opened up to civilian purposes. Hickory Valley Road was constructed through the facility, connecting SR 58 with SR 317 . The Hamilton County Schools executed

8742-417: Was first synthesized in 1861 by German chemist Joseph Wilbrand and was originally used as a yellow dye. Its potential as an explosive was not recognized for three decades, mainly because it was so much less sensitive than other explosives known at the time. Its explosive properties were discovered in 1891 by another German chemist, Carl Häussermann. TNT can be safely poured when liquid into shell cases, and

8836-703: Was reactivated for the Vietnam War (Army 2003a; IT Corp 1994). Between the Korean and Vietnam Wars there was considerable residential development north of VAAP and adjacent to the Chickamauga Lake (IT Corp 1994). From March 1957 to December 1964 the plant was under the protective surveillance of Atlas Chemical Industries; and in December 1964 until September 1965 protective surveillance was passed onto Farmers Chemical Association Inc. (subsequently known as CF Industries , Incorporated [CFI]). In September 1965

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