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88-544: A number of unusual privileges attached to this family, including the right to burial within the city walls, and a special place for its members in the Circus Maximus , where the unique honour of a throne was granted them. The house built by Poplicola at the foot of the Velian Hill was the only one whose doors were permitted to open into the street. The historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr conjectured that, during

176-477: A triarius was a soldier of the third rank, the heavily armed reserve infantry, often consisting of older, wealthier men, and the last line of defense in battle. Catullus seems to be another orthography of Catulus , a surname of the Lutatia gens , referring to a whelp, cub, or puppy. The Valerii Catulli appear in the first century BC, beginning with the renowned poet, and their surname continued through

264-400: A Scotsman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite Titus Livius ". The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea , a bishop of the early Christian Church . One of his works

352-539: A basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the Aventine side; the emperor Tiberius compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In AD 64 , during Nero 's reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design. By

440-620: A book on geography and a daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician. Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. The tombstone of Livy and his wife might have been found in Padua. Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as History of Rome (or Ab Urbe Condita , 'From the Founding of the City';). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of

528-503: A century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus , Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius , whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such

616-400: A class of surnames referring to the character of the bearer. Derived from populus and colo , the name might best be explained as "one who courts the people." The cognomen first appears in history as the surname given to Publius Valerius, one of the consuls chosen in 509 BC to serve alongside Lucius Junius Brutus . Despite his patrician background, he made a considerable effort to win

704-442: A common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius , who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood. Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome . In it he narrates

792-502: A complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve

880-492: A dividing barrier. The games' sponsor (Latin editor) usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand ( pulvinar ) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the Republican era ) the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants were granted rights to a curule chair at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for

968-631: A family of the Valerii that was prominent for about a century, beginning with the Pyrrhic War , in 280 BC. This family may have been another offshoot of the Valerii Maximi, as the surname first appears in connection with the trial of Spurius Cassius Vecellinus in 485 BC. They continued long after they had ceased to have any importance in the Roman state, and the family is mentioned as late as

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1056-499: A further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in Diocletian 's reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people. The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess Murcia , an obscure deity associated with Venus ,

1144-417: A giant Gaul in 349 BC. Corvus defeated his adversary with the help of a raven that repeatedly flew in the barbarian's face. He held the consulship six times, was dictator twice, and reached the age of one hundred. The two forms of this surname are interchangeable, but the hero is usually referred to as Corvus , while Corvinus generally refers to his descendants. Another branch of the Valerii Maximi bore

1232-421: A god of grain storage and patron of the Circus. After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried six meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was "replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy." In

1320-488: A new Egyptian Province. The pulvinar was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple ( aedes ) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as "one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome", with "entrances and ascents for

1408-473: A panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius 's reign certainly allow for speculation. During the Middle Ages , due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which

1496-416: A result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad , 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By

1584-653: A search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli 's work on republics , the Discourses on Livy , is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome . Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that

1672-600: A specially built stage. With the advent of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, ludi gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by Totila in 549. The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia ( Vallis Murcia ) , between Rome's Aventine and Palatine Hills . In Rome's early days,

1760-478: A temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed "63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier. As Rome's provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By

1848-416: Is another form of Falco , referring to a falcon, and was commonly given to someone with inward-pointing toes, resembling talons. The plebeian Valerii Triarii belong to the time of Cicero, in the first century BC. None of them rose higher than the rank of praetor , and the family was of brief duration. Their surname, Triarius , seems to allude to their military service; in the Roman army of this period,

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1936-533: Is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000; Pliny the Elder 's estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31 BC, either during or after construction. The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and pulvinar at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed,

2024-560: Is unknown. Asiaticus , the surname of the only major family of the Valerian gens to emerge in imperial times, belongs to a class of cognomina typically derived from the locations of military exploits. In this instance the source of the name is not apparent, although it might allude to some connection with the Cornelii Scipiones; Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus was the younger brother of Scipio Africanus , and his surname

2112-656: The Chronographia , a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones , tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon , probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon. The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for

2200-621: The Consualia festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then abducted the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous Roman myth of the Rape of the Sabine women had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia. In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at

2288-748: The First Punic War , after which time the surname was replaced by Messalla or Messala , a cognomen derived from the city of Messana in Sicilia . The first to bear this name received it after relieving Messana from a Carthaginian blockade in 264 BC. The Valerii Messallae held numerous consulships and other high offices in the Roman state, remaining prominent well into imperial times. Some of them had additional surnames, including Barbatus , "bearded", as well as Niger and Rufus , originally referring to someone with black or red hair. The names Valerius Maximus and Valerius Messalla occur as late as

2376-478: The Roman army . However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation , then

2464-610: The Second Punic War . When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields. History of Rome also served as

2552-640: The altar of Consus , as one of the Circus' patron deities , was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the spina or euripus ) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as Vallis Murcia . The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance; Castor and Pollux , who were born from an egg , were patrons of horses, horsemen, and

2640-533: The equestrian order (equites) . Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and Neptune , as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian Great Mother as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on

2728-464: The late Republic , ludi were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby Forum Boarium , just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held,

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2816-483: The myrtle shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post, where there was an underground shrine to Consus , a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess Ceres and to the underworld . According to Roman tradition, Romulus discovered this shrine shortly after the founding of Rome . He invented

2904-402: The 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a market garden . During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by Pope Sixtus V , and one of these

2992-404: The Circus at the time of Catullus (mid-1st century BC) was probably "a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area" frequented by "prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists". Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as obligations of their office and cult . Over

3080-601: The Circus began with a flamboyant parade ( pompa circensis ) , much like the triumphal procession , which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants. During the Roman Republic , the aediles organized the games. The most costly and complex of the ludi offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for higher office . Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, "flute players, scenic artists and dancers" performed on

3168-490: The Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under Caracalla , and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained

3256-540: The Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and Hercules ' Ara Maxima , supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman Neptune 's Greek equivalent, Poseidon , in Greek hippodromes . In later developments,

3344-728: The Valerii bore the surnames Poplicola, Potitus , and Maximus , with Volusus being used by the first generations of the Potiti and Maximi . Later families bore various cognomina , including Corvus or Corvinus, Falto, Flaccus, Laevinus, Messalla, Tappo , and Triarius . Most other surnames found in Republican times belonged to freedmen or clientes of the Valerii. The surnames Acisculus, Catullus, Flaccus , and Barbatus appear on coins. A few Valerii are known without any cognomina, but they achieved little of significance. Poplicola , also found as Publicola and Poplicula , belongs to

3432-614: The brother of Poplicola, who fell in battle at Lake Regillus . The surname Potitus seems to be derived from potio , to place someone under one's power, and might be translated as "leader". This family flourished from the early years of the Republic down to the Samnite Wars, when the cognomen seems to have been replaced by Flaccus , a surname first borne by one of the Potiti, who must have been flabby or had floppy ears. Potitus

3520-436: The central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot ( biga ); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which

3608-461: The centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the Colosseum had been built for most of the city's gladiator shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed Stadium of Domitian , though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of

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3696-538: The city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world . The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio , tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) , the leader of one of the warring factions during Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC). The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe

3784-586: The dividing barrier. Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of Stoic and solar monism as a theological basis for the Roman Imperial cult . In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred obelisk towered over the arena, set in

3872-534: The driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this

3960-431: The earliest historically attested "Roman Games" ( Ludi Romani ) held at the Circus in honour of Jupiter in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes the opening of Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as

4048-621: The earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia . Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator fights. Some included public executions. The greater ludi (meaning sport or game in Latin ) at

4136-483: The end of the first century AD. The Valerii Faltones flourished at the end of the third century BC, first appearing at the end of the First Punic War. Their relationship to the other Valerii is not immediately apparent, as none of the older stirpes of the gens used the praenomen Quintus , but they may have been a cadet branch of the Valerii Maximi, whose surname disappears around this time. The surname Falto

4224-668: The family also used Gaius , while the Valerii Faltones employed Quintus , and the Valerii Asiatici of imperial times used Decimus . Other names are seldom found among the Valerii, although in one instance Potitus , an ancient surname of the gens, was revived as a praenomen by the Valerii Messallae during the first century. Examples of Aulus , Numerius , Sextus , Tiberius , and Titus are found in inscriptions. The oldest branches of

4312-484: The first Etruscan king of Rome , Lucius Tarquinius Priscus , built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the equites and patricians ), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson, Tarquinius Superbus , added the first seating for citizen-commoners ( plebs , or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of

4400-540: The first century of the Empire. One of the Catulli bore the additional surname of Messalinus , previously associated with the Valerii Messallae, but it is unclear whether the Catulli were descended from the Messallae, or whether the surname entered the family at a later time. The pairing of Catullus Messalinus was also borne by one of the Valerii Asiatici, but again the nature of the relationship between these families

4488-399: The founding of the city. However, their nomen , Valerius , is a patronymic surname derived from the Latin praenomen Volesus or Volusus , which in turn is derived from valere , to be strong. Volesus , or Volesus Valerius, the eponymous ancestor of the gens, is said to have been a powerful warrior in the retinue of the Sabine king. Several generations later, another Volesus Valerius

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4576-721: The future emperor Claudius , he encouraged to take up the writing of history. Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy , now modern Padua , probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar . In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and

4664-413: The late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and

4752-508: The memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true. Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero . One of his sons wrote

4840-407: The obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from Heliopolis at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a lasting peace and

4928-667: The recovery of casualties during races. In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring Titus at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor Domitian built a new, multi-storey palace on the Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination. The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted Trajan 's decision to rebuild

5016-506: The reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic , such as Pompey . Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar , had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus . Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus , writing about

5104-475: The result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars. Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in

5192-431: The rights of the plebeians were sponsored by the Valerii. As with many other ancient patrician houses, the family also acquired plebeian branches, which must have been descended either from freedmen of the Valerii, or from members of the family who, for one reason or another, had gone over to the plebeians. According to tradition, the Valerii were of Sabine descent, having come to Rome with Titus Tatius , shortly after

5280-590: The same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius . The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As

5368-466: The scale, depth and waterlogging of the site. The Circus site now functions as a large park area, open to the public and often used for concerts, meetings, and celebrations. [REDACTED] Media related to Circus Maximus at Wikimedia Commons Livy Titus Livius ( Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs] ; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( / ˈ l ɪ v i / LIV -ee ),

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5456-416: The sky. Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to Ceres and Flora stood close together on the Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to Luna , the moon goddess. Aventine temples to Venus Obsequens , Mercury and Dis (or perhaps Summanus ) stood on

5544-613: The slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate . It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece , which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been

5632-489: The slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to Magna Mater and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god Apollo . Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the Cerealia , the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than

5720-430: The spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience." The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until Claudius made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in

5808-415: The support of the plebeians, averting a breach between the two orders at the inception of the Republic. Poplicola seems to have been the original form, while in inscriptions Publicola is more common, and Poplicula is occasionally found. Publicola is found in literary sources from the end of the Republic, including Livy and Cicero . The Valerii Potiti were descended from Marcus Valerius Volusus ,

5896-488: The surname Lactucinus , derived from Lactuca , lettuce, the cognomen of an early member of the family. Such names, referring to objects, were quite common at Rome. The first of this family was a son of the first Valerius Maximus, but the surname was of brief duration; the last mention of the Valerii Lactucinae is early in the fourth century BC. The cognomen Laevinus , meaning "left-handed", belonged to

5984-482: The third century, but the consular family of that age may have been descended from the Valerii through the female line, and more properly belonged to the Vipstani . The branch of the Valerii Maximi that gave rise to the Messallae also bore the surname Corvinus , a diminutive of Corvus , a raven. The first of this family was Marcus Valerius Corvus , who in his youth earned everlasting renown for his combat against

6072-417: The thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190s BC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators. Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots ( Quadrigas ) abreast but when team-racing

6160-470: The track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside cavea . Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for equites . The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats

6248-418: The track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts ( metae ), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as

6336-461: The transition from the monarchy to the Republic, the Valerii were entitled to exercise royal power on behalf of the Titienses, one of the three Romulean tribes that made up the Roman people. Although one of the most noble and illustrious families of the Roman aristocracy, from the very beginning the Valerii were notable for their advocacy of plebeian causes, and many important laws protecting

6424-524: The valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire . It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park . The Circus

6512-467: The valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river Tiber and the stream which divided the valley lengthwise. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, "with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some shrines and sacred spots". In Livy 's History of Rome ,

6600-406: The year were devoted to ludi . Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale and was the most popular venue for large-scale venationes ; in the late 3rd century, the emperor Probus laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on

6688-416: Was Rome's largest venue for ludi , public games connected to Roman religious festivals . Ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people ( populus Romanus ) and gods . Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the Roman calendar . Others might be given to fulfil a religious vow , such as the games in celebration of a triumph . In Roman tradition,

6776-601: Was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab Urbe Condita , ''From the Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus , whose young grandnephew,

6864-597: Was a summary of world history in ancient Greek , termed the Chronikon , dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome . The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist. Eusebius ' work consists of two books:

6952-463: Was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier (euripus) for maximum visibility. Julius Caesar 's development of the Circus, commencing around 50 BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 150 m (490 ft) in breadth. A canal between

7040-634: Was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by herms that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight, four-horse or two-horse chariots could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174 BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33 BC, an additional system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters

7128-509: Was later revived as a praenomen by the Valerii Messallae, a practice that was common in aristocratic families toward the end of the Republic. As a distinct family, the Valerii Flacci continued down to the first century AD. Maximus , the superlative of magnus , "great", was the cognomen of the Valerii descended from the third brother, Manius Valerius Volusus , who first bore the surname. The Valerii Maximi appear in history down to

7216-533: Was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti. Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity

7304-469: Was passed down in his family for several generations. The Valerii Asiatici were closely connected with the imperial family from the time of Caligula to that of Hadrian , and accounted for several consulships. Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus ( Latin for "largest circus"; Italian : Circo Massimo ) is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome , Italy. In

7392-517: Was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the Great Fire of 64 AD and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of Diana , who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with Sol Indiges , usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to

7480-589: Was re-sited at the Piazza del Popolo . In 1852, a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid-19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by

7568-503: Was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor , Cassiodorus , Eutropius , Festus , Florus , Granius Licinianus and Orosius . Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis , an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. Livy wrote during

7656-511: Was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio . Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched

7744-401: Was the father of Publius, Marcus, and Manius, three brothers from whom the oldest branches of the family claimed descent. The earliest of the Valerii known to history bore the praenomen Volesus , which continued to enjoy occasional use among the Valerii of the early Republic. However, most stirpes of the Valerii favoured Publius , Marcus , Manius , and Lucius . Several branches of

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