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130-662: Valledupar is an important agricultural, cattle raising , coal mining and agro-industrial center for the region between the Departments of Cesar and southern municipalities of La Guajira Department , formerly known as the Padilla Province . Valledupar is notable as the cradle of vallenato music, representative of the Colombian culture. The city hosts the Vallenato Legend Festival . During

260-411: A Rancho or Estancia as "a unit of land which comprises a Hacienda, where cattle and horses are raised, and which is in the care of a Caporal who is the captain of the other cowboys." Niceto de Zamacois , in his book "Historia de Méjico" (1879), defined terms as follows: "...the men of the countryside who carry out their jobs on horseback are given the name of "Rancheros," derived from the word Rancho that

390-546: A circle; a mess hall. “Rancho” in Spain is also the: “food prepared for several people who eat in a circle and from the same pot.” It was also defined as a family reunion to talk any particular business. While “ranchero” is defined as the: “steward of a mess”, the steward in charge of preparing the food for the “rancho” or mess-hall. In South America, specifically in Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Brasil, Bolivia and Paraguay,

520-568: A cooler West Pacific and a warmer East Pacific, leading to a shift of cloudiness and rainfall towards the East Pacific. This situation is called El Niño. The opposite occurs if trade winds are stronger than average, leading to a warmer West Pacific and a cooler East Pacific. This situation is called La Niña and is associated with increased cloudiness and rainfall over the West Pacific. The close relationship between ocean temperatures and

650-602: A decrease in the strength of the Pacific trade winds , and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. La Niña episodes are defined as sustained cooling of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in an increase in the strength of the Pacific trade winds , and the opposite effects in Australia when compared to El Niño. Although the Southern Oscillation Index has

780-551: A farm (occasionally also ranch) in South African English and plaas in Afrikaans . La Ni%C3%B1a El Niño–Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variations in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical Pacific Ocean . Those variations have an irregular pattern but do have some semblance of cycles. The occurrence of ENSO is not predictable. It affects

910-408: A few agricultural products and derivates from cattle . Terrorist groups are still present and affect the local economy; The FARC , ELN and former AUC , mostly financed by the illegal drug trade . Other mafia-style groups BACRIMs have flourished in the region, shifting from illegal drug production to illegal trafficking of fuel from Venezuela as well as other products. These groups contribute to

1040-538: A few struggling smaller operations have added some dude ranch features such as horseback rides, cattle drives, and guided hunting to bring in additional income. Ranching is part of the iconography of the " Wild West " as seen in Western movies and rodeos . The term ranch comes from the Spanish term rancho , itself from the term rancharse , which means “to get ready, to settle in a place, to pitch camp”, itself from

1170-489: A larger EP ENSO occurrence, or even displaying opposite conditions from the observed ones in the other Niño regions when accompanied by Modoki variations. ENSO Costero events usually present more localized effects, with warm phases leading to increased rainfall over the coast of Ecuador, northern Peru and the Amazon rainforest , and increased temperatures over the northern Chilean coast, and cold phases leading to droughts on

1300-553: A long station record going back to the 1800s, its reliability is limited due to the latitudes of both Darwin and Tahiti being well south of the Equator, so that the surface air pressure at both locations is less directly related to ENSO. To overcome this effect, a new index was created, named the Equatorial Southern Oscillation Index (EQSOI). To generate this index, two new regions, centered on

1430-411: A negative SSH anomaly (lowered sea level) via contraction. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that quasi-periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases which require certain changes to take place in both the ocean and the atmosphere before an event is declared. The cool phase of ENSO is La Niña, with SST in

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1560-589: A number of terms, including cowhand , ranch hand, and cowboy . People exclusively involved with handling horses are sometimes called wranglers . Ranching and the cowboy tradition originated in Spain , out of the necessity to handle large herds of grazing animals on dry land from horseback. During the Reconquista , members of the Spanish nobility and various military orders received large land grants that

1690-459: A pasturing land or agricultural settlement where cattle are raised. Originally used to refer to a hamlet or village where cattle is raised and where the land is sowed; and to a small independent cattle farm, or to a cattle station, an area of land for cattle raising, that is dependent of a hacienda , a large cattle estate. In Spain it retained its military origin, being defined as: the group of people, typically soldiers, who eat together in

1820-592: A persecution of UP's leaders and followers. Many of Palmera's followers went into exile in Europe. He escaped into the mountains, taking refuge with the armed branch of the UP; the FARC . Palmera became a guerrilla leader; as a banker, he knew who in the city and region were wealthy. He began kidnapping (and sometimes killing) prominent political leaders, journalists and rich land owners (including members of his own family), using

1950-517: A quarter of the planet, and particularly in the form of temperature at the ocean surface, can have a significant effect on weather across the entire planet. Tropical instability waves visible on sea surface temperature maps, showing a tongue of colder water, are often present during neutral or La Niña conditions. La Niña is a complex weather pattern that occurs every few years, often persisting for longer than five months. El Niño and La Niña can be indicators of weather changes across

2080-425: A secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the far eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak. An especially strong Walker circulation causes La Niña, which is considered to be the cold oceanic and positive atmospheric phase of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather phenomenon, as well as the opposite of El Niño weather pattern, where sea surface temperature across

2210-616: A settlement originated. For example, many of the traditions of the Jalisco charros in central Mexico come from the Salamanca charros of Castile. The vaquero tradition of Northern Mexico was more organic, developed to adapt to the characteristics of the region from Spanish sources by cultural interaction between the Spanish elites and the native and mestizo peoples. Cattle ranching flourished in Spanish Florida during

2340-473: A steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or ox ) and taken to fenced-in areas. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha's son Liholiho ( Kamehameha II ). When Liholiho's brother, Kauikeaouli ( Kamehameha III ), visited California , then still a part of Mexico , he was impressed with the skill of the Mexican vaqueros . In 1832, he invited several to Hawaii to teach

2470-558: A three-year term in office, and are in charge of local government issues. The mayor's powers are highly dependent on the budgets assigned by the Departmental government in order to execute plans. Many local government leaders have been involved in corruption cases, investigated and sometimes incarcerated. The government bureaucracy is highly politicized, with the execution of some plans dependent on political interests and winning advantages over political adversaries. The local judiciary

2600-411: Is also vulnerable to corruption, as well as being a target of terrorists and guerrillas. See more: Political System of Colombia In Valledupar 84% of the total population lives in the urban areas of the municipality with a density of approximately 68,4 inhabitants per km² (1) . The city of Valledupar is made up 6 comunas subdivided into 138 barrios and Districts. The Municipality of Valledupar

2730-426: Is an employee of the actual owner, the term foreman or ranch foreman is used. A rancher who primarily raises young stock sometimes is called a cow-calf operator or a cow-calf man . This person is usually the owner, though in some cases, particularly where there is absentee ownership, it is the ranch manager or ranch foreman. The people who are employees of the rancher and involved in handling livestock are called

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2860-603: Is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western Pacific Ocean waters. The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference between Tahiti (in the Pacific) and Darwin, Australia (on the Indian Ocean). El Niño episodes have negative SOI, meaning there

2990-531: Is applied to a small hacienda, or to a part of a large one that is divided into racherias or ranchos. Those who carry out the same tasks in the haciedas of Veracruz are given the name of "Jarochos." Thus the term Rancho in Mexican Spanish became a unit of land that makes up a hacienda where cattle is raised and where people live in farmhouses. The people that live and work in those Ranchos managing cattle and horses are called Rancheros. As settlers from

3120-403: Is based primarily on commerce, retail and banking in the urban area, mainly in the service industry and tourism during the four-day Vallenato Legend Festival . The city also serves as a business hub for the two nearby coal mines, Cerrejon (La Guajira) and Drummond (Cesar). The region's economy also relies on the primary sector; Agriculture and cattle raising which are the historical backbone of

3250-518: Is divided into six different geographic zones integrated by subdivisions called Corregimientos (25), and subdivisions to this called Veredas (125) and considered rural areas of the city of Valledupar: Corregimientos: Corregimientos: Corregimientos: Corregimientos: Corregimientos: Corregimientos: Education in Colombia is centralized under the Ministry of National Education according to

3380-405: Is known as Ekman transport . Colder water from deeper in the ocean rises along the continental margin to replace the near-surface water. This process cools the East Pacific because the thermocline is closer to the ocean surface, leaving relatively little separation between the deeper cold water and the ocean surface. Additionally, the northward-flowing Humboldt Current carries colder water from

3510-520: Is longer, it is classified as an El Niño "episode". It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events between 1900 and 2024, with the 1982–83 , 1997–98 and 2014–16 events among the strongest on record. Since 2000, El Niño events have been observed in 2002–03, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2014–16 , 2018–19, and 2023–24 . Major ENSO events were recorded in the years 1790–93, 1828, 1876–78, 1891, 1925–26, 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98, 2014–16, and 2023–24. During strong El Niño episodes,

3640-561: Is lower pressure over Tahiti and higher pressure in Darwin. La Niña episodes on the other hand have positive SOI, meaning there is higher pressure in Tahiti and lower in Darwin. Low atmospheric pressure tends to occur over warm water and high pressure occurs over cold water, in part because of deep convection over the warm water. El Niño episodes are defined as sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in

3770-573: Is played with accordion , a small drum ( caja ) and a scraping instrument ( guacharaca ). Since 1968 at the end of April, the city has held an annual four-day festival, the Vallenato Legend Festival . The Department of Cesar's government and Chamber of Deputies offices are based in Valledupar as well as other Department level entities. At City level, the Mayor of the City and the City counselors have

3900-713: Is ranked among the 'lowest quality' in Colombia. Technicals schools also operate in Valedupar, most notably the state owned, SENA. Overall Educational Statistics Three groups of Amerindians , part of the Tairona culture, are based near this region inside Indian reserves, all named for the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta: the Arhuaco Reserve (pop. 18,500); the Kankuamo Reserve (pop. 12,000) and

4030-723: Is the Popular University of Cesar (Universidad Popular del Cesar) state owned, which has two campuses in the city. Other privately own universities operate in the city, such as the Universidad de Santander (University of Santander, UDES) and the Universidad del Area Andina (University of the Andean Area, AREANDINA). According to the Colombian Ministry of Education 2013 ECAES scores, higher education in Cesar

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4160-522: Is the Bjerknes feedback (named after Jacob Bjerknes in 1969) in which the atmospheric changes alter the sea temperatures that in turn alter the atmospheric winds in a positive feedback. Weaker easterly trade winds result in a surge of warm surface waters to the east and reduced ocean upwelling on the equator . In turn, this leads to warmer sea surface temperatures (called El Niño), a weaker Walker circulation (an east-west overturning circulation in

4290-406: Is typically around 0.5 m (1.5 ft) higher than near Peru because of the buildup of water in the West Pacific. The thermocline , or the transitional zone between the warmer waters near the ocean surface and the cooler waters of the deep ocean , is pushed downwards in the West Pacific due to this water accumulation. The total weight of a column of ocean water is almost the same in

4420-554: The Cabildo of the Valle de Upar rebelled against the Spanish monarchy, protesting against Mayor Colonel Marques de Valde-Hoyos. The mayor fled to neighboring San Juan del Cesar , leaving in charge V. Ruiz de Gomez. In 1813 independence from Spain was proclaimed by María Concepción Loperena de Fernandez de Castro, a wealthy land owner who helped supply three hundred horses to El Libertador Simón Bolívar 's revolutionary army. In 1850,

4550-534: The Conquistadors came to the Americas in the 16th century, followed by settlers, they brought their cattle and cattle-raising techniques with them. Huge land grants by the Spanish (and later Mexican) government, part of the hacienda system, allowed large numbers of animals to roam freely over vast areas. A number of different traditions developed, often related to the original location in Spain from which

4680-539: The Homestead Act of 1862, more settlers came west to set up farms . This created some conflict, as increasing numbers of farmers needed to fence off fields to prevent cattle and sheep from eating their crops. Barbed wire , invented in 1874, gradually made inroads in fencing off privately owned land, especially for homesteads. There was some reduction of land on the Great Plains open to grazing. The end of

4810-595: The Indian Ocean to the Atlantic . La Niña has roughly the reverse pattern: high pressure over the central and eastern Pacific and lower pressure through much of the rest of the tropics and subtropics. The two phenomena last a year or so each and typically occur every two to seven years with varying intensity, with neutral periods of lower intensity interspersed. El Niño events can be more intense but La Niña events may repeat and last longer. A key mechanism of ENSO

4940-528: The International Date Line and 120°W ), including the area off the west coast of South America , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all offshore. This warming causes a shift in the atmospheric circulation, leading to higher air pressure in the western Pacific and lower in the eastern Pacific, with rainfall reducing over Indonesia, India and northern Australia, while rainfall and tropical cyclone formation increases over

5070-569: The Kingdom of Castile had conquered from the Moors . These landowners were to defend the lands put into their control and could use them for earning revenue. In the process it was found that open-range breeding of sheep and cattle (under the Mesta system) was the most suitable use for vast tracts, particularly in the parts of Spain now known as Castilla-La Mancha , Extremadura and Andalusia . When

5200-517: The Kogi - Wiwa Reserve (pop. 4,500). The Amerindian cultures have contributed traditional arts and crafts, as well as many crop management. Africans contributed to the food, religion and music and Europeans contributed to architecture, growth of the Catholic religion and other aspects, especially that of the Spanish colonial period. The Vallenato music has been a creole fusion of these three cultures;

5330-681: The Revolutionary War , and three or four drives in the late 1930s, when area cattle were herded down Montauk Highway to pasture ground near Deep Hollow Ranch. The prairie and desert lands of what today is Mexico and the western United States were well-suited to " open range " grazing. For example, American bison had been a mainstay of the diet for the Native Americans in the Great Plains for centuries. Likewise, cattle and other livestock were simply turned loose in

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5460-599: The Southern Ocean to the tropics in the East Pacific . The combination of the Humboldt Current and upwelling maintains an area of cooler ocean waters off the coast of Peru. The West Pacific lacks a cold ocean current and has less upwelling as the trade winds are usually weaker than in the East Pacific, allowing the West Pacific to reach warmer temperatures. These warmer waters provide energy for

5590-567: The United States moved west, they brought cattle breeds developed on the east coast and in Europe along with them, and adapted their management to the drier lands of the west by borrowing key elements of the Spanish vaquero culture. However, there were cattle on the eastern seaboard. Deep Hollow Ranch , 110 miles (180 km) east of New York City in Montauk, New York , claims to be

5720-471: The Western United States and Western Canada , though there are ranches in other areas. People who own or operate a ranch are called ranchers , cattlemen , or stockgrowers . Ranching is also a method used to raise less common livestock such as horses , elk , American bison , ostrich , emu , and alpaca . Ranches generally consist of large areas, but may be of nearly any size. In

5850-524: The illicit drugs industry in the region. They cultivate great quantities of opium poppies and marihuana around the area. Ranching A ranch (from Spanish : rancho / Mexican Spanish ) is an area of land , including various structures, given primarily to ranching , the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle and sheep . It is a subtype of farm . These terms are most often applied to livestock-raising operations in Mexico ,

5980-478: The upward movement of air . As a result, the warm West Pacific has on average more cloudiness and rainfall than the cool East Pacific. ENSO describes a quasi-periodic change of both oceanic and atmospheric conditions over the tropical Pacific Ocean. These changes affect weather patterns across much of the Earth. The tropical Pacific is said to be in one of three states of ENSO (also called "phases") depending on

6110-591: The 17th century. The word "Rancho" in Mexico developed different definitions from what it originally meant in Spain. In the book "Descripción de la Diócesis de Guadalajara de Indias" (1770), Mateo José de Arteaga defined "Ranchos" as "extensions of land where few people live with few assets and sheltering in huts." In 1778, José Alejandro Patiño , in his text "Topografía del Curato de Tlaxomulco," defined Ranchos as "In these Indian kingdoms, Ranchos are country houses of little pomp and value, where men of average means and

6240-458: The 1840s, and expansion both north and west from that time, through the Civil War and into the 1880s, ranching dominated western economic activity. Along with ranchers came the need for agricultural crops to feed both humans and livestock, and hence many farmers also came west along with ranchers. Many operations were "diversified", with both ranching and farming activities taking place. With

6370-470: The 1970s, especially in cotton production, which local people called "white gold". Valledupar ranked second overall in economic profits for Colombia during this time. Urban growth and social change accompanied prosperity and the city developed its cultural identity throughout these years. The revival of the Vallenato music strongly symbolizes the culture of Colombia. A period of violence erupted during

6500-557: The 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s, the city suffered during the Colombian Armed Conflict , with numerous kidnappings, thousands of people forced out and failure to control crime. Valledupar has one of Colombia 's most modern maximum security prisons. Valledupar is located southeast of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta . Its average temperature is 28 °C . Because of its relatively high altitude and proximity to

6630-650: The American government so that they could keep better control of the pasture land available to their own animals. Ranching in Hawaii developed independently of that in the continental United States. In colonial times, Capt. George Vancouver gave several head of cattle to the Hawaiian king, Pai`ea Kamehameha , monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, and by the early 19th century, they had multiplied considerably, to

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6760-569: The Bjerknes feedback naturally triggers negative feedbacks that end and reverse the abnormal state of the tropical Pacific. This perspective implies that the processes that lead to El Niño and La Niña also eventually bring about their end, making ENSO a self-sustaining process. Other theories view the state of ENSO as being changed by irregular and external phenomena such as the Madden–Julian oscillation , tropical instability waves , and westerly wind bursts . The three phases of ENSO relate to

6890-482: The Coastal Niño Index (ICEN), strong El Niño Costero events include 1957, 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16, and La Niña Costera ones include 1950, 1954–56, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1967–68, 1970–71, 1975–76 and 2013. Currently, each country has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño event, which is tailored to their specific interests, for example: In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of

7020-639: The Colombian military, some prominent leaders of Valledupar, landowners and those victims of these organizations decided to become part or promote, self-defense forces that later on affiliated with the AUC and assigned another "Vallenatean" as leader Rodrigo Tovar Pupo a.k.a. Jorge 40 . The self-defense forces adopted methods like the guerrilla, including illegal drug trafficking to finance their operations. They used terrorism tactics that also affected innocent people, such as selective and random kidnappings, and combinations of racketeering and selective assassinations –

7150-692: The Constitution. The ministry also approves the functioning of private or state owned educational institutions. The largest Middle/High school in Valledupar is the Colegio Nacional Loperena (Loperena National School). The high school institutions with the highest academic level in the city are the Fundación Colegio Bilingüe de Valledupar, Colegio La Sagrada Familia, Colegio Gimnasio del Norte , Colegio San Fernando and Colegio Santa Fe . The largest university

7280-621: The EP and CP types, and some scientists argue that ENSO exists as a continuum, often with hybrid types. The effects of the CP ENSO are different from those of the EP ENSO. The El Niño Modoki is associated with more hurricanes more frequently making landfall in the Atlantic. La Niña Modoki leads to a rainfall increase over northwestern Australia and northern Murray–Darling basin , rather than over

7410-497: The El Niño state. This process is known as Bjerknes feedback . Although these associated changes in the ocean and atmosphere often occur together, the state of the atmosphere may resemble a different ENSO phase than the state of the ocean or vice versa. Because their states are closely linked, the variations of ENSO may arise from changes in both the ocean and atmosphere and not necessarily from an initial change of exclusively one or

7540-496: The El Niños of 2006-07 and 2014-16 were also Central Pacific El Niños. Recent years when La Niña Modoki events occurred include 1973–1974, 1975–1976, 1983–1984, 1988–1989, 1998–1999, 2000–2001, 2008–2009, 2010–2011, and 2016–2017. The recent discovery of ENSO Modoki has some scientists believing it to be linked to global warming. However, comprehensive satellite data go back only to 1979. More research must be done to find

7670-555: The Equator, were defined. The western region is located over Indonesia and the eastern one over the equatorial Pacific, close to the South American coast. However, data on EQSOI goes back only to 1949. Sea surface height (SSH) changes up or down by several centimeters in Pacific equatorial region with the ESNO: El Niño causes a positive SSH anomaly (raised sea level) because of thermal expansion while La Niña causes

7800-594: The European accordion , the African drum and percussive elements, and the " guacharaca " from the Amerindians. Other waves of European immigrants came during the 1940s to 1950s while trying to escape World War II or social crisis; mostly from Spain, Germany and France. From approximately the 1960s, waves of immigrants from the Middle East started arriving in the city. They have been sympathetically nicknamed Turcos ( Turks ) by locals. Immigrants have been welcomed and are able to become part of society, marrying into traditional Valledupar families. The economy of Valledupar

7930-539: The Hawaiian people how to work cattle. The Hawaiian cowboy came to be called the paniolo , a Hawaiianized pronunciation of español. Even today, the traditional Hawaiian saddle and many other tools of the ranching trade have a distinctly Mexican look, and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the surnames of vaqueros who made Hawaii their home. In Argentina and Uruguay , ranches are known as estancias and in Brazil , they are called fazendas . In much of South America , including Ecuador and Colombia ,

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8060-445: The Mariangola. The Municipality of Valledupar is bordered on the north with the municipalities of Riohacha and San Juan del Cesar in the department of La Guajira . To the south are the municipalities of El Paso and Los Robles La Paz in the department of Cesar ; to the east are the municipalities of Villanueva and Urumita, also in the Department of La Guajira ; and to the west are the municipalities Fundacion and Aracataca , in

8190-417: The Pacific Ocean and are dependent on agriculture and fishing. In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal climate variability phenomena. Future trends in ENSO due to climate change are uncertain, although climate change exacerbates the effects of droughts and floods. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarized the scientific knowledge in 2021 for the future of ENSO as follows: "In

8320-437: The Republic of Colombia was created and the Department of Cesar was established in 1967, Valledupar became its capital. The region started developing quickly due to political support from the former President Alfonso López Michelsen , first governor of the Department of Cesar's and the Colombian Liberal Party . Valledupar came to be known as sorpresa caribe (the Caribbean surprise) because of its rapid economic growth during

8450-450: The United States. The gaucho culture of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay are among the cattle ranching traditions born during the period. However, in the 20th century, cattle raising expanded into less-suitable areas of the Pantanal . Particularly in Brazil , the 20th century marked the rapid growth of deforestation , as rain forest lands were cleared by slash and burn methods that allowed grass to grow for livestock, but also led to

8580-404: The Walker circulation, which was named after Gilbert Walker who discovered the Southern Oscillation during the early twentieth century. The Walker circulation is an east-west overturning circulation in the vicinity of the equator in the Pacific. Upward air is associated with high sea temperatures, convection and rainfall, while the downward branch occurs over cooler sea surface temperatures in

8710-408: The West Pacific northeast of Australia averages around 28–30 °C (82–86 °F). SSTs in the East Pacific off the western coast of South America are closer to 20 °C (68 °F). Strong trade winds near the equator push water away from the East Pacific and towards the West Pacific. This water is slowly warmed by the Sun as it moves west along the equator. The ocean surface near Indonesia

8840-410: The West Pacific to a depth of about 30 m (90 ft) in the East Pacific. Cooler deep ocean water takes the place of the outgoing surface waters in the East Pacific, rising to the ocean surface in a process called upwelling . Along the western coast of South America, water near the ocean surface is pushed westward due to the combination of the trade winds and the Coriolis effect . This process

8970-429: The asymmetric nature of the warm and cold phases of ENSO, some studies could not identify similar variations for La Niña, both in observations and in the climate models, but some sources could identify variations on La Niña with cooler waters on central Pacific and average or warmer water temperatures on both eastern and western Pacific, also showing eastern Pacific Ocean currents going to the opposite direction compared to

9100-438: The atmosphere) and even weaker trade winds. Ultimately the warm waters in the western tropical Pacific are depleted enough so that conditions return to normal. The exact mechanisms that cause the oscillation are unclear and are being studied. Each country that monitors the ENSO has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño or La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests. El Niño and La Niña affect

9230-436: The atmospheric and oceanic conditions. When the tropical Pacific roughly reflects the average conditions, the state of ENSO is said to be in the neutral phase. However, the tropical Pacific experiences occasional shifts away from these average conditions. If trade winds are weaker than average, the effect of upwelling in the East Pacific and the flow of warmer ocean surface waters towards the West Pacific lessen. This results in

9360-551: The banks. During these years marimberos , or marijuana sellers, also produced and contributed to the economic boom, because of the high demand in the United States. Valledupar mainly produces cotton, rice , oil palm , tobacco , coffee , cocoa and other cash crops. Since the late 20th century, the city has benefited from the department of Cesar's development of coal mining in the region of La Jagua de Ibirico and El Paso . The secondary sector has been flourishing from

9490-749: The city became capital of the Valledupar Province and in 1864 was elevated to capital of the Valledupar Department of the Federal State of Magdalena . In 1915, after the political and administrative division restructuring of the Unitarian Colombian State, Valledupar was proclaimed the municipality of the Valledupar Province , part of the Federal State of Magdalena during the United States of Colombia era. The region maintained relative isolation from

9620-470: The city. Prominent regional leaders have been killed; others were forced into bankruptcy or out of the region. Despite the violence, since it became capital of the Department of Cesar , Valledupar developed as an important agricultural and cattle raising center for the region between the departments of Cesar and southern parts of La Guajira . It is most notable as the cradle of vallenato music, which

9750-475: The climate of much of the tropics and subtropics , and has links ( teleconnections ) to higher-latitude regions of the world. The warming phase of the sea surface temperature is known as " El Niño " and the cooling phase as " La Niña ". The Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric oscillation , which is coupled with the sea temperature change. El Niño is associated with higher than normal air sea level pressure over Indonesia, Australia and across

9880-678: The colonization period, the region has been a center for imports from the Caribbean area and distribution to the inland. Spaniards traveled through the area and established extensive farming, mainly rearing imported European cattle (among many animals) and agriculture. Much of the population of the Chimila Nation died from epidemics of new infectious diseases carried by the Europeans; survivors were worked at forced labor, and many died during battles. On May 22, 1810, some 400 inhabitants of

10010-591: The correlation and study past El Niño episodes. More generally, there is no scientific consensus on how/if climate change might affect ENSO. There is also a scientific debate on the very existence of this "new" ENSO. A number of studies dispute the reality of this statistical distinction or its increasing occurrence, or both, either arguing the reliable record is too short to detect such a distinction, finding no distinction or trend using other statistical approaches, or that other types should be distinguished, such as standard and extreme ENSO. Likewise, following

10140-559: The currents in traditional La Niñas. Coined by the Peruvian Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño (ENFEN), ENSO Costero, or ENSO Oriental, is the name given to the phenomenon where the sea-surface temperature anomalies are mostly focused on the South American coastline, especially from Peru and Ecuador. Studies point many factors that can lead to its occurrence, sometimes accompanying, or being accompanied, by

10270-578: The department of Magdalena . The municipality has an area of about 4,977.96 km², from which 72,660 km² pertain to the Arhuacos Indian Reserve, 399.52 km² to the Kogui and Wiwa Indian Reserve , and 425.60 km² to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park . The municipality is home to numerous endemic species, mostly living in the ecosystem of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Serrania del Perijá mountains, one of

10400-496: The depletion of the land within only a few years. Many of indigenous peoples of the rain forest opposed this form of cattle ranching and protested the forest being burnt down to set up grazing operations and farms. This conflict is still a concern in the region today. In Spain, where the origins of ranching can be traced, there are ganaderías operating on dehesa -type land, where fighting bulls are raised. However, ranch-type properties are not seen to any significant degree in

10530-469: The east. During El Niño, as the sea surface temperatures change so does the Walker Circulation. Warming in the eastern tropical Pacific weakens or reverses the downward branch, while cooler conditions in the west lead to less rain and downward air, so the Walker Circulation first weakens and may reverse.   The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of ENSO. This component

10660-614: The eastern Pacific below average, and air pressure high in the eastern Pacific and low in the western Pacific. The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall. If the temperature variation from climatology is within 0.5 °C (0.9 °F), ENSO conditions are described as neutral. Neutral conditions are the transition between warm and cold phases of ENSO. Sea surface temperatures (by definition), tropical precipitation, and wind patterns are near average conditions during this phase. Close to half of all years are within neutral periods. During

10790-479: The eastern Pacific. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, variations of ENSO conditions were observed, in which the usual place of the temperature anomaly (Niño 1 and 2) is not affected, but an anomaly also arises in the central Pacific (Niño 3.4). The phenomenon is called Central Pacific (CP) ENSO, "dateline" ENSO (because the anomaly arises near the dateline ), or ENSO "Modoki" (Modoki is Japanese for "similar, but different"). There are variations of ENSO additional to

10920-467: The eastern equatorial part of the central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3–5 °C (5.4–9 °F). The phenomenon occurs as strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface away from South America, across the Pacific Ocean towards Indonesia. As this warm water moves west, cold water from the deep sea rises to the surface near South America. The movement of so much heat across

11050-567: The eastern portion of the country as in a conventional EP La Niña. Also, La Niña Modoki increases the frequency of cyclonic storms over Bay of Bengal , but decreases the occurrence of severe storms in the Indian Ocean overall. The first recorded El Niño that originated in the central Pacific and moved toward the east was in 1986. Recent Central Pacific El Niños happened in 1986–87, 1991–92, 1994–95, 2002–03, 2004–05 and 2009–10. Furthermore, there were "Modoki" events in 1957–59, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1968–70, 1977–78 and 1979–80. Some sources say that

11180-575: The equator, it has a variety of environments , from warm heat to perpetual snow. Notable geographic features in Valledupar include the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta's peaks; the Codazzi, El Guardian, the Ojeda and La Reina. Many rivers descend from its snowy peaks and lagoons; the Ariguani, Ariguanicito, Badillo, Calderas, Cesar, Curiba, Donachui, Garupal, Guatapuri, which borders the city of Valledupar; and

11310-452: The first ranch in the United States, having continuously operated since 1658. The ranch makes the somewhat debatable claim of having the oldest cattle operation in what today is the United States, though cattle had been run in the area since European settlers purchased land from the Indian people of the area in 1643. Although there were substantial numbers of cattle on Long Island, as well as

11440-737: The following years: Transitional phases at the onset or departure of El Niño or La Niña can also be important factors on global weather by affecting teleconnections . Significant episodes, known as Trans-Niño, are measured by the Trans-Niño index (TNI). Examples of affected short-time climate in North America include precipitation in the Northwest US and intense tornado activity in the contiguous US. The first ENSO pattern to be recognised, called Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO, to distinguish if from others, involves temperature anomalies in

11570-534: The global climate and disrupt normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term surface cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on timescales of around ten years. The countries most affected by ENSO are developing countries that are bordering

11700-409: The globe. Atlantic and Pacific hurricanes can have different characteristics due to lower or higher wind shear and cooler or warmer sea surface temperatures. La Niña events have been observed for hundreds of years, and occurred on a regular basis during the early parts of both the 17th and 19th centuries. Since the start of the 20th century, La Niña events have occurred during

11830-521: The government of Santa Marta. The city was founded in 1550 by the Spanish conquistador, Captain Hernando de Santana , who named it. The Catholic Church commonly referred to the city as Ciudad de los Santos Reyes de Valle de Upar (city of the holy kings of Valledupar) because it was founded on the 6th day of January, Epiphany , the day the three kings visited the infant Jesus . The name was gradually modified to Valle Dupar and then to Valledupar. Since

11960-571: The hottest place in Colombia, according to the Colombian Meteorological Institute, IDEAM . The Spanish named the Valle de Upar (Valley of Upar) after a legendary local Amerindian cacique , Upar, leader of the indigenous Chimila . The region was first explored by Pedro de Badillo. It was conquered in 1532 by the German Ambrosius Ehinger , governor of Venezuela, who invaded the area belonging to

12090-471: The internal climate variability phenomena. The other two main ones are Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation . La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling. Therefore,

12220-427: The last several decades, the number of El Niño events increased, and the number of La Niña events decreased, although observation of ENSO for much longer is needed to detect robust changes. Studies of historical data show the recent El Niño variation is most likely linked to global warming. For example, some results, even after subtracting the positive influence of decadal variation, are shown to be possibly present in

12350-511: The local economy. During the 1970s, the region experienced an economic boom because of a massive production of cotton when worldwide demand was high. This helped to modernize Valledupar, and it became the second most productive region in Colombia for some time. The cotton boom ended during the 1980s because of a decrease in cotton production during the years of violence. The resulting economic recession left many in debt and unable to repay loans to

12480-528: The long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase". The scientific consensus is also that "it is very likely that rainfall variability related to changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale". The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases in

12610-567: The mid-1980s, disrupting the peaceful growth. A struggling leftist political party, the Patriotic Union (U.P.) , was led by a banker, Juvenal Ovidio Ricardo Palmera Pineda. Because of his incendiary remarks during a peasant strike and protest in the main plaza, he was jailed. After being given amnesty by Jorge Dangond Daza, the governor of the Department, Palmera went into hiding. The national government and conservative groups started

12740-566: The military French term se ranger (to arrange oneself, to tidy up), from the Frankish hring , which means ring or circle . It was, originally, vulgarly applied in the 16th century to the provisional houses of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The term evolved differently throughout the Spanish speaking world : In Mexico, it evolved to mean a cattle farm, station or estate,

12870-474: The most biodiverse places in the world. The most recently discovered species of bees was found in rural areas of Valledupar and named Stelis vallenata in tribute to the local Vallenato music. The city's symbolic bird is the Turpial . Other notable birds that inhabit the region are the parrots that flock the fruit trees year round. During the colonial period, Spaniards introduced invasive European fauna into

13000-495: The municipality of Valledupar is determined by altitude. Half of the region is mountainous and the rest is plains in between the mountain ranges of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serrania del Perijá. Throughout the year, the region has two dry seasons and two rainy seasons affected by El Niño and La Niña phenomena. The peaks of the mountainous region gets snow during the rainy season and much cooler days and depending on

13130-408: The need to herd them to and from common grazing lands on a seasonal basis, the cattle handlers actually lived in houses built on the pasture grounds, and cattle were ear-marked for identification, rather than being branded. The only actual "cattle drives" held on Long Island consisted of one drive in 1776, when the island's cattle were moved in a failed attempt to prevent them from being captured during

13260-697: The neutral ENSO phase, other climate anomalies/patterns such as the sign of the North Atlantic Oscillation or the Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern exert more influence. El Niño conditions are established when the Walker circulation weakens or reverses and the Hadley circulation strengthens, leading to the development of a band of warm ocean water in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific (approximately between

13390-400: The observed phenomenon of more frequent and stronger El Niño events occurs only in the initial phase of the global warming, and then (e.g., after the lower layers of the ocean get warmer, as well), El Niño will become weaker. It may also be that the stabilizing and destabilizing forces influencing the phenomenon will eventually compensate for each other. The consequences of ENSO in terms of

13520-399: The open range was not brought about by a reduction in land due to crop farming , but by overgrazing . Cattle stocked on the open range created a tragedy of the commons as each rancher sought increased economic benefit by grazing too many animals on public lands that "nobody" owned. However, being a non-native species, the grazing patterns of ever-increasing numbers of cattle slowly reduced

13650-652: The oscillation which are deemed to occur when specific ocean and atmospheric conditions are reached or exceeded. An early recorded mention of the term "El Niño" ("The Boy" in Spanish) to refer to climate occurred in 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrillo told the geographical society congress in Lima that Peruvian sailors named the warm south-flowing current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. Although pre-Columbian societies were certainly aware of

13780-415: The other. Conceptual models explaining how ENSO operates generally accept the Bjerknes feedback hypothesis. However, ENSO would perpetually remain in one phase if Bjerknes feedback were the only process occurring. Several theories have been proposed to explain how ENSO can change from one state to the next, despite the positive feedback. These explanations broadly fall under two categories. In one view,

13910-417: The peruvian coast, and increased rainfall and decreased temperatures on its mountainous and jungle regions. Because they don't influence the global climate as much as the other types, these events present lesser and weaker correlations to other significant ENSO features, neither always being triggered by Kelvin waves , nor always being accompanied by proportional Southern Oscillation responses. According to

14040-489: The phenomenon, the indigenous names for it have been lost to history. The capitalized term El Niño refers to the Christ Child , Jesus , because periodic warming in the Pacific near South America is usually noticed around Christmas . Originally, the term El Niño applied to an annual weak warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast of Peru and Ecuador at about Christmas time. However, over time

14170-433: The point that they were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. About 1812, John Parker, a sailor who had jumped ship and settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha to capture the wild cattle and develop a beef industry. The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by hunger and thirst, they were hauled out up

14300-459: The poor live, cultivating the small plots of land that they own or rent, sowing to the extent that each one can afford and raising their domestic, country animals, according to their strength." By the nineteenth century, the words Rancho and Estancia as used in Mexico had been consolidated to define a unit of land that made up a Hacienda or any rural area or the countryside in general. Domingo Revilla in 1844, in his text "Los Rancheros", defined

14430-565: The property. Employees are generally known as stockmen/stockwomen , jackaroos/jillaroos , and ringers (rather than cowboys). Some Australian cattle stations are larger than 10,000 km , with the greatest being Anna Creek Station which measures 23,677 km in area (approximately eight times the largest US Ranch). Anna Creek is owned by S Kidman & Co . The equivalent terms in New Zealand are run and station . In South Africa , similar extensive holdings are usually known as

14560-458: The quality of the rangeland, in spite of the simultaneous massive slaughter of American bison that occurred. The winter of 1886–87 was one of the most severe on record, and livestock that were already stressed by reduced grazing died by the thousands. Many large cattle operations went bankrupt, and others suffered severe financial losses. Thus, after this time, ranchers also began to fence off their land and negotiated individual grazing leases with

14690-590: The ransoms to finance his organization. He took the alias Simón Trinidad . During this period, general crime rose and, on October 15, 1994, the national bank El Banco de la Republica (Bank of the Republic) was robbed . The amount stolen: COP$ 24,075 million of non emitted bills (some US$ 11 million) and came to be known as the " El Robo del Siglo " (The bank heist of the century). To counter FARC and ELN 's abuses, and after approximately fifteen years of asphyxiating Valledupar's society and supporting negligence by

14820-635: The region with their notorious yellow blossom flowers during the dry season. The entities in charge of protecting and controlling the fauna and flora in the region are the Colombian Ministry of Environment, the local decentralized agency Corpocesar , under the Governor of the Cesar Department and Environmental Police of the Colombian National Police. Other non-profit organizations collaborate with these entities. Climate in

14950-449: The region, such as dogs, cats, rats, mice, cattle, horses, mules, goats and gallineta africana , doves, among others. Spaniards also introduced numerous species of flora from all over the world into the region, most notably mango trees, which have become the most popular tree in the city and municipality. However, the symbolic trees of the city are two types of Yellow Tabebuia , colloquially called " Cañaguate " and Puy . These trees cover

15080-457: The relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on decadal timescales. There is no sign that there are actual changes in the ENSO physical phenomenon due to climate change. Climate models do not simulate ENSO well enough to make reliable predictions. Future trends in ENSO are uncertain as different models make different predictions. It may be that

15210-545: The rest of the country due to its low importance at the time. The violent political struggles of the different governments of Colombia took place mostly in larger cities, such as Bogotá . During World War II, the city received many immigrants from Europe, especially French, Germans and Italians. Later it attracted immigrants from the Middle East. In 1956 it was proclaimed a parish by the Catholic Church. After

15340-548: The rest of western Europe , where there is far less land area and sufficient rainfall allows the raising of cattle on much smaller farms. In Australia , a rangeland property is a station (originally in the sense of a place where stock were temporarily stationed). In almost all cases, these are either cattle stations or sheep stations . The largest cattle stations in the world are located in Australia's dry outback rangelands. Owners of these stations are usually known as graziers or pastoralists, especially if they reside on

15470-420: The spring after their young were born and allowed to roam with little supervision and no fences, then rounded up in the fall, with the mature animals driven to market and the breeding stock brought close to the ranch headquarters for greater protection in the winter. The use of livestock branding allowed the cattle owned by different ranchers to be identified and sorted. Beginning with the settlement of Texas in

15600-431: The strength of the trade winds was first identified by Jacob Bjerknes in 1969. Bjerknes also hypothesized that ENSO was a positive feedback system where the associated changes in one component of the climate system (the ocean or atmosphere) tend to reinforce changes in the other. For example, during El Niño, the reduced contrast in ocean temperatures across the Pacific results in weaker trade winds, further reinforcing

15730-521: The temperature anomalies and precipitation and weather extremes around the world are clearly increasing and associated with climate change . For example, recent scholarship (since about 2019) has found that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events. Previously there was no consensus on whether climate change will have any influence on the strength or duration of El Niño events, as research alternately supported El Niño events becoming stronger and weaker, longer and shorter. Over

15860-603: The term hacienda or finca may be used. Ranchero or Rancho are also generic terms used throughout tropical Latin America . In the colonial period, from the pampas regions of South America all the way to the Minas Gerais state in Brazil, including the semi-arid pampas of Argentina and the south of Brazil, were often well-suited to ranching, and a tradition developed that largely paralleled that of Mexico and

15990-618: The term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The original phrase, El Niño de Navidad , arose centuries ago, when Peruvian fishermen named the weather phenomenon after the newborn Christ. La Niña ("The Girl" in Spanish) is the colder counterpart of El Niño, as part of the broader ENSO climate pattern . In the past, it was also called an anti-El Niño and El Viejo, meaning "the old man." A negative phase exists when atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and

16120-507: The term is applied to a modest humble rural home or dwelling, a cottage ; while in Venezuela it’s an improvised, illegal dwelling, generally poorly built or not meeting basic habitability requirements; a shanty or slum house. The person who owns and manages the operation of a ranch is usually called a rancher , but the terms cattleman , stockgrower , or stockman are also sometimes used. If this individual in charge of overall management

16250-451: The trademark of Death Squads. The AUC helped take back the region from guerrillas, but Valledupar residents had to deal with similar uncertainty in having an illegal and terrorist organization controlling the city. The AUC northern block demobilized March 10, 2006. It is still uncertain if the Colombian military can control the two terrorist organizations or dismantle them. Because of the longstanding violence, many rural people migrated into

16380-452: The tropical Pacific Ocean. The low-level surface trade winds , which normally blow from east to west along the equator, either weaken or start blowing from the other direction. El Niño phases are known to happen at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two years. The average period length is five years. When this warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño "conditions"; when its duration

16510-424: The weather, the entire region gets hit lightly by hailstorms and thunderstorms. The regions is slightly affected by the annual Caribbean hurricane season. The levels of rivers and bodies of water increase in the rainy season, and vegetation grows green and bushy. During the dry season, vegetation dries and turns mostly yellow, while bodies of water decrease in volume. In 2013, Valledupar was classified on average as

16640-466: The west Pacific is abnormally high and pressure over the east Pacific is abnormally low, during El Niño episodes, and a positive phase is when the opposite occurs during La Niña episodes, and pressure over Indonesia is low and over the west Pacific is high. On average, the temperature of the ocean surface in the tropical East Pacific is roughly 8–10 °C (14–18 °F) cooler than in the tropical West Pacific . The sea surface temperature (SST) of

16770-765: The western United States, many ranches are a combination of privately owned land supplemented by grazing leases on land under the control of the federal Bureau of Land Management or the United States Forest Service . If the ranch includes arable or irrigated land , the ranch may also engage in a limited amount of farming , raising crops for feeding the animals, such as hay and feed grains. Ranches that cater exclusively to tourists are called guest ranches or, colloquially, " dude ranches". Most working ranches do not cater to guests, though they may allow private hunters or outfitters onto their property to hunt native wildlife. However, in recent years,

16900-441: The western and east Pacific. Because the warmer waters of the upper ocean are slightly less dense than the cooler deep ocean, the thicker layer of warmer water in the western Pacific means the thermocline there must be deeper. The difference in weight must be enough to drive any deep water return flow. Consequently, the thermocline is tilted across the tropical Pacific, rising from an average depth of about 140 m (450 ft) in

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