2nd: 22,000–24,000
142-524: The Hawaiian Kingdom , also known as the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi ( Hawaiian : Ke Aupuni Hawaiʻi ), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands which existed from 1795 to 1893. It was established during the late 18th century when Kamehameha I , then Aliʻi nui of Hawaii , conquered the islands of Oʻahu , Maui , Molokaʻi , and Lānaʻi , and unified them under one government. In 1810,
284-698: A fur-trading vessel, the Eleanora , while his son, Thomas Humphrey Metcalfe , captained the ship Fair American along the Pacific Northwest Coast ; the two parties were to rendezvous in the Hawaiian Islands . Fair American was held-up when it was captured by the Spanish and then quickly released in San Blas , north of Panamá . The Eleanora finally arrived in 1790, where it was greeted by chief Kameʻeiamoku . During their interactions,
426-678: A Hawaiian language news broadcast. Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola , as recently as 2010. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Advertiser , the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members. Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which
568-440: A critically endangered language. However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%. At
710-505: A grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with
852-516: A high-ranking aliʻi named Kaʻiana , had defected to Kalanikūpule . Kaʻiana assisted in cutting notches into the Nuʻuanu Pali mountain ridge; these notches, like those on a castle turret, were to serve as gunports for Kalanikūpule's cannon. In a series of skirmishes, Kamehameha's forces pushed Kalanikūpule's men back until they were cornered on the Pali Lookout . While Kamehameha moved on
994-586: A hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ā ē ī ō ū and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū . It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms. (See: Vowel length ) As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham , was using macrons (and breves ) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but
1136-400: A large percentage of his force was killed by the maʻi ʻokuʻu epidemic, which was thought to be either cholera or bubonic plague . Kamehameha I contracted the illness but survived. The second invasion of Kauaʻi was postponed. In April 1810, Kamehameha I negotiated the peaceful unification of the islands with Kauaʻi. His court genealogist and high priest Kalaikuʻahulu was instrumental in
1278-482: A large proportion of the population (a few Japanese and some Chinese who had previously become naturalized lost voting rights). This limited the franchise to wealthy native Hawaiians and Europeans. The Bayonet Constitution continued allowing the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but took his power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. In 1891, Kalākaua died and his sister Liliʻuokalani assumed
1420-611: A major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England , where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut . He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaiʻi, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaiʻi in 1819. Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with
1562-576: A minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture. Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s. Forming in 1983, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , meaning "language nest" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984. It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day. Efforts to promote
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#17327653544991704-515: A native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany , before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ( Über die Hawaiische Sprache ) in 1837. Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with
1846-492: A new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaiʻi via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers. The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to
1988-534: A people over their national lands, either through the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi or through a plebiscite or referendum." Opposition to the U.S. annexation of Hawaii played a major role in the creation of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement , which calls for Hawaiian independence from American rule. Hawaii was originally settled by Polynesian voyagers, who arrived on the islands circa the 6th century. The islands were governed as independent chiefdoms. In ancient Hawaiʻi, society
2130-440: A powerful elite by the mid-19th century. They provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities. The elites promoted the sugar industry . Americans set up plantations after 1850. Few natives were willing to work on them, so recruiters fanned out across Asia and Europe. As a result, between 1850 and 1900, some 200,000 contract laborers from China , Japan ,
2272-592: A significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836), grammar (1854), and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law
2414-494: A vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart. This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaiʻi, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones ( H, K, L, M, N, P, W ), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". The initial printing also showed
2556-493: Is Palakila , but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila . Another example is Gibraltar , written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta . While [z] and [ɡ] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b] , [ɹ] , and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters ( b , r , and t ) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin. ʻOkina ( ʻoki 'cut' + -na '-ing')
2698-468: Is a combination of charter, public, and private schools. K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , and the charter school. Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools. Hawaiian
2840-467: Is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department. This law established English as the medium of instruction for
2982-413: Is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language. There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian. One of the main focuses of Hawaiian-medium schools
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#17327653544993124-583: Is pronounced. Elbert & Pukui's Hawaiian Grammar says "The glottal stop, ‘, is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English oh-oh ." As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published
3266-483: Is recognized as such by all the sovereigns and most genealogists. Accounts of Kamehameha I's birth vary, but sources place his birth between 1736 and 1761, with historian Ralph Simpson Kuykendall believing it to be between 1748 and 1761. An early source is thought to imply a 1758 dating because that date matched a visit from Halley's Comet , and would make him close to the age that Francisco de Paula Marín estimated he was. This dating, however, does not accord with
3408-402: Is the modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) that represents the glottal stop . It was formerly known as ʻuʻina ("snap"). For examples of the ʻokina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (often simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced [hʌˈʋʌi.ʔi] and [oˈʔʌ.hu] , and are written with an ʻokina where the glottal stop
3550-443: Is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951) . (See Hawaiian phonological processes ) Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by
3692-489: Is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language. The isolated island of Niʻihau , located off the southwest coast of Kauai , is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect ) is still spoken as the language of daily life. Elbert & Pukui (1979 :23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau
3834-597: Is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language. Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language are known collectively as the "Hilo model" and has been imitated by the Cherokee immersion program and several other Indigenous revitalization programs. Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of
3976-410: Is to teach the form and structure of the Hawaiian language by modeling sentences as a "pepeke", meaning squid in Hawaiian. In this case the pepeke is a metaphor that features the body of a squid with the three essential parts: the poʻo (head), the ʻawe (tentacles) and the piko (where the poʻo and ʻawe meet) representing how a sentence is structured. The poʻo represents the predicate, the piko representing
4118-616: The Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaiʻi , the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed . Hawaiian, along with English , is an official language of the US state of Hawaiʻi . King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. In 1896, the Republic of Hawaii passed Act 57, an English-only law which subsequently banned Hawaiian language as
4260-559: The Boston returned and assisted the Missionary Party in her overthrow. Following the establishment of the Provisional Government of Hawaii , the Kingdom's military was disarmed and disbanded. Under Queen Kaʻahumanu 's rule, Catholicism was illegal in Hawaiʻi, and in 1831 French Catholic priests were deported. Native Hawaiian converts to Catholicism claimed to have been imprisoned, beaten and tortured after
4402-729: The College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo . The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee ( Kōmike Huaʻōlelo Hou ) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds. The Hawaiian medium education system
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4544-749: The English-speaking world ). Why was pronounced [ʍai] . The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents the sounds [hi] , or [i] . Putting the parts together, O-why-(h)ee reflects [o-hwai-i] , a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [ʔo həwɐiʔi] . American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaiʻi. They still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using
4686-476: The Fair American , they defeated Maui's army led by Kalanikūpule at the bloody Battle of Kepaniwai while the aliʻi Kahekili II was on Oahu. In 1791, Kahekili and his brother Kāʻeokūlani reconquered Maui and also acquired cannons. In April or May 1791, Kahekili tried to invade the island of Hawaiʻi, but was defeated in a naval battle called Kepuwahaʻulaʻula near Waipiʻo . Kamehameha had to wait for
4828-675: The German Navy . The 1887 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom was drafted by Lorrin A. Thurston , Minister of Interior under King Kalākaua. The constitution was proclaimed by the king after a meeting of 3,000 residents, including an armed militia demanded he sign or be deposed. The document created a constitutional monarchy like that of the United Kingdom , stripping the King of most of his personal authority, empowering
4970-559: The Philippines , Portugal and elsewhere worked in Hawaiʻi under fixed term contracts (typically for five years). Most returned home on schedule, but many settled there. By 1908 about 180,000 Japanese workers had arrived. No more were allowed in, but 54,000 remained permanently. The Hawaiian army and navy developed from the warriors of Kona under Kamehameha I. The army and navy used both traditional canoes and uniforms including helmets made of natural materials and loincloths (called
5112-496: The malo ) as well as Western technology such as artillery cannons, muskets and ships and Western-style organization such as military uniforms and a military rank system. European advisors were treated well and became Hawaiian citizens. When Kamehameha died in 1819 he left his son Liholiho a large arsenal with tens of thousands of soldiers and many warships. This helped put down the revolt at Kuamoʻo later in 1819 and Humehume 's rebellion on Kauaʻi in 1824. The military shrank with
5254-669: The 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However,
5396-681: The Great , was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii . The state of Hawaii gave a statue of him to the National Statuary Hall Collection in Washington, D.C., as one of two statues it is entitled to install there. Kamehameha (known as Paiʻea at birth), was born to Kekuʻiapoiwa II , the niece of Alapainui , the usurping ruler of Hawaii Island who had killed the two legitimate heirs of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku during civil war. By most accounts he
5538-420: The Great. During Liholiho's (Kamehameha II) reign (1819–1824), the arrival of Christian missionaries and whalers accelerated changes in the kingdom. Kauikeaouli's reign (1824–1854) as Kamehameha III, began as a young ward of the primary wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu , who ruled as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui , or Prime Minister until her death in 1832. Kauikeaouli's rule of three decades
5680-601: The Hawaiian Islands were fully unified when the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau voluntarily joined the Hawaiian Kingdom. Two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua . The kingdom subsequently gained diplomatic recognition from European powers and the United States . An influx of European and American explorers, traders, and whalers soon began arriving to
5822-669: The Hawaiian Kingdom: the House of Kamehameha (1795 to 1874) and the Kalākaua dynasty (1874–1893). Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government, each styled as Kamehameha , until 1872. Lunalilo ( r. 1873–1874 ) was a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho ( Kamehameha II , r. 1819–1824 ) and Kauikeaouli ( Kamehameha III , r. 1825–1854 ) were direct sons of Kamehameha
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5964-442: The Hawaiian and Society Islands. Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages. The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan. In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawaiʻi, beginning
6106-453: The Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory. Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence. One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah ( ʻŌpūkahaʻia ), had
6248-546: The Hawaiian islands is hula . Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past". The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century. He argues this
6390-471: The Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ʻokina , to better represent spoken Hawaiian. Nonetheless, excluding the ʻokina may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts. So there is variation today in the use of this symbol. The ʻokina is written in various ways for electronic uses: Because many people who want to write
6532-503: The Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction. The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi: The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it
6674-401: The Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". It is written "Oh-Why-hee" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter [ de ] in 1781. Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. The initial "O" in
6816-426: The Kamehameha line were nominated. In the monarchical election of 1873, a ceremonial popular vote and a unanimous legislative vote, William C. Lunalilo , grandnephew of Kamehameha I, became Hawaiʻi's first of two elected monarchs . His reign ended due to his early death from tuberculosis at age 39. Upon Lunalilo's death, David Kalakaua defeated Kamehameha IV's widow, Queen Emma , in a contested election, beginning
6958-515: The Mahoe (twins) Keoua, and other chiefs rejected the prophecy of Ka Poukahi. The high chiefs of Kauai supported Kiwalaʻo even after learning about the prophecy. The five Kona chiefs supporting Kamehameha were Keʻeaumoku Pāpaʻiahiahi (Kamehameha's father-in-law/grand uncle), Keaweaheulu Kaluaʻāpana (Kamehameha's uncle), Kekūhaupiʻo (Kamehameha's warrior teacher), and Kameʻeiamoku and Kamanawa (twin uncles of Kamehameha). They defended Kamehameha as
7100-472: The Nupepa article. Kamehameha was raised in the royal court of his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu. He achieved prominence in 1782, upon Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death. While the kingship was inherited by Kīwalaʻō , Kalaniʻōpuʻu's son, Kamehameha was given a prominent religious position as guardian of the Hawaiian god of war, Kūkaʻilimoku . He was also given control of the district of Waipiʻo Valley . The two cousins' relationship
7242-543: The Pacific Islands to the semi-continent of Aotearoa (New Zealand). He was supported by his most political wife Kaʻahumanu and father, High Chief Keeaumoku. Senior counselor to Kamehameha, she became one of Hawaiʻi's most powerful figures. Kamehameha and his council of chiefs planned to unite the rest of the Hawaiian Islands. Allies came from British and American traders, who sold guns and ammunition to Kamehameha. Another major factor in Kamehameha's continued success
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#17327653544997384-470: The Pali's cliff, a drop of 1,000 feet. Kaʻiana was killed during the action; Kalanikūpule was later captured and sacrificed to Kūkāʻilimoku. After his conquest of Oahu in the summer of 1795, Kamehameha I prepared his forces for the conquest of Kauaʻi , the last remaining island kingdom out of his control. In the spring of 1796, he attempted to continue with his forces to Kauaʻi but he lost many of his canoes in
7526-568: The Pali, his troops took heavy fire from the cannon. He assigned two divisions of his best warriors to climb to the Pali to attack the cannons from behind; they surprised Kalanikūpule's gunners and took control. With the loss of their guns, Kalanikūpule's troops fell into disarray and were cornered by Kamehameha's still-organized troops. A fierce battle at Nuʻuanu ensued, with Kamehameha's forces forming an enclosing wall. Using traditional Hawaiian spears, as well as muskets and cannon, they killed most of Kalanikūpule's forces. Over 400 men were forced over
7668-634: The Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migrations : "when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter". A Brief History of the Hawaiian People by William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date in the "Chronological Table of Events of Hawaiian History" as 1736. In 1888 the Kamakau account was challenged by Samuel C. Damon in
7810-685: The U.S. as the Territory of Hawaii until it became a U.S. state in 1959. In 1993, the United States Senate passed the Apology Resolution , which acknowledged that "the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States" and "the Native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty as
7952-521: The United States by the Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, known as the " Newlands Resolution ". Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands. Their consolidation opened international trade. Under Kamehameha (1795–1819), sandalwood was exported to China . That led to the introduction of money and trade throughout the islands. Following Kamehameha's death, succession
8094-628: The United States, threatening to annex the islands. To counter this threat Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V pushed for alliances with other foreign powers, especially Great Britain. Hawaiʻi claimed uninhabited islands in the Pacific, including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , many of which conflicted with American claims. The royal guards were disbanded under Lunalilo after a barracks revolt in September 1873. A small army
8236-541: The University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit. The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as Duolingo . Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols. The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi , is based on the Latin script . Hawaiian words end only in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by
8378-543: The afternoon of January 16, 1893. This deployment was at the request of the Committee of Safety , which claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property." Stevens was accused of ordering the landing on his own authority and inappropriately using his discretion. Historian William Russ concluded that "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself." On July 17, 1893, Sanford B. Dole and his committee took control of
8520-644: The archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa - Tonga . Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands. Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between
8662-439: The bills, and these controversial proposals were used against her in the looming constitutional crisis. Liliʻuokalani wanted to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Constitution. She launched a campaign resulting in a petition to proclaim a new Constitution. Many citizens and residents who in 1887 had forced Kalākaua to sign the "Bayonet Constitution" became alarmed when three of her cabinet members informed them that
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#17327653544998804-416: The boat had been broken-apart and the shipmate murdered. Previously, Metcalfe had resorted to violence when he fired muskets into another village near where he had been anchored, ultimately killing some of the residents. This time, furious, Metcalfe took-aim at Olowalu, ordering all cannons aboard the ship to be moved to one side, facing the island. As the captain initiated his trading calls and greetings to
8946-453: The ceremonial popular vote of Lunalilo. The choice was controversial, and U.S. and British troops were called upon to suppress rioting by Queen Emma's supporters, the Emmaites . Kalākaua officially proclaimed that his sister, Liliʻuokalani, would succeed to the throne upon his death. Hoping to avoid uncertainty, Kalākaua listed a line of succession in his will, so that after Liliʻuokalani
9088-517: The chief is allegedly to have offended or insulted Captain Metcalfe somehow, causing him to strike the chief with a rope's end. Sometime later, while docked in Honolua, Maui , a small boat—which was tied to the larger ship, and had a crewman inside—was stolen by native islanders. When Metcalfe discovered where the boat was taken, he sailed directly to the village of Olowalu . There, he confirmed that
9230-560: The civil war that broke out in 1793 after the death of Kahekili to finally win control of Maui. In 1790, Keōua Kūʻahuʻula , who came to rule the districts of Kaʻū and Puna , took advantage of Kamehameha's absence in Maui and began raiding the west coast of Hawaii. He also advanced against the district of Hilo, deposing his uncle Keawemaʻuhili . When Kamehameha returned, Keōua escaped to the Kīlauea volcano, which erupted. Many warriors died from
9372-440: The civil war that followed the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku . Keōua had died while Kamehameha was very young, thus the boy was raised in the court of his uncle, Kalaniʻōpuʻu. The traditional mele chant of Keakamahana (chiefess and wife of Alapainui) mentions that Kamehameha was born in the month of ikuwā (autumn/winter), or around November; Alapai gave the young Kamehameha to Keaka and her sister, Hākau, to raise, once
9514-459: The commoners. No land could be sold, only transferred to a lineal descendant. Contact with the outer world exposed the natives to a disastrous series of imported plagues such as smallpox. The native Hawaiian population fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, reaching a low of 24,000 in 1920. Most lived in remote villages. American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became
9656-411: The creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children. In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played
9798-438: The department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools . This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui , who
9940-471: The details of many well-known accounts of his life, such as his fighting as a warrior with his uncle, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, or his being of age to father his first children by that time. The 1758 dating also places his birth after the death of his father. Kamakau published an account in the Ka Nupepa Kuokoa in 1867 placing the date of Kamehameha's birth around 1736. He wrote, "It was during the time of
10082-585: The efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family. In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch. Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than
10224-423: The exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite
10366-638: The expulsion of the priests. Resistance toward the French Catholic missionaries continued under Kuhina Nui Kaʻahumanu II . In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaiʻi under orders to: Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III signed the Edict of Toleration on July 17, 1839 agreeing to Laplace's demands. He paid $ 20,000 in compensation for deporting the priests and
10508-422: The five vowel letters ( A, E, I, O, U ) and seven of the short diphthongs ( AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU ). In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one- phoneme , and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn
10650-534: The god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival. In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore
10792-460: The gods he worshiped were his gods with mana , and that through these gods, Kamehameha had become supreme ruler over all of the islands. Witnessing Kamehameha's devotion, Vancouver decided against sending missionaries from England. After about 1812, Kamehameha returned from Oahu and spent the last years of his life at Kamakahonu , a compound he built in Kailua-Kona . As was the custom of
10934-572: The government and declared itself the Provisional Government of Hawaii "to rule until annexation by the United States". The Provisional Government was reorganized as the Republic of Hawaii in 1894; Dole served was president of both. The committee and members of the former government both lobbied in Washington, D.C. for their respective positions. President Grover Cleveland considered the overthrow to have been an illegal act of war; he refused to consider annexation and initially worked to restore
11076-416: The government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at
11218-466: The government. Historians suggest that businessmen were in favor of overthrow and annexation to the U.S. in order to benefit from more favorable trade conditions. United States Government Minister John L. Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS ; Boston and two companies of U.S. sailors to Honolulu to take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on
11360-424: The head with a large paddle, which broke the paddle. Kamehameha was stunned and left for dead, allowing the fisherman and his companion to escape. Twelve years later, the same fishermen were brought before Kamehameha for punishment. The king instead blamed himself for attacking innocent people, gave the fishermen gifts of land and set them free. He declared the new law, "Let every elderly person, woman, and child lie by
11502-801: The help of western weapons and advisors, such as John Young and Isaac Davis . Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui , he failed to annex Kauaʻi , hampered by a storm and a plague that decimated his army. In 1810 Kauaʻi's chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha. The unification ended ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into a constitutional monarchy in the manner of European systems. The Kingdom thus became an early example of monarchies in Polynesian societies as contacts with Europeans increased. Similar political developments occurred (for example) in Tahiti , Tonga , Fiji , and New Zealand . From 1810 to 1893 two major dynastic families ruled
11644-836: The incarceration and torture of converts. The kingdom proclaimed: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned and as reparation Kamehameha III donated land for a church. On February 13, 1843. Lord George Paulet of the Royal Navy warship HMS Carysfort , entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III cede the islands to the British Crown. Under the frigate's guns, Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25, writing: "Where are you, chiefs, people, and commons from my ancestors, and people from foreign lands? Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away
11786-600: The islands remained a united realm after his death. He unified the legal system. He used the products collected in taxes to promote trade with Europe and the United States . The origins of the Law of the Splintered Paddle are derived from before the unification of the Island of Hawaiʻi. In 1782 during a raid, Kamehameha caught his foot in a rock. Two local fishermen, fearful of the great warrior, hit Kamehameha hard on
11928-540: The kingdom, introducing diseases such as syphilis , tuberculosis , smallpox , and measles , leading to the rapid decline of the Native Hawaiian population . In 1887, King Kalākaua was forced to accept a new constitution after a coup d'état by the Honolulu Rifles , a volunteer military unit recruited from American settlers. Queen Liliʻuokalani , who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to abrogate
12070-538: The kingdom. Family tree based on Abraham Fornander's "An Account of the Polynesian Race" and other works from the author, Queen Liliuokalani's "Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen", Samuel Mānaiakalani Kamakau's "Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii" and other works by the author, John Papa ʻĪʻī's "Fragments of Hawaiian History", Edith Kawelohea McKinzie's "Hawaiian Genealogies: Extracted from Hawaiian Language Newspapers, Vol. I & II", Kanalu G. Terry Young's "Rethinking
12212-425: The kingdom. Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family ended in 1872 with the death of Kamehameha V. On his deathbed, he summoned High Chiefess Bernice Pauahi Bishop to declare his intentions of making her heir to the throne. Bernice refused the crown, and Kamehameha V died without naming an heir. Bishop's refusal to take the crown forced the legislature to elect a new monarch. From 1872 to 1873, several relatives of
12354-460: The language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations. The ʻAha Pūnana Leo 's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii , have received international recognition. The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and
12496-471: The language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language , Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawaiʻi than Hawaiian. Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English. Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines,
12638-489: The language was "soon destined to extinction." When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen Kapiʻolani , and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliʻuokalani , took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition " Aloha ʻOe " was already a famous song in the U.S. The decline of
12780-472: The latter half of the 19th century. Writing aided in the consolidation of government. Written constitutions were developed. In 1848, the Great Māhele was promulgated by King Kamehameha III . It instituted official property rights, formalizing the customary land tenure system in effect prior to this declaration. Ninety-eight percent of the land was assigned to the aliʻi , chiefs or nobles, with two percent to
12922-572: The legislature and establishing a cabinet government. It became known as the "Bayonet Constitution" over the threat of force used to gain Kalākaua's cooperation. The 1887 constitution empowered the citizenry to elect members of the House of Nobles (who had previously been appointed by the King). It increased the value of property a citizen must own to be eligible to vote above the previous Constitution of 1864. It also denied voting rights to Asians who comprised
13064-455: The life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified. Done at Honolulu, Oahu, this 25th day of February, 1843. Kamehameha III Kekauluohi" Hawaiian language Hawaiian ( ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , pronounced [ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐjʔi] ) is a Polynesian language and critically endangered language of
13206-520: The locals, hundreds of people—men, women, children and elderly—ventured down to the beach to trade, on foot and by canoe. When the islanders were within range, Metcalfe ordered the cannons to be fired on the Hawaiians, killing over 100 of them. Six weeks later, Fair American was stuck near the Kona coast of Hawaii where chief Kameʻeiamoku was living, near Kaʻūpūlehu . Kameʻeiamoku had decided to attack
13348-453: The medium on instruction from publicly funded schools and promoted strict physical punishment for children caught speaking the Hawaiian language in schools. The Hawaiian language was not again allowed to be used as a medium of instruction in Hawai’i’s public schools until 1987, a span of 91 years. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to
13490-464: The missionary publication; The Friend , deferring to a 1753 dating that was the first mentioned by James Jackson Jarves . But the Kamakau dating was widely accepted due to support from Abraham Fornander . At the time of Kamehameha's birth, his father, Keōua , along with his half-brother, Kalaniʻōpuʻu , were serving Alapaʻinui , ruler of the island of Hawai’i ; Alapaʻinui had brought the brothers to his court, after defeating both of their fathers in
13632-424: The monarch's decision not to kill Kaumualiʻi , the ruler of that island, when he was the single member of the aliʻi council to agree with Kamehameha's own reluctance to do so. The other aliʻi continued with the plan to poison Kaumualiʻi when Isaac Davis warned him, making the ruler cut his trip short and return to Kauaʻi, leaving Davis to be poisoned by the aliʻi instead. As ruler, Kamehameha took steps to ensure
13774-474: The name "Oh-Why-hee" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, ʻo , immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying ʻO Hawaiʻi , which means "[This] is Hawaiʻi." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti". The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [ ʍ ] pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of
13916-501: The new constitution. She was subsequently overthrown in a 1893 coup engineered by the Committee of Safety , a group of Hawaiian subjects who were mostly of American descent, and supported by the U.S. military . The Committee of Safety dissolved the kingdom and established the Republic of Hawaii , intending for the U.S. to annex the islands, which it did on July 7, 1898, via the Newlands Resolution . Hawaii became part of
14058-439: The next foreign ship to avenge the strike by the elder Metcalfe. He canoed out to the ship with his men, where he killed Metcalfe's son and all but one (Isaac Davis) of the five crewmen. Kamehameha took Davis into protection and took possession of the ship. Eleanora was at that time anchored at Kealakekua Bay , where the ship's boatswain had gone ashore and been captured by Kamehameha's forces because Kamehameha believed Metcalfe
14200-482: The phrase "Hawaiian Language". In Hawaiian, the language is called ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , since adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family . It is closely related to other Polynesian languages , such as Samoan , Marquesan , Tahitian , Māori , Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island ) and Tongan . According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized
14342-415: The pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations. Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the luna , or overseers, found a way to communicate among themselves. Pidgin eventually made its way off the plantation and into the greater community, where it is still used to this day. The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii ( Hawaiʻi in
14484-465: The poisonous gas emitted from the volcano. When the Puʻukoholā Heiau was completed in 1791, Kamehameha invited Keōua to meet with him. Keōua may have been dispirited by his recent losses. He may have mutilated himself before landing so as to render himself an inappropriate sacrificial victim. As he stepped on shore, one of Kamehameha's chiefs threw a spear at him. By some accounts, he dodged it but
14626-561: The population under the onslaught of disease, so by the end of the Kamehameha dynasty the Hawaiian navy was severely reduced, having a few outdated ships and the army consisted of a few hundred troops. After a French invasion that sacked Honolulu in 1849, Kamehameha III sought defense treaties with the United States and Britain. During the Crimean War , Kamehameha III declared Hawaiʻi a neutral state. The United States government put strong pressure on Kamehameha IV to trade exclusively with
14768-658: The queen to her throne. Between December 14, 1893, and January 11, 1894, a standoff known as the Black Week occurred between the United States , the Empire of Japan and the United Kingdom against the Provisional Government to pressure them into returning the Queen. This incident drove home the message that President Cleveland wanted Queen Liliʻuokalani's return to power. On July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawaii
14910-401: The queen was planning to unilaterally proclaim her new Constitution. Some members were reported to have feared for their safety for not supporting her plans. In 1893, local businessmen and politicians, composed of six non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects, five American nationals, one British national, and one German national, all of whom were living in Hawaiʻi, overthrew the regime and took over
15052-513: The reading and writing of Hawaiian. For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r ), the word is spelled only as pule . However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac. Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized , they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized
15194-485: The roadside in safety." Young and Davis became advisors to Kamehameha and provided him with advanced weapons that helped in combat. Kamehameha was also a religious king and the holder of the war god Kūkāʻilimoku. The explorer George Vancouver noted that Kamehameha worshiped his gods and wooden images in a heiau , but originally wanted to bring England's religion, Christianity , to Hawaiʻi. Missionaries were not sent from Great Britain because Kamehameha told Vancouver that
15336-413: The royal prerogative and she officially proclaimed her niece Princess Kaʻiulani as heir. She later proposed a new constitution in 1893 , but it was never ratified by the legislature. Kalākaua's prime minister Walter M. Gibson indulged the expenses of Kalākaua and attempted to establish a Polynesian Confederation , sending the "homemade battleship" Kaimiloa to Samoa in 1887. It resulted in suspicion by
15478-573: The ruler discovered the infant had indeed survived. On February 10, 1911, the Kamakau version was challenged by the oral history of the Kaha family, as published in newspaper articles also appearing in the Kuoko . After Kamakau's history was published again (this time to a wider, English-reading public in 1911 Hawaii), the Kaha version of these events was published by Kamaka Stillman , who had objected to
15620-459: The same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910. In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with
15762-428: The second dynasty. Like his predecessor, Lunalilo failed to name an heir to the throne. Once again, the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom held an election to fill the vacancy. Queen Emma , widow of Kamehameha IV, was nominated along with David Kalākaua . The 1874 election was a nasty campaign in which both candidates resorted to mudslinging and innuendo. Kalākaua became the second elected King of Hawaiʻi but without
15904-556: The sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to. Kamehameha the Great Kamehameha I ( Hawaiian pronunciation: [kəmehəˈmɛhə] ; Kalani Paiʻea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiʻikui Kamehameha o ʻIolani i Kaiwikapu kauʻi Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea; c. 1736 – c. 1761 to May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha
16046-786: The strong winds and rough seas of the Kaʻieʻie Waho channel. He returned to Hawaii to pacify the rebellion of Nāmakehā (brother of Kaʻiana) in Hilo and ruled from Hawaii for the next six years as he consolidated his conquests and prepare for a second invasion of Kauaʻi. At Hilo, Kamehameha I commissioned the building a large fleet of 800 (according to Kamakau) double-hulled war canoes called peleleu along with Western schooners, and he also stockpile large number of guns, canons and ammunition. He took his peleleu to Maui where he stayed from 1802 to 1803 and then to Oʻahu in late 1803 or early 1804. While in Oʻahu,
16188-589: The subject and the ʻawe representing the object. Hawaiian immersion schools teach content that both adheres to state standards and stresses Hawaiian culture and values. The existence of immersion schools in Hawaiʻi has developed the opportunity for intergenerational transmission of Hawaiian at home. The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language is a college at the University of Hawaii at Hilo dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian. It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools. It
16330-534: The throne should succeed to Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani , then to Queen Consort Kapiʻolani , followed by her sister Princess Poʻomaikelani , then Prince David Laʻamea Kawānanakoa , and finally Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole . However, the will was not a proper proclamation according to kingdom law. Protests objected to nominating lower ranking aliʻi who were not eligible to the throne while high ranking aliʻi were available who were eligible, such as High Chiefess Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau . However, Queen Liliʻuokalani held
16472-608: The throne. She came to power during an economic crisis precipitated in part by the McKinley Tariff . By rescinding the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, the new tariff eliminated the previous advantage Hawaiian exporters enjoyed in trade to U.S. markets. Many Hawaiian businesses and citizens felt the lost revenue, and so Liliʻuokalani proposed a lottery and opium licensing to bring in additional revenue. Her ministers and closest friends tried to dissuade her from pursuing
16614-419: The time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by
16756-587: The time, he had several wives and many children, though he outlived many of them. When Kamehameha died on May 8 or 14, 1819, his body was hidden by his trusted friends, Hoapili and Hoʻolulu , in the ancient custom called hūnākele (literally, "to hide in secret"). The mana , or power of a person, was considered to be sacred. As per the ancient custom, his body was buried in a hidden location because of his mana . His final resting place remains unknown. At one point in his reign, Kamehameha III asked that Hoapili show him where his father's bones were buried, but on
16898-518: The total number of children to be 35: 17 sons and 18 daughters. While he had many wives and children, only his children through his highest-ranking wife, Keōpūolani , succeeded him to the throne. In Hoʻomana: Understanding the Sacred and Spiritual , Chun stated that Keōpūolani supported Kaʻahumanu's ending of the Kapu system as the best way to ensure that Kamehameha's children and grandchildren would rule
17040-554: The unifier Ka Naʻi aupuni. High Chiefs Keawe Mauhili and Keeaumoku were by genealogy the next in line for aliʻi nui. Both chose the younger nephews Kīwalaʻō and Kamehameha over themselves. Kīwalaʻō was soon defeated in the first key conflict, the Battle of Mokuʻōhai . Kamehameha and his chiefs took over Konohiki responsibilities and sacred obligations of the districts of Kohala, Kona, and Hāmākua on Hawaiʻi island. The prophecy included far more than Hawaiʻi island. It went across and beyond
17182-420: The warfare among the chiefs of [the island of] Hawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island (Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku) that Kamehameha I was born". However, his general dating has been challenged as twenty years too early, related to disputes over Kamakau's inaccuracy of dating compared to accounts of foreign visitors. Regardless, Abraham Fornander wrote in his book, An Account of
17324-464: The way there Hoapili knew that they were being followed, so he turned around. Kamehameha had many wives. The exact number is debated because documents that recorded the names of his wives were destroyed. Hiram Bingham I lists 21 wives, but earlier research from Mary Kawena Pukui counted 26. In Kamehameha's Children Today authors Charles Ahlo, Rubellite Kawena Johnson and Jerry Walker list 30 wives: 18 who had children, and 12 who did not. They state
17466-434: The ʻokina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters: A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahakō ( kaha 'mark' + kō 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron ). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like
17608-418: Was killed at Kealakekua Bay on Hawaiʻi Island in 1779 in a dispute over the taking of a longboat. Three years later the island passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻu 's son, Kīwalaʻō , while religious authority was passed to the ruler's nephew, Kamehameha. The warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great , waged a military campaign lasting 15 years to unite the islands. He established the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1795 with
17750-499: Was born in Ainakea, Kohala, Hawaii . His father was Keōua Kalanikupuapa'ikalaninui; however, Native Hawaiian historian Samuel Kamakau says that Maui monarch Kahekili II had hānai adopted (traditional, informal adoption) Kamehameha at birth, as was the custom of the time. Kamakau believes this is why Kahekili II is often referred to as Kamehameha's father. The author also says that Kameʻeiamoku told Kamehameha I that he
17892-507: Was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival , which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god Lono . The celebration lasts for the entirety of the rainy season . It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing. The islanders' story foretold of
18034-469: Was divided into multiple classes. Rulers came from the aliʻi class with each island ruled by a separate aliʻi nui . These rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa , who became the earth mother goddess of the Hawaiian religion . Captain James Cook was the first European to encounter the Hawaiian Islands, on his Pacific third voyage (1776–1780). He
18176-497: Was enacted for the first time in any of the United States. Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his Report to the Legislature for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong , the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that
18318-467: Was forced to sign a five-page declaration as "Liliuokalani Dominis" in which she formally abdicated the throne in return for the release and commutation of the death sentences of her jailed supporters, including Minister Joseph Nāwahī , Prince Kawānanakoa, Robert William Wilcox and Prince Jonah Kūhiō. Before ascending the throne, for fourteen years, or since the date of my proclamation as heir apparent, my official title had been simply Liliuokalani. Thus I
18460-473: Was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian. Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered
18602-469: Was overseen by his principal wife, Kaʻahumanu , who was designated as regent over the new king, Liholiho, who was a minor. Queen Kaʻahumanu eliminated various prohibitions ( kapu ) governing women's behavior. She allowed men and women to eat together and women to eat bananas. She also overturned the old religion in favor of Christianity. The missionaries developed a written Hawaiian language . That led to high levels of literacy in Hawaiʻi, above 90 percent in
18744-412: Was plainly to humiliate me before my people and before the world. I saw in a moment, what they did not, that, even were I not complying under the most severe and exacting duress, by this demand they had overreached themselves. There is not, and never was, within the range of my knowledge, any such a person as Liliuokalani Dominis. The Republic of Hawaii was dissolved and the Hawaiian Islands were annexed by
18886-404: Was planning more revenge. Eleanora waited several days before sailing off, apparently without knowledge of what had happened to Fair American or Metcalfe's son. Davis and Eleanora's boatswain, John Young, tried to escape, but were treated as chiefs, given wives and settled in Hawaii. In 1790, Kamehameha's army invaded Maui with the assistance of John Young and Isaac Davis. Using cannons from
19028-421: Was proclaimed both Princess Royal and Queen. Thus it is recorded in the archives of the government to this day. The Provisional Government nor any other had enacted any change in my name. All my official acts, as well as my private letters, were issued over the signature of Liliuokalani. But when my jailers required me to sign ("Liliuokalani Dominis,") I did as they commanded. Their motive in this as in other actions
19170-597: Was requested to wait for the end of President Cleveland's second term. While lobbying continued during 1894, the royalist faction amassed an army 600 strong led by former Captain of the Guard Samuel Nowlein . In 1895 they attempted the 1895 Wilcox rebellion . Liliʻuokalani was arrested when a weapons cache was found on the palace grounds. She was tried by a military tribunal of the Republic, convicted of treason, and placed under permanent house arrest. On January 24, 1895, while under house arrest Liliʻuokalani
19312-471: Was restored under King Kalākaua but failed to stop the 1887 Rebellion by the Missionary Party . The U.S. maintained a policy of keeping at least one cruiser in Hawaiʻi. On January 17, 1893, Liliʻuokalani, believing the U.S. military would intervene if she changed the constitution, waited for the USS Boston to leave port. Once it was known that Liliʻuokalani was revising the constitution,
19454-527: Was strained after Kamehameha made a dedication to the gods instead of allowing Kīwalaʻō to do that. Kamehameha accepted the allegiance of a group of chiefs from the Kona district. The other story took place after the prophecy was passed along by the high priests and high chiefs. When Kamehameha was able to lift the Naha Stone , he was considered the fulfiller of the prophecy. Other ruling chiefs, Keawe Mauhili,
19596-482: Was the longest in the monarchy's history. He enacted the Great Mahele of 1848, promulgated the first Constitution (1840) and its successor (1852) and witnessed cataclysmic losses of his people through imported diseases. Alexander Liholiho, Kamehameha IV, (r. 1854–1863), introduced Anglican religion and royal habits to the kingdom. Lot, Kamehameha V (r. 1863–1872), struggled to solidify Hawaiian nationalism in
19738-458: Was the son of Kahekili II , saying, "I have something to tell you: Ka-hekili was your father, you were not Keoua's son. Here are the tokens that you are the son of Ka-hekili." King Kalākaua wrote that these rumors were scandals and should be dismissed as the offspring of hatred and jealousies of later years. Regardless of the rumors, Kamehameha was a descendant of Keawe through his mother Kekuʻiapoiwa II; Keōua acknowledged him as his son and he
19880-587: Was the support of Kauai chief Kaʻiana and Captain William Brown of the Butterworth Squadron . He guaranteed Kamehameha unlimited gunpowder from China and gave him the formula for gunpowder: sulfur , saltpeter , and charcoal , all of which are abundant in the islands. Two westerners who lived on Hawaiʻi island, Isaac Davis and John Young , married native Hawaiian women and assisted Kamehameha. In 1789, Simon Metcalfe had been captaining
20022-504: Was then cut down by musket fire. Caught by surprise, Keōua's bodyguards were killed. With Keōua dead, and his supporters captured or slain, Kamehameha became King of Hawaiʻi island. In 1795, Kamehameha set sail with an armada of 960 war canoes and 10,000 soldiers. He quickly secured the lightly defended islands of Maui and Molokaʻi at the Battle of Kawela . He moved on to the island of Oʻahu , landing his troops at Waiʻalae and Waikīkī . Kamehameha did not know that one of his commanders,
20164-447: Was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niʻihau , native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. Niʻihau
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