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127-526: The origins of the city date back to about 2700 years ago, during the first Iron Age , when the first settlers of the city settled on the San Vicente hill , on the banks of the Tormes . Since then, the metropolis has witnessed the passage of various peoples: Vaccaei , Vettones , Romans , Visigoths and Muslims . Raymond of Burgundy , son-in-law of King Alfonso VI of León , was in charge of repopulating

254-474: A polis dominated by the Vacceis with the name of Salmatica or Salmantica. Roman Livy and Plutarch will call it Hermandica and Polyaenus calls it Salmantida or Salmatis. Other historians even call it Selium and Sentica. On the other hand, some others like Justin and later Rui Méndez or Murillo attributed the creation of the city to Teucer , son of Telamon, king of Salamis , who after being defeated in

381-526: A Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number of amphoras (containers usually for wine or olive oil), coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and its pedra formosa ( lit.   ' handsome stone ' ) revealed here. The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among

508-537: A chronic feeling of insecurity. The late 15th century population has been tentatively estimated at 15,000–25,000. By the turn of the 16th century most of the population dwelled at the right (north) bank of the Tormes, with a small arrabal in the south bank inhabited by roughly 300 people. With the rise of the Mesta , Salamanca gained importance as a center of manufacturings draperies and as an exporter of wool . Like

635-699: A combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan . The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has been associated tentatively with the Zhang Zhung culture described by early Tibetan writings. In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during

762-627: A few short hours. A bad moment came when Fernando VII of Spain closed the Spanish universities. After the reopening, the University of Salamanca was reduced to a provincial university. For the province of Salamanca acted the Salamanca guerrilla and military Julián Sánchez García "El Charro" in command of the Lancers of Castile unit. In 1833 the province of Salamanca was created, framed in

889-637: A large influx of students from many countries, who mostly come to learn the Spanish language and attend various summer courses. On October 14 and 15, 2005, the capital of Salamanca hosted the XV Ibero-American Summit of Heads of State and Government. The Crown Prince of Japan Naruhito visited the city on June 13, 2013 on the occasion of the commemoration of the 400th anniversary of the Spanish-Japanese exchange. He received from

1016-459: A new home. His departing words were introduced in the seventh ode of the first book of the Roman poet Horace's Odes , in which he exhorts his companions " nil desperandum ", "do not despair", and announces " cras ingens iterabimus aequor ", "tomorrow we shall set out upon the vast ocean". This speech has been given a wider applicability in relation to the theme of voyages of discovery, also found in

1143-464: A possible return, and when it became uninhabited it was filled with rabbits, so it has been known until recently as barrio del Conejal . In the 18th century it had an important economic and cultural revival, which led to the completion of the New Cathedral of Salamanca (whose works had been stopped for almost a century) and the construction of its imposing baroque Plaza Mayor in 1729. When

1270-400: Is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with the technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within

1397-669: Is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in Kandarodai , Matota, Pilapitiya and Tissamaharama . The earliest undisputed deciphered epigraphy found in the Indian subcontinent are the Edicts of Ashoka of the 3rd century BC, in the Brahmi script . Several inscriptions were thought to be pre-Ashokan by earlier scholars; these include the Piprahwa relic casket inscription,

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1524-418: Is considered to be a world reference in the teaching of Spanish language , since it concentrates 78% of the existing offer in its autonomous community, which represents 16% of the national market. The origin of the toponym Salamanca is not clear. Greeks Polybius of Megalopolis and Stephanus called the city Helmantike, Greek name that for them meant "Land of divination". On the other hand, Ptolemy appeals to

1651-536: Is considered to last from c.  1200 BC (the Bronze Age collapse ) to c.  550 BC (or 539 BC ), roughly the beginning of historiography with Herodotus , marking the end of the proto-historical period. In China , because writing was developed first, there is no recognizable prehistoric period characterized by ironworking, and the Bronze Age China transitions almost directly into

1778-543: Is divided into two periods based on the Hallstatt culture (early Iron Age) and La Tène (late Iron Age) cultures. Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D). The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear;

1905-873: Is from Malhar and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc., by at least c. 1500 BC. Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site. The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in East India has been dated to

2032-713: Is home to important scientific institutions and research centers, such as the Cancer Research Center , the Institute of Neurosciences of Castile and León , the Center for Water Research and Technological Development and the Ultra-Short Ultra-Intense Pulsed Laser Center. The city and its metropolitan area , host some of the largest companies, by turnover, in the autonomous community of Castile and León. In addition, it

2159-556: Is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia". Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC). Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in

2286-713: Is preceded by the Stone Age (subdivided into the Paleolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic ) and Bronze Age. These concepts originated for describing Iron Age Europe and the Ancient Near East . The indigenous cultures of the New World did not develop an iron economy before 1500 . Although meteoric iron has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around

2413-626: Is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700–600 BC to become a town. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna . The name "Ko Veta" is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary Brahmi inscriptions in south India. It

2540-515: Is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to be that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It

2667-457: Is summarized in that "the first element of Salamanca, sala- is the designation of the ford of a river", " sal- and hel- cannot be linguistically related one from the other" and regarding the second element -manca "where some believe to see the same element in the toponym Talamanca (de Jarama) which, in turn, would coincide in its first element with Talavera, and in Simancas , all of which

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2794-411: Is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but from smelted steel alloys with an added carbon content. Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter than bronze . Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age . Whilst terrestrial iron

2921-427: Is undemonstrable". The municipal heraldic shield was approved on 11 June 1996 with the following coat of arms : "Shield parted. First, of silver, with a stone bridge, pierced in sable, on which is passing a bull arrested in sable, and behind it a fig tree of sinople, uprooted. Second, of gold with four gules poles; bordure of azure with eight silver pate crosses. Manteled in silver chief, with two lions, natural, on

3048-463: The Ulysses of Tennyson . Teucer eventually joined King Belus of Tyre in his campaign against Cyprus, and when the island was seized, Belus handed it over to him in reward for his assistance. Teucer founded the city of Salamis on Cyprus, which he named after his home state. He further married Eune, daughter of Cinyras , king of Cyprus, and had by her a daughter Asteria. Anaxarete of Cyprus

3175-483: The 12th century BC (1200–1100 BC). The technology soon spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin region and to South Asia between the 12th and 11th century BC. Its further spread to Central Asia , Eastern Europe , and Central Europe was somewhat delayed, and Northern Europe was not reached until about the start of the 5th century BC (500 BC). The Iron Age in India is stated as beginning with

3302-931: The Badli pillar inscription , the Bhattiprolu relic casket inscription, the Sohgaura copper plate inscription , the Mahasthangarh Brahmi inscription, the Eran coin legend, the Taxila coin legends, and the inscription on the silver coins of Sophytes . However, more recent scholars have dated them to later periods. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with

3429-516: The Fuero de Salamanca , by order of his father-in-law Alfonso VI. These founded their respective churches and parishes. Of all the repopulating groups the most important was that of the Serranos (mountainous-Castilian people) , also called the warrior-shepherds, dedicated exclusively to the care of their livestock and warfare. It should not be forgotten that all of medieval Extremadura, territory between

3556-687: The Ganges Valley in India have been dated tentatively to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC". By the Middle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by

3683-540: The Geum River basin . The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla , Baekje , Goguryeo , and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased during this period. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. The earliest evidence of iron smelting predates

3810-727: The Indo-European Saka in present-day Xinjiang (China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. The Pazyryk culture is an Iron Age archaeological culture ( c.  6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the Siberian permafrost in the Altay Mountains . Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. In China, Chinese bronze inscriptions are found around 1200 BC, preceding

3937-807: The Old City of Salamanca was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . It has an important historical-architectural heritage, among which stand out its two cathedrals - the Old cathedral and the New cathedral , the Casa de las Conchas , the Plaza Mayor , the Convento de San Esteban and the Escuelas Mayores . Since 2003, Holy Week in Salamanca has been declared of international tourist interest . Salamanca

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4064-730: The Orchid Island . Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as KM2 and KM3 in northwest Tanzania and parts of Nigeria and the Central African Republic. Nubia was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along with Egypt and much of the rest of North Africa . Archaeometallurgical scientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa;

4191-566: The Qin dynasty of imperial China. "Iron Age" in the context of China is used sometimes for the transitional period of c.  900 BC to 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant. The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun after the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia , the Caucasus or Southeast Europe during

4318-624: The Region of León , thus making the city of Salamanca the capital of that province, becoming home to the Diputación de Salamanca . In 1873, after the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic , the first serious attempt to federalize Spain was undertaken through the draft Constitution of 1873 . Barely five days after the presentation of this project, Salamanca suffered a Cantonalista uprising which, after four days of success,

4445-528: The Roman conquests of the 1st century BC serve as marking the end of the Iron Age. The Germanic Iron Age of Scandinavia is considered to end c.  AD 800 , with the beginning of the Viking Age . The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by the latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to

4572-482: The Salamanca City Council and the Spanish government, and popular demonstrations. The Salamanca City Council, presided by Julián Lanzarote ( PP ), changed the name of the street where the archive is located from "Gibraltar" (a name that paid homage to the Salamanca militias that went with Alfonso XI of Castile to the conquest of Gibraltar ) to "El Expolio", as a sign of protest after the transfer of

4699-535: The Trojan War , came to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a city, which remembering his homeland he would call Salamatica. Another theory that can be resorted to is that of the existence of a god of the first inhabitants -nomadic shepherds and Neolithic farmers- called Helman, whose name derived from the toponym Helmantica. The philologist Martín S. Ruipérez contributes a new interpretative line that

4826-589: The Yangtse Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing . The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid-to-late Warring States period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC. The techniques used in Lingnan are

4953-501: The cathedral schools the rank of studium generale which, in 1254, would become University of Salamanca by royal decree of Alfonso X of Castile , later ratified by Pope Alexander IV , in 1255: To the University of Salamanca's teachers and schoolchildren: We consider it worthy and convenient that those who daily cultivate with lessons the field of study so that they may receive the daisy of science find us favorable and benign in their petitions so that their study may be exercised all

5080-631: The " Salamanca Papers " to Catalonia. In 1940, Pope Pius XII founded the Pontifical University of Salamanca as a continuation of the ancient theological studies. In 1988 Salamanca was declared a World Heritage City by UNESCO . In 1998, by agreement of the Ministers of Culture of the European Union , Salamanca was designated (shared with Bruges ), European Capital of Culture for the year 2002. The city also aspires to obtain

5207-480: The 1980s onwards (See Demographics of Spain ) leading to an aging population , a phenomenon common to many other Spanish cities, although there is also a high rate of emigration to places like Madrid . It is significant to note that the province of Salamanca has a high rate of aging population with respect to national data. From June 7–10, 1994, the World Conference on Special Needs Education took place in

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5334-535: The Americas, the School of Salamanca was interested in the rights on non-Europeans, including rights as a corporeal being (right to life), economic rights (right to own property) and spiritual rights (rights to freedom of thought and rights related to intrinsic human dignity). Due to the institutional connections of Dominicans at the University of Salamanca (especially Francisco de Vitoria ) and Dominican missionaries in

5461-541: The Carthaginian general ended up seizing them and, according to Polybius , "admired by the bravery of his women, by them he returned to his men the homeland and wealth". After the Second Punic War , the victorious Roman army began its expansion throughout most of the Iberian Peninsula. Salamanca began an intense period of Romanization as a city annexed to the province of Lusitania . The Roman Salmantica

5588-570: The Duero and the Central System, was known in the Arab chronicles as "Country of the Serranos". Even today there is still a street "calle Serranos" around which this repopulating group was agglutinated. The new settlers occupied the old walled enclosure and colonized new lands in the surrounding area. The occupation of the city responded to social, ethnic and power criteria. Thus, the social elite

5715-407: The German and Italian fascist delegations, making it the de facto Nationalist capital and centre of power during the entire civil war. Like much of fervently Catholic and largely rural León and Old Castile regions, Salamanca was a staunch supporter of the Nationalist side and Francisco Franco 's regime for its long duration. After the war, the documents seized by the rebel army as they occupied

5842-406: The Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi , Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC. As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c. 1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting

5969-592: The Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age. In Philippines and Vietnam , the Sa Huynh culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, as well as

6096-443: The Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period. In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC. For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period is Teppe Hasanlu . In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer , Akkad and Assyria , the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of

6223-440: The Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long believed that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading Sea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading

6350-488: The Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during the Migration Period . Iron working was introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus , and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in

6477-406: The Salamanca area has been dated to the beginning of the first millennium BC. This is attested by the ceramic remains found in the " San Vicente hill " and which have been ascribed to the Las Cogotas I culture of the Final Bronze Age . In this same hill has been found what to date is considered the first human settlement of stable and continuous character, although already ascribed to the culture of

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6604-407: The Salamancan buildings, especially in the neighborhood called Caídos (demolished), where the well-known colegios mayores of the University were erected, of which no trace remains. The western quarter of Salamanca was seriously damaged by cannon fire. The battle which raged that day is famous as a defining moment in military history and thirteen thousand men were killed or wounded in the space of only

6731-442: The Soto de Medinilla of the first Iron Age (7th century BC). Later, already in the second Iron Age (from the 4th century BC), it has been found that a new population center developed in the so-called "teso de las catedrales or cerro de San Isidro", this already of Castro character and that lasted until the definitive Romanization of the city. All these settlements, and therefore the current site of Salamanca, owe their existence to

6858-480: The Tormes, where he says that the repopulation began: Civitates desertas ibidem populavit; hee sunt: Salamantica, sedes antiqua castrorum, Letesma, Ribas, Balneos, Alphandiga, Penna et alia plurima castella, quod longum est prenotare. Deserted cities regain population; these are: Salamantica, the ancient seat of the castrum, Letesma , Ribas, Balneos, Alphandiga , Penna, and many other towns, we note that it will take too long. Everything seems to indicate that to

6985-405: The Trojan War, Teucer was mainly a great archer , who loosed his shafts from behind the giant shield of his half-brother Ajax the Great. When Hector was driving the Achaeans back toward their ships, Teucer gave the Argives some success by killing many of the charging Trojans, including Hector's charioteer, Archeptolemus son of Iphitos . However, every time he shot an arrow at Hector, Apollo ,

7112-401: The ancient city of Helmantica (Salamanca). Thus, Plutarch says that "Hannibal besieged it and its inhabitants, to avoid further damage, submitted to him offering them three hundred talents of silver and as many hostages, raising the siege, the Helmantiqueses, failed to keep their promises and protected by their women who had hidden their weapons and managed to defeat Hannibal's troops". However,

7239-440: The archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s. Meteoric iron, a natural iron–nickel alloy , was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. The earliest-known meteoric iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC , which were found in burials at Gerzeh in Lower Egypt , having been shaped by careful hammering. The characteristic of an Iron Age culture

7366-427: The archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological " Ages of Man " of Hesiod . As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen during the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general and began to be applied in Assyriology . The development of the now-conventional periodization in

7493-430: The beginning of the Western Han dynasty . Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed during the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in

7620-456: The body to make sure it was buried, insulting Menelaus and Agamemnon when they tried to stop the burial. Finally, Odysseus persuaded Agamemnon to let the burial happen. Because of his half-brother's suicide, Teucer stood trial before his father, where he was found guilty of negligence for not bringing his dead half-brother's body or his arms back with him. He was disowned by his father, wasn't allowed back on Salamis Island, and set out to find

7747-430: The candidacy for the Universal Exposition of Salamanca in the not too distant future. Currently the population of the capital of Salamanca, stagnant for about three decades, is around 160,000 inhabitants, although in 2006 it decreased by more than 11,000 people with respect to the year 1994. This is mainly due to the transfer of part of its population to the metropolitan area, and a very low birth rates that occurred from

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7874-482: The capabilities of Neolithic kilns , which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F). In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel has also been regulated by

8001-415: The capital of Salamanca, with 92 governments and 25 international organizations represented, and concluded with the "Salamanca Declaration of Principles, Policy and Practice for Special Needs Education". For its part, the service sector (the buoyant cultural tourism and the University ) is the main source of income for the city. Particularly relevant is the educational activity during the summer, as it has

8128-637: The centers of origin were located in West Africa , Central Africa , and East Africa ; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631–2458 BC at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136–1921 BC at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895–1370 BC at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297–1051 BC at Dekpassanware, in Togo. Teucer In Greek mythology , Teucer ( / ˈ tj uː s ər / ), also Teucrus , Teucros or Teucris ( Ancient Greek : Τεῦκτρος , romanized :  Teûkros ),

8255-462: The city during the Middle Ages and laying the foundations of modern-day Salamanca. Salamanca is home to the oldest active university in Spain, the University of Salamanca , founded in 1218 by Alfonso IX of León on the germ of its studium generale , and which was the first in Europe to hold the title of university by royal decree of Alfonso X of Castile dated November 9, 1252 and by the licentia ubique docendi of Pope Alexander IV of 1255. During

8382-408: The city of Salamanca come from the Roman period. In the first place, the Calzada de la Plata , considered as its main communication infrastructure, the main axis of city planning and a milestone in the development of its commercial function. Secondly, the Roman bridge , as an infrastructure that since the 1st century guaranteed the passage over the Tormes river and therefore the access to the city from

8509-447: The city reached its height of splendour (it is estimated that Salamanca had about 24,000 inhabitants and around 1580 6500 students were enrolled each year). During that period, the University of Salamanca hosted the most important intellectuals of the time; these groups of mostly- Dominican scholars were designated the School of Salamanca . In 1551, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor ordered an inquiry to find out if

8636-437: The city upon the merging of the fascist Falange and the traditionalist carlists. The Nationalists soon moved most of the administrative premises to Burgos , which, being more central, was better suited for this purpose. However, some administrative apparatus, the Episcopal Palace , next to the Old Cathedral was the residence and command center of General Francisco Franco , and the military commands stayed in Salamanca, along with

8763-405: The colonies (such as Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolomé de las Casas ), the School of Salamanca was critical of the Spanish colonists and the laws that permitted their abusive treatment of native peoples. Their work on the idea of ius gentium , or "rights of peoples/nations", was a crucial contribution to the modern development of human rights and international law . During the 16th century,

8890-471: The conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI of León in 1085, the definitive repopulation of the city took place. In 1102, Raymond of Burgundy went to the city with a large group of settlers of diverse origins, with a composition similar to the new inhabitants of the city of Ávila - Franks , Castilians , serranos, Mozarabs , Toroans , Portugueses and Bragançans , as well as with the occasional collaboration of Galicians, Jews and Muslims; which are collected in

9017-430: The control of the city and that years later concluded with the signing of a Concord achieved by a brave Augustinian friar who, in time, became the patron saint of the city: Saint John of Sahagún . The 15th century was plagued by social conflict and tensions among the urban elites (a complex development, often oversimplified as an infighting between bandos), with occasional outbursts of grave episodes of violence, conveying

9144-510: The devastating Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) the city quickly went over to the Nationalist side and was temporarily used as the de facto headquarters for the rebel faction. Francisco Franco was proclaimed Generalissimo on 21 September 1936 while at the city. In April 1937, the FET y de las JONS , the single party of the ensuing dictatorship, was created via a Unification Decree issued at

9271-469: The development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC. The large seal script is identified with a group of characters from a book entitled Shǐ Zhòu Piān ( c. 800 BC). Therefore, in China prehistory had given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so "Iron Age" is not used typically to describe a period of Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached

9398-531: The earliest smelted iron artifacts known is a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia , dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia ) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during

9525-497: The economics of the metallurgical advancements. The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it

9652-613: The emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries. Iron was being used in Mundigak to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button. Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state of Telangana which have been dated between 2400 BC and 1800 BC. The history of metallurgy in

9779-583: The end of the Bronze Age . The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East . Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean about 1300 BC forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. Many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time, and more widespread use of iron resulted in improved steel-making technology and lower costs. When tin became readily available again, iron

9906-700: The end of the Western Roman Empire , the Alans settled in Lusitania and the city became part of this region. Later the Visigoths conquered the city and annexed it to their territory. There is little information about the development of Salamanca in the Visigothic period, it is only known that in the 4th century the Roman walls were extended with keeps on the same layout, and that the remains of

10033-549: The ensuing battle. He was also one of the Danaans to enter the Trojan Horse . In total, Teucer slew thirty Trojans during the war; of those Homer mentions Aretaon , Orsilochus , Ormenus , Ophelestes , Daetor , Chromius , Lycophontes , Amopaon , Melanippus , Prothoon and Periphetes , as well as the aforementioned Archeptolemus. He also wounded Glaucus , son of Hippolochus . After Ajax's suicide, Teucer guarded

10160-498: The excavation of Ugarit. A dagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb , 13th century BC, was examined recently and found to be of meteoric origin. In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of prehistoric Europe and the first of the protohistoric periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by

10287-465: The first millennium BC. In Southern India (present-day Mysore ) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention metallurgy. and the Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel

10414-506: The flanks and facing each other. To the bell, the Spanish Royal Crown, open and without diadems" The municipal flag was approved with the following textual description: "Rectangular flag of proportions 2:3, red with the coat of arms of Salamanca in the center" Salamanca has been linked to Universal History by a series of events and personalities that came to mark the evolution of Western society: The first human habitat in

10541-480: The forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art. Citânia de Briteiros , located in Guimarães , Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as

10668-565: The frequent incursions (algaradas) of the Arabs. Salamanca was reduced to an unimportant and almost uninhabited nucleus, although the bridge remained intact, with some settlers in the surrounding area. The successive attempts of the Christian kingdoms to stabilize the area caused many clashes with Muslim expeditions to the north, which caused several skirmishes and battles, such as that of Alfonso I of Asturias in 754, which ended up destroying what

10795-464: The great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 struck, many of the city's monumental buildings saw the integrity of their fabrics endangered. One of the most revealing images of its effects can still be seen in the Church of San Martín : many of the stones must have been in the air for a fraction of a second, enough for the pillars to tilt and the voussoirs of arches and vaults to fall in a place that was not exactly

10922-522: The hands of Mayor Alfonso Fernández Mañueco the keys to the city. Iron Age The Iron Age ( c.  1200  – c.  550 BC ) is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages , after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age . It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progressing to protohistory (before written history). In this usage, it

11049-420: The ironworking Painted Grey Ware culture , dating from the 15th century BC , through to the reign of Ashoka in the 3rd century BC . The term "Iron Age" in the archaeology of South, East, and Southeast Asia is more recent and less common than for Western Eurasia. Africa did not have a universal "Bronze Age", and many areas transitioned directly from stone to iron. Some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy

11176-498: The knowledge through that region. The idea of such a "Hittite monopoly" has been examined more thoroughly and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. Iron metal

11303-567: The lack of nickel in the product) appeared in the Middle East , Southeast Asia and South Asia . African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC. However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BC, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000 BC. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BC, while

11430-528: The late 2nd millennium BC ( c. 1300 BC). The earliest bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh , Jordan about 930 BC (determined from C dating ). The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of

11557-550: The late Yayoi period ( c. 300 BC – 300 AD) or the succeeding Kofun period ( c. 250–538 AD), most likely from the Korean Peninsula and China. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū . The Kofun and

11684-660: The militias of the Crown, in which the large presence of Salamancan contingents stood out. During the 15th century, Salamanca was the scene of great rivalries that affected all areas of urban life, triggering the so-called War of the Bandos , which pitted two factions led by families of the nobility - the Benitinos and the Tomesinos, so called because they were grouped around the parishes of San Benito and Santo Tomé- that disputed

11811-527: The more freely the more they feel protected by apostolic favor. And consequently, in accordance with your request, informed that it sometimes happens that those who have been examined in the Salamancan study and are declared suitable are not allowed to dictate elsewhere if they do not undergo another examination, attending to the request of the illustrious king of Castile and León and yours, we declare that, after some teacher or scholar of Salamanca has taken

11938-531: The nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BC. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BC. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking

12065-491: The one they had occupied until that moment, so that in its interior today one can see arched walls and pillars, deformed arches and ribs. However, the city's economic prosperity made it possible to renovate many of the monumental buildings damaged by the earthquake, including the cathedral, which was the most affected of all the Spanish cathedrals. In the cultural aspect, the influence of the Bourbon Enlightenment

12192-452: The only sculptural find from the Roman period that has appeared in the subsoil of the city. Some specialists consider that this finding, put in relation with several Roman inscriptions from the beginning of the Empire found in the ancient Salmantica, allows to defend the hypothetical juridical promotion of the ancient indigenous oppidum to Roman civitas during the reign of Augustus . With

12319-429: The pre-existing population was added during this phase the emigration that came fundamentally from comarcas located to the north of the Duero; in the case of Salamanca it is undoubtedly that it is preferably emigrants arriving from the vicinity of León , according to the donation made by Ordoño III of León in the year 953 to the church of León of all the churches recently constructed in the alfoz of Salamanca. . After

12446-580: The preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia. The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe

12573-542: The previous walls were destroyed practically in their entirety. It is known that in 589 the city was an episcopal seat because it was among the cities that sent bishops to the councils of Toledo . In 712, with the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, Musa ibn Nusayr conquered the city. During the Early Middle Ages , the area remained a "no man's land" and most of its population centers were destroyed by

12700-462: The protector of the Trojans, would foil the shot. At one point in his rage at Teucer's success, Hector picked up a huge rock and flung it at him. The rock injured Teucer, so that he retired from the fighting for a certain period of time. He took up a spear to fight in the war after his bow was broken by Zeus. He once again challenged Hector, and narrowly avoided the path of Hector's flying javelin in

12827-620: The relevant examination in some faculty and was declared suitable, he may practice in any other study, without new examination, except in Paris and Bologna. The university would eventually achieve great prestige. On August 12, 1311, the only king of Castile and León that the city has ever produced, Alfonso XI "the Avenger", was born within Salamanca's walls . He acceded to the throne at the age of fourteen and conquered Gibraltar in command of

12954-625: The rest of the historical nuclei of the Crown that had representation in Cortes, Salamanca joined the movement of the Communities of Castile (1520) against the new taxes demanded by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in the Cortes of Castile and in defense of its textile manufactures against the privileges of the wool exporters. After the defeat of the Comuneros, King Carlos V had the upper part of

13081-491: The science of Andreas Vesalius , physician and anatomist, was in line with Catholic doctrine. Vesalius came to Salamanca that same year to appear before the board and was acquitted. The Jewish quarter of Salamanca was located to the north, next to the walls (more or less the current avenida de Mirat). When, in 1492, they were expelled , the neighborhood was walled up and respected by the Salamancans, probably thinking of

13208-479: The south. The Roman bridge still remains today in the northern half, since the other half had to be rebuilt in the 17th century after the San Policarpo flood . Finally, the so-called Cerca Vieja, primitive wall of the city that surrounded the perimeter of the hill of San Isidro or of the cathedrals on the layout of the previous Castro . In November 2015, in the course of an emergency excavation carried out in

13335-506: The spaces outside the walls. The Diocese of Salamanca was restored (the first bishop being Jerome of Périgord ) and the construction of the Old Cathedral was begun, at whose side some schools were founded, which would be the seed of the future university. In 1218, the monarch Alfonso IX of León granted privileges that attracted new settlers -among them a large Jewish community-, the city expanded its walled perimeter and granted

13462-529: The special geomorphological characteristics of the terrain on which they settled. Thus, the choice of the location of these successive settlements must have had a special influence on the fact that this area had three tesserae -formed by the erosion of the San Francisco and Santo Domingo streams-, their corresponding watercourses and especially the proximity of the Tormes River. These details point to

13589-637: The subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period ; The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from that era. Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area during the 4th century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but prior to

13716-456: The subsoil of a house located in calle Libreros , several fragments of a male marble statue of a togado character were found, which must have been originally located somewhere in the Roman forum of the city of Salmantica, although it must have been later reused as filler material in the place where it was discovered. The statue is exhibited in the Museum of Salamanca and is the first, and to date,

13843-460: The suitability of this territory for the primitive functions of defense and control of the surrounding territory. The settlement of the hill of San Isidro must have been a city of great importance between the centuries 4th and 2nd centuries BC, not only for its dimensions, but also for its optimal orographic conditions and defensive protection, since it had a wall and moat. In 220 B.C., Hannibal , in his advance through Iberia , besieged and conquered

13970-438: The suspicions that Greek traders might have reached that area in ancient times, hence introducing a number of Greek stories. The city is sometimes poetically called "The City of Teucer" and its inhabitants teucrinos . A number of sporting clubs in the municipality use names related to Teucer. Some versions of the legend say that Teucer reached Galicia by following a sea nymph or mermaid called Leucoina, while others point to her as

14097-600: The term is used infrequently for the archaeology of China. For the Ancient Near East, the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire c.  550 BC is used traditionally and still usually as an end date; later dates are considered historical according to the record by Herodotus despite considerable written records now being known from well back into the Bronze Age. In Central and Western Europe,

14224-555: The territory that had defended the Republic were concentrated in Salamanca, creating a large documentary archive on the Spanish Civil War ( General Archive of the Spanish Civil War ). The part of this archive, which deals with Catalonia , as well as many valuable papers and documents of individuals and institutions not belonging to that region, was transferred to Barcelona in the spring of 2006, after great disputes between

14351-562: The time when it was one of the most prestigious universities in the West, the phrase Quod natura non dat, Salmantica non præstat , What nature does not give, Salamanca does not lend , became popular. Salamanca is linked to universal history by names such as Antonio de Nebrija , Christopher Columbus , Fernando de Rojas , Francisco de Vitoria and the School of Salamanca , friar Luis de León , Beatriz Galindo and Miguel de Unamuno . In 1988,

14478-467: The towers of the palaces of the Salamancans who joined the revolt removed. The 16th century was the period of greatest splendor of the city, both in demography and in university life, thanks to the prestige of its professors, with the so-called School of Salamanca . Then it joined the general decline of the cities of the Crown of Castile in the Meseta Norte (12,000 inhabitants in 1651). Moreover, it

14605-481: The world by archaeological convention when the production of smelted iron (especially steel tools and weapons) replaces their bronze equivalents in common use. In Anatolia and the Caucasus , or Southeast Europe , the Iron Age began during the late 2nd millennium BC ( c. 1300 BC). In the Ancient Near East , this transition occurred simultaneously with the Late Bronze Age collapse , during

14732-673: Was also noted in the University in the last third of the century. During the Peninsular War , Salamanca was occupied by the troops of Marshal Soult in 1809 and remained in French hands until the Battle of Arapiles (1812), in which an Anglo-Portuguese Army led by Wellington decisively defeated the French army of Marmont . During the occupation, the French built defenses and, in order to obtain materials, destroyed an important part of

14859-402: Was around that time that the Church of San Isidoro was built. The juridical doctrine of the School of Salamanca represented a change in trajectory from medieval law, which relied extensively on the tradition of casuistry and on Roman law , to a system that focused more on scholasticism and Thomism , and which tried to be more explicitly universal. Since Spain had just started colonizing

14986-488: Was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir , dating before 2000 BC, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text of Pepi I , the metal is mentioned. A sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in

15113-613: Was called "a proud princess in the line of Teucer 's descendants". The name Teucer is believed to be related to the name of the West Hittite God Tarku (East Hittite Teshub)—the Indo-European Storm God—a role which explains his relationship to Belus, who is associated with the Carthaginian god Baal Hammon . Local legends of the city of Pontevedra ( Galicia ) relate the foundation of this city to Teucer ( Teucro ), although this seems to be based more on

15240-400: Was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. In Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age lasted from c.  800 BC to c.  1 BC , beginning in pre-Roman Iron Age Northern Europe in c.  600 BC , and reaching Northern Scandinavian Europe about c.  500 BC . The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East

15367-457: Was developed in sub-Saharan Africa independently from Eurasia and neighbouring parts of Northeast Africa as early as 2000 BC . The concept of the Iron Age ending with the beginning of the written historiographical record has not generalized well, as written language and steel use have developed at different times in different areas across the archaeological record. For instance, in China, written history started before iron smelting began, so

15494-571: Was left of the town. The area remained more or less depopulated until after the important Christian victory, in the Battle of Simancas of 939, the effective repopulation of the riverside area of the Tormes began. According to the Pelagian wording of the Chronicle of Sampiro , two months after the end of the Islamic attack, Ramiro II of León ordered the advance of his army towards the banks of

15621-754: Was located in the center of the city, a space that coincided with that of the ancient Celtiberian city. The Serranos, linked to political and military power, occupied the western part (house of the royal representative and Alcázar ) and the Franks to the east, together with the Episcopal see and the commercial center around the Azogue Viejo. The Jews will be located next to the Alcázar and the remaining groups of repopulators (Castilians, Portuguese, Jews, Mozarabs, Toroans and Galicians, among others) will be located in

15748-561: Was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique . In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya . The Anuradhapura settlement

15875-592: Was put down on July 26, 1873. Subsequently, a military pronouncement took away the First Republic and the regionalizing initiative of the Federal State. During the rest of the 19th century the city experienced a slight recovery when it was named provincial capital and the railroad linking France with Portugal , which passed through the Meseta ( Medina del Campo and Salamanca, 1877), was built. During

16002-406: Was restructured, limiting its settlement to the so-called teso de las catedrales, abandoning the site of the hill of San Vicente. Its new configuration kept it as a remarkable city, not only for its particular defensive and accessibility characteristics, but also for being a center of exchange. Three of the cultural elements that have had the greatest influence on the configuration and development of

16129-474: Was the son of King Telamon of Salamis Island and his second wife Hesione , daughter of King Laomedon of Troy . He fought alongside his half-brother, Ajax , in the Trojan War and is the legendary founder of the city of Salamis on Cyprus . Through his mother, Teucer was the nephew of King Priam of Troy and the cousin of Hector and Paris —all of whom he fought against in the Trojan War. During

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