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143-398: Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in the architecture of India , especially ancient Indian rock-cut architecture . Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected to it, sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. Typical large sites such as

286-560: A Jain or Buddhist temple or "dwelling, waiting place" in many medieval era inscriptions and texts, from vi-har which means "to construct". It contrasts with Sanskrit : araṇya or Pali : arañña , which means "forest". In medieval era, the term meant any monastery, particularly for Buddhist monks. Matha is another term for monastery in the Buddhist tradition, today normally used for Hindu establishments. The eastern Indian state of Bihar derives its name from vihāra due to

429-617: A vihara-pala , the one who managed the vihara, settled disputes, determined sangha's consent and rules, and forced those hold-outs to this consensus. Three early influential monastic fraternities are traceable in Buddhist history. The Mahavihara established by Mahinda was the oldest. Later, in 1st century BCE, King Vattagamani donated the Abhayagiri vihara to his favored monk, which led the Mahavihara fraternity to expel that monk. In 3rd century CE, this repeated when King Mahasena donated

572-418: A vimana , where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikharas . However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at

715-506: A centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings (Pancha Lenani) namely, Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya and Guha is found in the Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only the Vihara (monastery) and Guha (Cave) have survived. At some stage of Buddhism, like other Indian religious traditions, the wandering monks of the Sangha dedicated to asceticism and

858-535: A corporation, serving as centers of learning. Other notable monasteries of the Pala Empire were Traikuta, Devikota (identified with ancient Kotivarsa, 'modern Bangarh'), and Pandit Vihara . Excavations jointly conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India and University of Burdwan in 1971–1972 to 1974–1975 yielded a Buddhist monastic complex at Monorampur, near Bharatpur via Panagarh Bazar in

1001-407: A deity is housed in. Around this chamber are other structures and buildings, at times covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara , also called the vimana in the south. The temple may include an ambulatory for parikrama ( circumambulation ), one or more mandapas or congregation halls, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between

1144-692: A doctrine [of Ajivikas] which genuinely advocated the lack of efficacy of individual effort could have formed the basis of a renunciatory path to spiritual liberation", and that "the suspicion must be that the Jains and Buddhists deliberately distorted Ajivika doctrine for their own polemical purposes". In contrast, other scholars suggest that at least the common elements found about Ājīvikas in Jain and Buddhist literature may be considered, because Jainism and Buddhism were two different, competing and conflicting philosophies in ancient India. The problems of time and change

1287-619: A dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia , where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Guard rails —consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber. The Indian gateway arches,

1430-668: A few viharas have been unearthed here and the most elaborate is the Shalban Vihara . The complex consists of a fairly large vihara of the usual plan of four ranges of monastic cells round a central court, with a temple in cruciform plan situated in the centre. According to a legend on a seal (discovered at the site) the founder of the monastery was Bhavadeva , a ruler of the Deva dynasty. As Buddhism spread in Southeast Asia, monasteries were built by local kings. The term vihara

1573-411: A fully elaborate philosophy, produced by its scholars and logicians, but those texts are lost. Their literature evolved over the centuries, like other traditions of Indian philosophy, through the medieval era. The Pali and Prakrit texts of Buddhism and Jainism suggest that Ajivika theories were codified, some of which were quoted in commentaries produced by Buddhist and Jaina scholars. The main texts of

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1716-684: A group of Hindu and Jain temples located in the town of Khajuraho, in the Chhatarpur District of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty . Khajuraho is home to 25 sandstone temples in total, although only 20 remain mostly intact. The beautiful carvings on these temples, which show themes from Hindu mythology as well as other facets of everyday life in ancient India, are well-known. Both Hindu and Jain architectural influences may be seen in their design. The temples are split into three groups:

1859-421: A high and curving shikhara over the sanctuary. Dravida or Dravidian architecture is the broad South Indian style, possessing a lower superstructure over the sanctuary. Instead, the structure has a straight profile, rising in a series of terraces to form a decorated pyramid. Today, this is often dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger gopuram outer gateways, a much later development. The ancient term vesara

2002-763: A less sophisticated village culture was left behind. After the collapse of the Mature Harappan Period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. Sites like Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, Kudwala (38.1 ha) in Cholistan, and Daimabad (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000–1000 BC), developed a fortification wall with bastions in its Jorwe culture period (1400–1000 BC), and had public buildings, such as an elliptical temple and an apsidal temple. It also shows evidence of planning in

2145-480: A mere function of atoms operating under cosmic rules. Riepe states that the details of the Ajivikas theory of atomism provided the foundations of later modified atomism theories found in Jain, Buddhist, and Vedic traditions. Another doctrine of Ajivikas philosophy, according to Buddhist texts, was their antinomian ethics, that is there exist "no objective moral laws". Buddhaghosa summarizes this view as, "There

2288-594: A number of broad models of Guptan-style temples, however, the most common plan exemplifies small but massively built stone prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, apparent at Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17 and continued today. Both temples have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would become uncommon by about the 8th century, as seen in the design of the Mahabodhi Temple , Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop, with high superstructures of different shapes. The Chejarla Kapoteswara temple further demonstrates

2431-455: A number of small cells. Rock-cut cells are often fitted with rock-cut platforms for beds and pillows. The front wall had one or more entrances, and often a verandah . Later the back wall facing the entrance had a fairly small shrine-room, often reached through an ante-chamber. Initially these held stupas , but later a large sculpted Buddha image , sometimes with reliefs on the walls. The verandah might also have sculpture, and in some cases

2574-487: A period of six years, after which the two had a falling out and parted ways. According to the Bhagvati Sutra , Makkhali Gosala met with Mahāvīra again later in life, but Gosala asserted to Mahavira that he was not the same person. Makkhali Gosala referred to the example of a sesame plant which "had been pulled up, and had temporarily died, but it had been replanted and thus reanimated, becoming once more living, while

2717-422: A peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at

2860-443: A simple ascetic life, without clothes and material possessions. Tamil literature on Ajivikas suggests they practiced Ahimsa (non-violence) and a vegetarian lifestyle. Arthur Basham notes that Buddhist and Jaina texts variously accuse Ajivikas of immorality, unchastity, and worldliness, but they also acknowledge the confusion among Buddhists and Jainas when they observed the simple, ascetic lifestyle of Ajivikas. The Ajivikas had

3003-437: A startling utilitarian character". There are granaries , drains, water-courses and tanks, but neither palaces nor temples have been identified, though cities have a central raised and fortified "citadel". Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the stepwell . As many as 700 wells have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by

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3146-535: A variety of influences in their details. In both these cases a now-vanished Indian predecessor tradition in wood is likely. Such a tradition is extremely clear in the case of the earliest-known examples of rock-cut architecture , the state-sponsored Barabar caves in Bihar , personally dedicated by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. The entrance of the Lomas Rishi Cave there has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies

3289-786: A wooden style in stone, which is a recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for some time. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard granite rock being cut in geometrical fashion and given the Mauryan polish , also found on sculpture. Later rock-cut viharas , occupied by monastic communities, survive, mostly in Western India, and in Bengal the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and "chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings elsewhere. The Buddhist stupa ,

3432-590: Is already predetermined to be that way. No human effort could change this niyati and the karma ethical theory was a fallacy. James Lochtefeld summarizes this aspect of Ajivika belief as, "life and the universe is like a ball of pre-wrapped up string, which unrolls until it was done and then goes no further". Riepe states that the Ajivika belief in predeterminism does not mean that they were pessimistic. Rather, just like Calvinists belief in predeterminism in Europe,

3575-561: Is also used to describe a temple style with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions. These attributes come from the Deccan and other fairly central parts of India. Although disagreement stands on the exact period and styles that vesara represents, the term is mainly assigned to the northern tradition, but are regarded as a kind of northern dravida by others. Excluding earlier structures in timber-based architecture, hardly any remains of Nagara Hindu temples exist from before

3718-507: Is an example of a structural monastery with 115 cells, where the lower parts of the brick-built structure have been excavated. Somapura Mahavihara , also in Bangladesh, was a larger vihara, mostly 8th-century, with 177 cells around a huge central temple. Usually the standard form as described above is followed, but there are some variants. Two vihara halls, Cave 5 at Ellora and Cave 11 at Kanheri , have very low platforms running most of

3861-479: Is cited in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism to Makkhali Gosala , a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira . In Sandaka Sutta the Ājīvikas are said to recognize three emancipators: Nanda Vaccha, Kisa Saṅkicca, and Makkhali Gosāla. Exact origins of Ājīvika is unknown, but generally accepted to be the 5th century BCE. Primary sources and literature of the Ājīvikas are lost, or yet to be found. Everything that

4004-595: Is cognate with the Modern Korean Chǒl from Middle Korean Tiel , the Jurchen Taira and the reconstructed Old Chinese dɘiaʁ , all meaning "Buddhist Monastery". These words are apparently derived from the Aramaic word for " monastery " dērā/ dairā/ dēr (from the root dwr "to live together"), rather than from the unrelated Indian word for monastery vihara , and may have been transmitted to China by

4147-651: Is credited to Emperor Ashoka, and it is a donation to the Ajivikas. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, this created competitive financial pressures on all traditions, including the Hindu Brahmins. This may have led to the development of viharas as shelters for monks, and evolution in the Ashrama concept to agraharas or Hindu monasteries. These shelters were normally accompanied by donation of revenue from villages nearby, who would work and support these cave residences with food and services. The Karle inscription dated to

4290-654: Is distinguished by elaborate gavaksha and railing relief carving around the cell-doors, but especially by having a rounded roof and apsidal far end, like a chaitya hall. The earliest Buddhist rock-cut cave abodes and sacred places are found in the western Deccan dating back to the 3rd century BCE. These earliest rock-cut caves include the Bhaja Caves , the Karla Caves , and some of the Ajanta Caves . Vihara with central shrine containing devotional images of

4433-399: Is generally considered as the founder of the Ājīvika movement. Some sources state that Gosala was only a leader of a large Ājīvika congregation of ascetics, but not the founder of the movement himself. The Swedish Indologist Jarl Charpentier and others suggest the Ājīvika tradition existed in India well before the birth of Makkhali Gosala, citing a variety of ancient Indian texts. Gosala

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4576-426: Is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically. The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati (" Fate ") doctrine of absolute fatalism or determinism , the premise that there is no free will , that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles. The predetermined fate of living beings

4719-490: Is increasingly questioned by the discovery of pre-Kushana era Buddha images outside the northwestern territories. Further, states Huntington, "archaeological, literary, and inscriptional evidence" such as those in Madhya Pradesh cast further doubts. Devotional worship of Buddha is traceable, for example, to Bharhut Buddhist monuments dated between 2nd and 1st century BCE. The Krishna or Kanha Cave (Cave 19) at Nasik has

4862-560: Is known about Ājīvika history and its philosophy is from secondary sources, such as the ancient and medieval texts of India. Inconsistent fragments of Ājīvika history are found mostly in Jain texts such as the Bhagvati Sutra and Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta and Sandaka Sutta , and Buddhaghosa 's commentary on Sammannaphala Sutta, with a few mentions in Hindu texts such as Vayu Purana. The Ājīvikas reached

5005-542: Is neither cause nor basis for the sins of living beings and they become sinful without cause or basis. There is neither cause nor basis for the purity of living beings and they become pure without cause or basis. All beings, all that have breath, all that are born, all that have life, are without power, or strength, or virtue, but are the result of destiny, chance and nature, and they experience joy and sorrow in six classes". Despite this ascribed premise of antinomian ethics, both Jain and Buddhist records note that Ājīvikas lived

5148-430: Is neither created nor destroyed, that which retains its identity by never growing nor expanding nor splitting nor changing, yet that which moves, assembles and combines to form the perceived. The Tamil text of Ajivikas asserts this "coming together of atoms can take diversity of forms, such as the dense form of a diamond, or a loose form of a hollow bamboo". Everything one perceives, states the atomism theory of Ajivikas,

5291-581: Is of a later date. According to Behrendt, these "must have been the architectural prototype for the later northern and western Buddhist shrines in the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad , Ellora , Nalanda , Ratnagiri and other sites". Behrendt's proposal follows the model that states the northwestern influences and Kushana era during the 1st and 2nd century CE triggered the development of Buddhist art and monastery designs. In contrast, Susan Huntington states that this late nineteenth and early twentieth century model

5434-496: Is preferred. Monks wandering from place to place preaching and seeking alms often stayed together in the sangha . In the Punjabi language , an open space inside a home is called a vehra . In Korea , Japan , Vietnam and China , the word for a Buddhist temple or monastery seems to have a different origin. The Japanese word for a Buddhist temple is Tera ( 寺 ) , it was anciently also written phonetically 天良 tera , and it

5577-457: Is still sometimes used to refer to the monasteries/temples, also known as wat , but in Thailand it also took on a narrower meaning referring to certain buildings in the temple complex. The wihan is a building, apart from the main ubosot (ordination hall) in which a Buddha image is enshrined. In many temples, the wihan serves as a sermon hall or an assembly hall where ceremonies, such as

5720-791: Is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata , today's Karnataka , India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur , the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu , and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura . Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are

5863-599: Is the presence of circular corner cells. It is believed that the general layout of the monastic complex at Jagjivanpur is by and large similar to that of Nalanda. Beside these, scattered references to some monasteries are found in epigraphic and other sources. Among them Pullahari (in western Magadha), Halud Vihara (45 km south of Paharpur), Parikramana vihara and Yashovarmapura vihara (in Bihar) deserve mention. Other important structural complexes have been discovered at Mainamati (Comilla district, Bangladesh). Remains of quite

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6006-612: Is unclear. Monasteries in the form of caves are dated to centuries before the start of the common era, for Ajivikas , Buddhists and Jainas . The rock-cut architecture found in cave viharas from the 2nd-century BCE have roots in the Maurya Empire period. In and around the Bihar state of India are a group of residential cave monuments all dated to be from pre-common era, reflecting the Maurya architecture. Some of these have Brahmi script inscription which confirms their antiquity, but

6149-415: Is unknown to what degree the available non-Ājīvika sources reflect the actual beliefs and practices of the Ājīvikas. Most of what is known about them was recorded in the literature of rival groups, modern scholars question the reliability of the secondary sources, and whether intentional distortions for dehumanization and criticism were introduced into the records. More recent work by scholars suggests that

6292-584: The kathina , are held. Many of these Theravada viharas feature a Buddha image that is considered sacred after it is formally consecrated by the monks. Architecture of India Indian architecture is rooted in the history , culture , and religion of India . Among several architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of Hindu temple architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture , especially Rajput architecture , Mughal architecture , South Indian architecture , and Indo-Saracenic architecture . Early Indian architecture

6435-530: The torana , reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE). Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place. Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as

6578-441: The Ajanta Caves , Aurangabad Caves , Karli Caves , and Kanheri Caves contain several viharas. Some included a chaitya or worship hall nearby. The vihara originated as a shelter for monks when it rains. The word means a form of rest house, temple or monastery in ascetic traditions of India, particularly for a group of monks. It particularly referred to a hall that was used as a temple or where monks met and some walked about. In

6721-470: The Bardhaman district of West Bengal. The date of the monastery may be ascribed to the early medieval period. Recent excavations at Jagjivanpur (Malda district, West Bengal) revealed another Buddhist monastery ( Nandadirghika-Udranga Mahavihara ) of the ninth century. Nothing of the superstructure has survived. A number of monastic cells facing a rectangular courtyard have been found. A notable feature

6864-522: The British colonial period , European styles including Neoclassical , Gothic Revival , and Baroque became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led to a new style, known as the Indo-Saracenic style. After India's independence , modernist ideas spread among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. Le Corbusier - who designed

7007-513: The Buddhist and Jaina scriptures of ancient India. Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas. It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas

7150-464: The Deccan in particular, but this is an accident of survival. Originally structural viharas of stone or brick would probably have been at least as common everywhere, and the norm in the south. By the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established; these form the majority of Buddhist rock-cut "caves". It consisted of a roughly square rectangular hall, in rock-cut cases, or probably an open court in structural examples, off which there were

7293-514: The Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves are among the most important early sites. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Sanchi . By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence, such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from around 424, that towering temples predated

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7436-566: The Indus River basin in the late Bronze Age of India . In its mature phase, from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, the civilization developed several cities marked by great uniformity within and between sites, including Harappa , Lothal , and the UNESCO World Heritage Site Mohenjo-daro . The civic and town planning and the engineering of these cities are deemed remarkable, but the building designs are "of

7579-527: The Malaprabha basin. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day Maharashtra . It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora . The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of

7722-493: The Megalithic transition period began. The South Indian neolithic period is characterized by ash mounds from 2500 BCE in the region of Karnataka , which later expanded into Tamil Nadu . Neolithic settlements have been found in the northwest ( Kashmir ), east ( Bihar and Odisha ), south ( Karnataka , Tamil Nadu , and Andhra Pradesh ), and the northeastern frontier ( Meghalaya ) of India. The earliest clear evidence of

7865-639: The South Indian temple style is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India and in Sri Lanka, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in Hindu temples , and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called

8008-724: The Vaisheshika school of Vedic's. Everything was composed of minuscule atoms, according to Ajivikas, and qualities of things are derived from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic forces. The description of Ajivikas' atomism is inconsistent with those described in Buddhist and Vedic texts. According to three Tamil texts, the Ajivikas held there exists seven kayas (Sanskrit: काय, assemblage, collection, elemental categories): pruthvi-kaya (earth), apo-kaya (water), tejo-kaya (fire), vayo-kaya (air), sukha (joy), dukkha (sorrow), and jiva (life). The first four relate to matter,

8151-534: The Vaishnavite Ekadandin ascetics. However, according to historian Ajay Mitra Shastri , Varahamihira indeed refers to the Ajivikas, who may have existed as an influential sect in the 6th century. A.L. Basham notes that there are several such instances of Ajivikas being confused with other major sects: for example, the commentator of Achara-sara believes them to be Buddhist, and in Neelakesi ,

8294-941: The complex at Khajuraho —were constructed in Central India . Examples include the Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha , Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu . Indian traders brought Indian architecture to South East Asia through various trade routes . Styles called vesara include the early Badami Chalukya Architecture , Western Chalukya architecture , and finally Hoysala architecture . Other regional styles include those of Bengal , Kashmir and other Himalayan areas, Karnataka , Kalinga architecture , and Māru-Gurjara architecture . Hoysala architecture

8437-506: The deccan . The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya , Hoysala , Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by

8580-592: The 1st centuries BCE-CE, denote places such as Kushinagar or Rajagriha as splendid walled cities, as in the Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha or War over the Buddha's relics . These views of ancient Indian cities are relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture. In the case of the Mauryan capital Pataliputra (near Patna ), we have Greek accounts, and that of Faxian ; Megasthenes (a visitor around 300 BCE) mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in

8723-440: The 1st century CE donates a cave and nearby village, states Bronkhorst, "for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka [Karle] without any distinction of sect or origin". Buddhist texts from Bengal, dated to centuries later, use the term asrama-vihara or agrahara-vihara for their monasteries. Buddhist viharas or monasteries may be described as a residence for monks, a centre for religious work and meditation and

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8866-546: The 4th century BCE, the era of the Maurya Empire . Riepe refers to Ājīvikas as a distinct heterodox school of Indian tradition. Raju states that "Ājīvikas and Cārvākas can be called Hindus " and adds that "the word Hinduism has no definite meaning". Epigraphical evidence suggests that emperor Ashoka , in the 3rd century BCE, considered Ājīvikas to be more closely related to the schools of Vedic's than to Buddhists, Jainas or other Indian schools of thought. Makkhali Gosala ( Pali ; Sanskrit Gośala Maskariputra , c. 484 BCE)

9009-480: The 4th century Buddhist legend Ashokavadana , the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and his chief queen Shubhadrangi were believers of this philosophy, which reached its peak of popularity during this time. Ashokavadana also mentions that, after his conversion to Buddhism, Bindusara's son Ashoka issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana , enraged at a picture that depicted Gautama Buddha in

9152-540: The 5th century Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century), Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465), Bhitargaon , the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator. There are

9295-657: The 5th century CE. The Caves were subsequently occupied by Buddhists, Hindus and Muslims. It is unlikely that the Muslims defaced the inscriptions, as the Brahmi script was illegible to them. E. Hultzsch theorized that the defacement took place when the Maukhari (c. 6th century) ruler Ananta-varman installed Hindu images at the Caves. However, Basham dismisses this theory, noting that there is little evidence to support this view and

9438-514: The 5th or 6th centuries. The Gupta period chiefly represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture ; the first wave of construction was completed before the empire was assembled, and the second wave began in the late 5th century, after its end. For example, an early group of the Ajanta Caves was crafted by 220 CE and a later group was made around 460 CE. Nonetheless, most of the first surviving free-standing structures in India are accredited to

9581-556: The 6th or 7th century, and they were made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Early North Indian temples that have survived after the 5th century Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include, Deogarh , Parvati Temple, Nachna (465 CE), Lalitpur District (c. 525), Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple , and Rajim (7th-century CE). Pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have not survived. However, early South Indian temples that have survived, though in ruins, include

9724-452: The 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones. The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected

9867-687: The 7th century CE, most key features of the Hindu temple were established in theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods. Three styles of temple were identified: nagara , dravida and vesara . The styles were sometimes mixed, and not yet associated with specific regions in India. For example, in Karnataka , the group of 7th and 8th-century temples at Pattadakal famously mixes forms later associated with both north and south, as does that at Aihole , which still includes apsidal chaitya hall -type plans. Nagara commonly refers to North Indian temple styles, most easily recognised by

10010-402: The Ajivika leader clarifies that his followers should not be mistaken for Digambaras . According to Basham, this suggests that the surviving Ajivikas adopted some of the beliefs and customs of the more popular faiths and possibly merged with them. The Jain commentator Mallisena, who wrote Syadvada-manjari (1292 CE), suggests that the Ajivikas existed during his time; he may have been aware of

10153-460: The Ajivikas included the ten Purvas (eight Mahanimittas , two Maggas ) and the Onpatu Katir . The Mahanimittas of Ajivikas claims Bhagavati Sutra was extracted from the teachings Gosala received from Mahavira when he was a disciple. The belief of Ajivikas in absolute determinism and influence of cosmic forces led them to develop extensive sections in their Mahanimittas texts on mapping

10296-509: The Ajivikas of southern India. At least 17 inscriptions from southern India suggest that a tax was imposed on Ajivikas or Acuvas (believed to be a Tamil form of Ajivikas) there. These inscriptions range from the time of the Pallava king Simhavarman II (c. 446 CE) to the 14th century. The last of these inscriptions are dated to 1346 CE ( Shaka 1268), found at three different places around Kolar . E. Hultzsch and Rudolf Hoernlé theorized that

10439-402: The Ajivikas were engraved during the 12th year and the 19th year of his reign (about 258 BCE and 251 BCE respectively, based on a coronation date of 269 BCE). In several instances, the word "Ājīvikas" (𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀳𑀺, Ādīvikehi ) was later attacked by the chisel, probably by religious rivals, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood (probably before the 5th century CE). However,

10582-399: The Ajivikas were optimists. The Ajivikas simply did not believe in the moral force of action, or in merits or demerits, or in after-life to be affected because of what one does or does not do. Actions had immediate effects in one's current life but without any moral traces, and both the action and the effect was predetermined, according to the Ajivikas. Makkhali Gosala seems to have combined

10725-456: The Buddha, dated to about the 2nd century CE are found in the northwestern area of Gandhara , in sites such as Jaulian , Kalawan (in the Taxila area) or Dharmarajika , which states Behrendt, possibly were the prototypes for the 4th century monasteries such as those at Devnimori in Gujarat . This is supported by the discovery of clay and bronze Buddha statues, but it is unclear if the statue

10868-660: The Gupta period, in particular, the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture . As Milo Beach writes, "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized architectural frameworks", the "precious objects" primarily suggesting the icons of gods. The caves at Ajanta , including Elephanta and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, mixed, and Jain) were produced under other dynasties in Central India. Ellora

11011-713: The Indus Valley Civilization. Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are "narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in terracotta , but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites, fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in Mesopotamia ) is used exclusively as the building material, but a few sites, such as Dholavira , are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and uniform sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for unknown reasons, so

11154-539: The Jetavana vihara to an individual monk, which led to his expulsion. The Mahinda Mahavihara led to the orthodox Theravada tradition. The Abhayagiri vihara monks, rejected and criticized by the orthodox Buddhist monks, were more receptive to heterodox ideas and they nurtured the Mahayana tradition. The Jetavana vihara monks vacillated between the two traditions, blending their ideas. A range of monasteries grew up during

11297-419: The Maurya and the Gupta periods may have been responsible for the persecution of the Ajivikas. The Brhaj-jataka of Varahamihira (6th century) mentions the Ajivikas (among other major ascetic groups) in an astrological context, stating that a person born under a certain planetary influence becomes an Ajivika ascetic. According to the 9th-10th century commentator Utpala , "Ajivika" in this context refers to

11440-558: The Nagara style. North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century. On the shikara, the oldest form, called latina , with wide shallow projections running up the sides, developed alternative forms with many smaller "spirelets" ( urushringa ). Two varieties of these are called sekhari , where the sub-spires extend vertically, and bhumija , where individual sub-spires are arrayed in rows and columns. Richly decorated temples—including

11583-595: The Neolithic period 2800 years ago. The unearthed local and foreign antiquities (of art, architecture, customs, and rituals) depicted by the engravings on pottery and other artifacts, indicate that the prehistoric people of the Burzahom established contact with Central Asia and South West Asia , and had links to the Gangetic plains and peninsular India . Megalithic burial sites have been found scattered all over

11726-537: The Pāla period in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar) and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila , the premier university of the era; Nalanda , past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura , Odantapurā , and Jagaddala . According to Sukumar Dutt, the five monasteries formed a network, were supported and supervised by the Pala state. Each of the five had their own seal and operated like

11869-691: The Way of Life". Ajivika ( Prakrit : 𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓 , ājīvika ; Sanskrit : आजीविक , IAST: ājīvika ) or adivika ( Prakrit : 𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓 , ādīvika ) are both derived from Sanskrit आजीव ( ājīva ) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life". The term Ajivika means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts. The name Ajivika for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete niyati , literally "inner order of things, self-command, predeterminism ", leading to

12012-668: The Western group, the Eastern group, and the Southern group. The Western group has the greatest popularity and draws the most tourists. The Khajuraho Temples were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986, and they continue to be a popular tourist attraction in India. According to UNESCO, the Khajuraho Temples "are a masterpiece of Indian art, with their unique architecture and stunning sculptures. Dravidian style or

12155-567: The abundance of Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word has also been borrowed in Malay as biara , denoting a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. It is called a wihan ( วิหาร ) in Thai , and vĭhéar ( វិហារ [ʋihiə] ) in Khmer . In Burmese , wihara ( ဝိဟာရ [wḭhəɹa̰] ), means "monastery", but the native Burmese word kyaung ( ကျောင်း [tɕáʊɰ̃] )

12298-566: The art of building in India in south and central India. From 300 BCE – 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early Chola , Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities Kartikeya , Shiva , Amman and Vishnu . Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur , Kaveripoompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram , and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems of Sangam literature . The architecture of

12441-485: The caves at Ajanta and Ellora . A very important development, the emergence of the shikara or temple tower, is today best evidenced by the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple . This was already several centuries old when the first very vertical structure replaced an Ashokan original, apparently around 150–200 CE. The current brick-built tower, probably a good deal larger, dates to the Gupta period, in

12584-646: The central hall with connected cells, and it is generally dated to about the 1st century BCE. The early stone viharas mimicked the timber construction that likely preceded them. Inscriptional evidence on stone and copper plates indicate that Buddhist viharas were often co-built with Hindu and Jain temples. The Gupta Empire era witnessed the building of numerous viharas, including those at the Ajanta Caves. Some of these viharas and temples though evidenced in texts and inscriptions are no longer physically found, likely destroyed in later centuries by natural causes or due to war. As more people joined Buddhist monastic sangha ,

12727-559: The centre. The Warangal Fort , Thousand Pillar Temple , and Ramappa Temple are examples of Kakatiya architecture. Ajivika Ajivika ( Sanskrit : आजीविक , IAST : Ājīvika ) is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of Indian philosophy . Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosāla , it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of Vedic religion , early Buddhism , and Jainism . Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities. The precise identity of

12870-493: The city of Chandigarh - influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the 20th century. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture in the contemporary era. In South India, the Neolithic began in 6500 BCE and lasted till around 1400 BCE when

13013-414: The city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered a "massive palisade of teak beams held together with iron dowels ". A huge apadana -like hall with eighty sandstone columns shows clear influence from contemporary Achaemenid Persia. The single massive sandstone Pataliputra capital shows clear Hellenistic features, reaching India via Persia. The famous Ashoka columns show great sophistication, and

13156-456: The common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the South Indian state of Karnataka , prominently in Kolar district and some places of Tamil Nadu . The Ājīvika philosophy spread rapidly in ancient South Asia, with a Sangha Geham (community center) for Ājīvikas on the island now known as Sri Lanka and also extending into the western state of Gujarat by

13299-540: The conditions of the Maurya and pre-Maurya times. In northern India, Ajivikas may have become insignificant by the Shunga period (1st century BCE), although they may have survived until the 15th century, as suggested by stray references to them in various texts. References in the Vayu Purana suggest that during the Gupta period (fourth-6th century CE) the Ajivika practices had changed substantially, and their sect

13442-468: The context of the performative arts, the term means the theatre, playhouse, convent or temple compound to meet, perform or relax in. Later it referred to a form of temple or monastery construction in Buddhism and Jainism, wherein the design has a central hall and attached separated shrines for residence either for monks or for dieties and sacred figure such as Tirthankaras , Gautama Buddha . The word means

13585-419: The continuance of free-standing chaitya -hall temples with barrel roofs, with many smaller wooden examples. Whereas the visible stylistic forms of the temple vary greatly and have a complicated development, the basic elements of a Hindu temple remain the same across all periods and styles. The most essential feature is the inner sanctuary, the garbhagriha or "womb-chamber", where the primary murti of

13728-463: The couple continued to live in a corner of the cowshed, and it was there that Bhaddā gave birth to her child." Gosala is described in ancient texts as a contemporary of Mahavira , the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism , and of Gautama Buddha . The Jain Bhagavati Sutra refers to him as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for

13871-477: The course of time ( samsarasuddhi ) in final salvation to which all beings are destined under the impact of the factors of niyati (destiny), bhava (nature), and sangati (change). As such, destiny does not appear as the only player, but rather chance or indeterminism plays an equal part in his doctrine. He thus subscribed to niyativada (fatalism) only in the sense that he thought that some future events like salvation for all were strictly determined. Ajivika

14014-670: The diverse styles at Mahabalipuram , from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Tamil Architecture" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existing in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal . From between about

14157-506: The first Central Asian translators of Buddhist scriptures, such as An Shigao or Lokaksema . During the 3rd-century BCE era of Ashoka , vihara yatras were travel stops aimed at enjoyments, pleasures and hobbies such as hunting. These contrasted with dharma yatras which related to religious pursuits and pilgrimage. After Ashoka converted to Buddhism, states Lahiri, he started dharma yatras around mid 3rd century BCE instead of hedonistic royal vihara yatras . The early history of viharas

14300-409: The garbhagriha and mandapa. Larger temples may include more shrines or buildings, either connected together or detached, with smaller temples in the compound. The entire temple compound is usually enclosed by a wall, and at times, raised on a plinth ( adhiṣṭhāna ). Large areas of the structure are often decorated with carving, including figurative images of deities and other religious figures. By

14443-455: The growing Hindu, Buddhist and Jain influence. The 14th century Sarva-Darshana-Sangraha , a compendium of the Indian philosophical systems, makes no mention of Ajivikas, which indicates the decline of their sect. Ājīvikas competed with and debated the scholars of Buddhism, Jainism, and Vedic's. The Ājīvika movement is primarily known from historical references left behind in Jain and Buddhist sources, that may therefore be hostile to it. It

14586-589: The height of its popularity during the rule of the Mauryan emperor Bindusara , around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the Southern Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu . The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the Cārvāka philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of ancient Indian society . Ājīvika means "Follower of

14729-511: The height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India. Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the 1st millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit Śravasti ) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located near Ayodhya in what is now the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . In later part of

14872-414: The ideas of older schools of thought into an eclectic doctrine. He appears to have believed in niyati (destiny), svabhava (nature), sangati (change), and possibly parinama , which may have prompted other philosophical schools to label him variously as ahetuvadin , vainayikavadin , ajnanavadin , and issarakaranavadin . According to him, all beings undergo development ( parinama ). This culminates in

15015-571: The inscriptions were likely added to pre-existing caves. The oldest layer of Buddhist and Jain texts mention legends of the Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras or sramana monks living in caves. If these records derived from an oral tradition accurately reflect the significance of monks and caves in the times of the Buddha and the Mahavira, then cave residence tradition dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. According to Allchin and Erdosy,

15158-484: The last three non-matter. These elements are akata (that which is neither created nor destroyed), vanjha (barren, that which never multiplies or reproduces) and have an existence independent of the other. The elements, asserts Ajivika theory in the Tamil text Manimekalai, are made of paramanu (atoms), where atoms were defined as that which cannot be further subdivided, that which cannot penetrate another atom, that which

15301-465: The layout of rectangular houses, and streets or lanes, and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in with a population of 10,000 people. A 580-metre (1,900 ft) long protection wall dated 1500 BCE was found at Bet Dwarka which was believed to be damaged and submerged following a sea storm. Indian architecture after the Indus Valley Civilization around the Maurya Empire , from 322 to 185 BCE, most likely used wood or recycled brick. Much of

15444-586: The legend of First Buddhist Council is dated to a period just after the death of the Buddha. It mentions monks gathering at a cave near Rajgiri, and this dates it in pre-Mauryan times. However, the square courtyard with cells architecture of vihara , state Allchin and Erdosy, is dated to the Mauryan period. The earlier monastic residences of Ajivikas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains were likely outside rock cliffs and made of temporary materials and these have not survived. The earliest known gift of immovable property for monastic purposes ever recorded in an Indian inscription

15587-459: The length of the main hall. These were probably used as some combination of benches or tables for dining, desks for study, and possibly beds. They are often termed "dining-hall" or the " Durbar Hall " at Kanheri, on no good evidence. Cave 11 at the Bedse Caves is a fairly small 1st-century vihara, with nine cells in the interior and originally four around the entrance, and no shrine room. It

15730-423: The main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha . Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing

15873-603: The megalithic urn burials, discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, date back to 1000 BCE. The most notable megalithic urn was discovered in Adichanallur , 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Tirunelveli , where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks, grains of charred rice and Neolithic celts, confirming the presence of

16016-428: The monastic life, wandered from place to place. During the rainy season (cf. vassa ) they stayed in temporary shelters. In Buddhist theology relating to rebirth and merit earning, it was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk but also to shelter him, sumptuous monasteries were created by rich lay devotees. The only substantial remains of very early viharas are in the rock-cut complexes, mostly in north India,

16159-604: The only cave in which the word Ajivikehi remains intact is among the three caves where Ananta-varman installed a Hindu image. Based on similarities of carvings at the Barabar and the Udaygiri Caves , scholar A. Banerji Sastri theorized that the Kalinga monarch Kharavela (1st-2nd century BCE) evicted the Ajivikas to favour Jains, but Basham finds this evidence inconclusive. According to Basham, any ruler of Magadha between

16302-478: The original inscriptions being deep, they remain easily decipherable. After the decline of the Maurya Empire in the 2nd century BCE, the Ajivikas find only occasional mentions in the Sanskrit literature and do not appear to have been serious rivals to other sects. The final version of the Buddhist and Jain scriptures were compiled at a later period, but the description of Ajivikas in these texts likely represents

16445-514: The otherwise inexplicable fact that the Ājīvikas did practice asceticism. [...] [T]he popularity of the Ājīvika doctrine in ancient times, such that it could rival that of both Jainism and Buddhism, also make sense if this doctrine was really not so radically different from these traditions as its presentation in Jain and Buddhist sources suggests. Paul Dundas states that the Jain and Buddhist texts cannot be considered reliable source of Ājīvika history and philosophy, because "it seems doubtful whether

16588-703: The period (1336–1565) was a notable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka . The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority. This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across

16731-474: The premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or moksha , just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life. The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any soteriological reasons. Some scholars spell Ajivika as Ajivaka. Ājīvika philosophy

16874-680: The remains discovered from this period onwards are of Indian rock-cut architecture , predominantly Buddhist. The construction of Buddhist monastic buildings began before the death of the Buddha , around 400 BCE. This first generation of monasteries only survive in floor-plans, notably the Jivakarama vihara in Bihar . Important features of the period's architecture include, walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings, wooden chaitya arches for roofs, and further structures above solid storeys. The reliefs of Sanchi , dated to

17017-818: The rock-cut temples , particularly the rathas , became a model for south Indian temples. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South India . Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram. The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami , Karnataka in the period 543–753 and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture . The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal , Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in

17160-688: The senior monks adopted a code of discipline which came to be known in the Pali Canon as the Vinaya texts. These texts are mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha . The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Each major early Buddhist tradition had its own variant text of code of discipline for vihara life. Major vihara appointed

17303-414: The seven pods had developed". Gosāla declared that the original Gosāla, who was Mahavira's companion, was once dead and that the soul now inhabiting the apparent Gosāla in front of him was a reanimated, different Gosala. This argument was declared a form of sophistry by Mahavira, and this led to a significant break in the relations between the two. Several rock-cut caves belonging to Ājīvikas are dated to

17446-400: The soul is formless, Ajivikas asserted the soul has a material form, one that helps meditation. They also believed the soul passes through many births and ultimately progresses unto its pre-destined nirvana (salvation). Basham states, that some texts suggest evidence of Vaishnavism -type devotional practices among some Ajivikas. Ajivikas developed a theory of elements and atoms similar to

17589-538: The subcontinent. The Neolithic period lasted up until 3300 BCE, overlapping with the following Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganga region and Jhusi near the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around the 7th millennium BCE. The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area around and beyond

17732-495: The sun, moon, planets, and stars and their role in astrology and fortune telling. Isaeva suggests that the ideas of Ajivika influenced Buddhism and various schools of Vedic thought. Riepe provides an example of an influential Ajivika theory, namely, its theory on atomism. Basham proposes that Ajivikas may have possibly influenced the doctrines of the Dvaita Vedanta sub-school of medieval Vedic philosophy. According to

17875-611: The temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana , Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. These projects spread into South India from the Deccan . The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. Vijayanagara architecture of

18018-462: The temples at Belavadi , Amrithapura , and Nuggehalli . Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Approximately 100 Hoysala temples survive today. The Khajuraho Temples are

18161-554: The temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north. In the late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to older large temples. The recently constructed Ram Mandir in Ayodhya is constructed as per

18304-406: The term Ajivika ( Acuva ) refers to Jains in this context, and some others—such as A. Chakravarti—doubt the equivalence of the terms "Ajivika" and "Acuva". However, Basham believes that these inscriptions indeed refer to the Ajivikas and that they may have survived there until the 15th century, as suggested by the writings of Vaidyanatha Dikshita . The Ajivikas may have completely declined because of

18447-627: The times of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r. 273 BCE to 232 BCE). These are the oldest surviving cave temples of ancient India, and are called the Barabar Caves in Jehanabad district of Bihar . The Barabar caves were carved out of granite, has a highly polished internal cave surfaces, and each consists of two chambers, the first is a large rectangular hall, the second is a small, circular, domed chamber. These were probably used for meditation. The Ashokan dedications of several Barabar Caves to

18590-437: The walls of the main hall. Paintings were perhaps more common, but these rarely survive, except in a few cases such as Caves 2, 10, 11 and 17 at the Ajanta Caves . As later rock-cut viharas are often on up to three storeys, this was also probably the case with the structural ones. As the vihara acquired a central image, it came to take over the function of the chaitya worship hall, and eventually these ceased to be built. This

18733-402: The Ājīvika were perhaps misrepresented by Jain and Buddhist sources. [ Johannes Bronkhorst's ] claim is that, whereas the Jains teach that one can both stop the influx of new karma and rid oneself of old karma through ascetic practice, Gosāla taught that one could only stop the influx of new karma. [...] Ascetic practice can be effective in preventing further karmic influx, which helps to explain

18876-464: The Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains. Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature . The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in

19019-541: Was an atheistic philosophy. Its adherents did not presume any deity as the creator of the universe, or as prime mover, or that some unseen mystical end was the final resting place of the cosmos. In later texts, the Tamil Nīlakēci , a story of two divinities, Okkali and Ōkali, relates the Ājīvikas instructed men in the scriptures. Ajivikas believed that in every being, there is a soul (Atman). However, unlike Jains and various orthodox schools of Hinduism that held that

19162-605: Was believed to be born in Tiruppatur of Tiruchirappalli district in Tamil Nadu and was the son of Mankha, a professional mendicant. His mother was Bhaddā. His name Gosala "cowshed" refers to his humble birthplace. While Bhaddā was pregnant, she and her husband Mankhali, the mankha, came to the village ... of Saravaṇa, where dwelt a wealthy householder Gobahula. Mankhali left his wife and his luggage ... in Gobahula's cowshed ( gosālā ) ... Since he could find no shelter elsewhere

19305-469: Was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic laws and forces. Ājīvikas were mostly considered as atheists . They believed that in every living being there is an ātman —a central premise of Vedic religion and Jainism. Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in Western scholarship , reached

19448-415: Was declining rapidly. In some of the Barabar Caves inscriptions, the words referring to the Ajivikas appear to have been defaced, although the rest of the text appears intact. The selective nature of these defacements suggests that they were carried out by the religious rivals of the Ajivikas. This defacement must have taken place when the Brahmi script had still not been forgotten, likely some time before

19591-634: Was despite the rock-cut vihara shrine room usually offering no path for circumambulation or pradakshina , an important ritual practice. In early medieval era, Viharas became important institutions and a part of Buddhist Universities with thousands of students, such as Nalanda . Life in "Viharas" was codified early on. It is the object of a part of the Pali canon , the Vinaya Pitaka or "basket of monastic discipline". Shalban Vihara in Bangladesh

19734-544: Was made after the Gupta period, yet they primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. The Ajanta Caves contain the most significant and mature survivals of painting and the periods, mainly in palace paintings. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves record connections with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh , one of the earliest to survive, showcases important sculpture. North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after

19877-564: Was made from wood, which did not survive due to rotting and instability in the structures. Instead, the earliest existing architecture are made with Indian rock-cut architecture , including many Buddhist , Hindu , and Jain temples. The Hindu temple architecture is divided into the Dravidian style of southern India and the Nagara style of northern India , with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, depending on climate. The first major Islamic kingdom in India

20020-590: Was mere juxtapositions of atoms of various types, and the combinations occur always in fixed ratios governed by certain cosmic rules, forming skandha (molecules, building blocks). Atoms, asserted the Ajivikas, cannot be seen by themselves in their pure state, but only when they aggregate and form bhutas (objects). They further argued that properties and tendencies are characteristics of the objects. The Ajivikas then proceeded to justify their belief in determinism and "no free will" by stating that everything experienced— sukha (joy), dukkha (sorrow), and jiva (life)—is

20163-868: Was one of the main interests of the Ajivikas. Their views on this subject may have been influenced by Vedic sources, such as the hymn to Kala (Time) in Atharvaveda . Both Jaina and Buddhist texts state that Ājīvikas believed in absolute determinism, absence of free will, and called this niyati . Everything in human life and the universe, according to Ajivikas, was pre-determined, operating out of cosmic principles, and true choice did not exist. The Buddhist and Jaina sources describe them as strict fatalists, who did not believe in karma . The Ajivikas philosophy held that all things are preordained, and therefore religious or ethical practice has no effect on one's future, and people do things because cosmic principles make them do so, and all that will happen or will exist in future

20306-636: Was the Delhi Sultanate , which led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture , combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the Mughal Empire , when Mughal architecture evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj Mahal being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and Sikh styles as well. During

20449-469: Was the major distinctive doctrine of their school, along with withholding judgement on how to achieve liberation ( moksha ) from the eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth , instead believing that fate would lead us there. Ājīvikas further considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ājīvika metaphysics included a theory of atoms , which was later adapted in the Vaiśeṣika school, where everything

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