Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.
132-634: The Barabar Hill Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India , dating from the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), some with Ashokan inscriptions, located in the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district , Bihar, India, 24 km (15 mi) north of Gaya . These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves); caves of the 1.6 km (0.99 mi)-distant Nagarjuni Hill are sometimes singled out as
264-548: A Kashmiri king Ashoka of Gonandiya dynasty who built several stupas : some scholars, such as Aurel Stein , have identified this king with the Maurya emperor Ashoka; others, such as Ananda W. P. Guruge dismiss this identification as inaccurate. For Christopher I. Beckwith , Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts , is not the same as king Piyadasi , or Devanampiya Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of
396-475: A viceroy in Gandhara (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. The Ashokavadana states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants , chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being an emperor, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to
528-601: A Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka. The Mahavamsa states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta . According to the Mahavamsa , Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended
660-401: A Buddhist monk. The Mahavamsa states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne. The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana. The Dipavamsa states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and
792-542: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , are located on the edge of the Deccan Plateau , where dramatic erosion has left massive sandstone outcrops. Researchers have found primitive tools and decorative rock paintings made by humans in the area's many caves and grottos , the earliest paintings dating to circa 8,000 BCE. During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in
924-455: A World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. A period of intense building activity at this site occurred under
1056-626: A beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the Dipamvamsa and Mahamvamsa , the woman was Devi – the daughter of a merchant. According to the Mahabodhi-vamsa , she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha . The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha. The Buddhist texts allude to her being
1188-529: A fabrication of the Buddhist authors, who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle. In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion. Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in
1320-645: A fictitious Marabar – in the book A Passage to India by English author E. M. Forster . Barabar Hill contains four caves: Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visvakarma. Sudama and Lomas Rishi are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India, with architectural detailing made in the Mauryan period. Similar examples include the larger Buddhist Chaitya , found in Maharashtra , such as in Ajanta and Karla Caves . The Barabar caves greatly influenced
1452-750: A great, ideal emperor. These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information. Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible. The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including Sanskrit , Pali , Tibetan , Chinese , Burmese , Khmer , Sinhala , Thai , Lao , and Khotanese . All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions: There are several significant differences between
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#17327661927211584-548: A high degree of precision craftsmanship. The Ashoka inscriptions of the Barabar Caves were engraved during the 12th year and the 19th year of Ashoka's reign (about 258 BCE and 251 BCE respectively, based on a coronation date of 269 BCE), for the dedication of several caves to the sect of the Ajivikas , a sect of ascetics, which flourished at the same time as Buddhism and Jainism. The words "Ajivikas" were later attacked by
1716-543: A large number of stupas , patronising the Third Buddhist council , supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the sangha . Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the Brahmi script , Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors . The State Emblem of the modern Republic of India
1848-411: A little east of the main granite hill 25°00′22″N 85°03′53″E / 25.00611°N 85.06472°E / 25.00611; 85.06472 . It consists of a rectangular room entirely open to the outside, a sort of elongated porch, and an unfinished semi-hemispherical room: the rectangular space measures 4.27x2.54m, and the circular room is 2.8m in diameter . One goes from the rectangular room to
1980-695: A marital alliance with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator , which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea. Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him. While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period. According to
2112-474: A millennium. In the 3rd century BCE Indian rock-cut architecture began to develop, starting with the already highly sophisticated and state-sponsored Barabar caves in Bihar , personally dedicated by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard granite rock being cut in geometrical fashion and polished to a mirror-like finish. There
2244-500: A mirror effect of a great regularity, as well as an echo effect. This large-scale polish is reminiscent of polishing on smaller surfaces of the Maurya statuary, particularly visible on the pillars and capitals of the Ashoka pillars . Commenting of Mauryan sculpture, John Marshall once wrote about the "extraordinary precision and accuracy which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never, we venture to say, been surpassed even by
2376-640: A name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka. Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the Dharmarajika Stupa near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. According to
2508-415: A narrow rectangular passage. This cave has an arched facade that probably imitates contemporary wooden architecture. On the periphery of the door, along the curve of the architrave, a line of elephants advances in the direction of stupa emblems. This is the characteristic form of the " Chaitya arch" or chandrashala, to be an important feature of architecture and sculpture in the rock for many centuries. It
2640-600: A pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell". The Mahavamsa also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism. However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers. Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be
2772-402: A politician whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his administration, rather than record historical facts. A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka. For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman . An inscription discovered at Sirkap mentions a lost word beginning with "Priyadari", which
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#17327661927212904-454: A prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign, which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain. Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found. According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha , where he fell in love with
3036-503: A refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to the throne, to make it a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas The cave also has a much later Hindu inscription, the Vadathika Cave Inscription . The caves were carved out of granite , an extremely hard rock, then finished with a very nice polishing of the inner surface, giving
3168-404: A rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere. In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it
3300-525: A way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers. Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne. It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising
3432-488: A wooden or masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple , is singular in that it was excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple
3564-524: Is a distorted version of the earlier traditions, describes Ashoka as son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant. Ashokavadana states that Ashoka's mother was the daughter of a Brahmin from Champa , and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief empress. The Ashokavadana does not mention her by name, although other legends provide different names for her. For example,
3696-409: Is also a World Heritage Site . There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from the 5th century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until
3828-651: Is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka . Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Chakra , is adopted at the centre of the National Flag of India . Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions , other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign, and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony. Ashoka's inscriptions are
3960-519: Is another cave with the structure and polishing qualities of the Barabar caves, but without any inscription. This is the Sitamarhi Cave , 20 km from Rajgir , 10 km south-west of Hisua , also dated of the Maurya empire. It is smaller than the Barabar caves, measuring only 4.91x3.43m, with a ceiling height of 2.01m. The entrance is also trapezoidal, as for the Barabar caves. Finally,
4092-504: Is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE Dipavamsa . The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" ( Sanskrit : Priya-darshi). It may have been a regnal name adopted by Ashoka. A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης (" Basileus Piodassēs"). Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title Devanampiya (Sanskrit: Devanampriya , "Beloved of
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4224-481: Is clearly a stone reproduction of wooden buildings and other plant materials. According to historian S. P. Gupta , Lomas Rishi's immediate successors are the Kondivite and Guntupalli caves. Lomas Rishi has no Ashoka inscription, perhaps because it has never been completed due to structural rock slide problems. According to Gupta, the theory that Lomas Rishi would not have received Ashoka's inscription because it
4356-536: Is close to Lomas Rishi , and on its left. It consists of two rooms: a rectangular room measuring 9.98x5.94m, and a semi-hemispherical room 6m in diameter, which is accessed from the rectangular room by a narrow rectangular passage. This is probably the first cave in the group to have been dug. This cave was dedicated by Emperor Ashoka in 257 BCE (12th year of his reign) as evidenced by an inscription in Brahmi using his protocol name (Priyadarsin, "He who brings joy") found in
4488-460: Is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under active worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. This was the last excavation at Ellora. The Ankai Fort caves are thought to be from the same period. The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at Gwalior with five clusters of rock-cut monuments surrounding the Gwalior fort , two centuries after
4620-703: Is generally small and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the Barabar caves , Bihar , which were built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan ; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably wooden structures associated with them, which would have deteriorated over time. Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples: skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave temples include
4752-423: Is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as Antiochus II Theos , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , Antigonus II Gonatas , Magas of Cyrene , and Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth ). Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE ( c. 304 BCE ), and ascended
4884-545: Is not universally accepted. For example, according to John S. Strong , the event described in the Ashokavadana has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend. Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism. Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits ( kama ); he
5016-429: Is suggested by the lack of finishing, even approximate, of the ground, with for example the abandonment in the state of some pikes of the rocks which would have required only a few minutes of chipping to be removed in order to obtain a fairly regular floor. Ashoka dedicated the caves of Sudama and Visvakarma to the ascetics called " Ajivikas " in the 12th year of his reign, when his religious evolution towards Buddhism
5148-591: Is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi" since it has been written in Aramaic of 3rd century BCE, although this is not certain. Some other inscriptions, such as the Sohgaura copper plate inscription and the Mahasthan inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as
5280-634: Is thought that many Buddhists relocated to the Deccan under the protection of the Andhra dynasty , thus shifting the cave-building effort to western India: an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain) continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the Karla Caves or the Pandavleni Caves . These caves generally followed an apsidal plan with a stupa in
5412-616: The Ashokavadana , Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving
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5544-433: The Ashokavadana , Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited Lumbini during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely. However, this theory
5676-616: The Asokavadanamala calls her Subhadrangi. The Vamsatthapakasini or Mahavamsa-tika , a commentary on Mahavamsa , calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in Pali ), and states that she belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan. A Divyavadana legend calls her Janapada-kalyani; according to scholar Ananda W. P. Guruge , this is not a name, but an epithet. According to the 2nd-century historian Appian , Chandragupta entered into
5808-701: The Bhaja Caves , the Karla Caves , the Bedse Caves , the Kanheri Caves , and some of the Ajanta Caves . Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were made during
5940-740: The Buddha , or the Sangha (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the Major Pillar Edicts which does mention the Sangha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith). Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West. On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE , whose name only appears explicitly in
6072-567: The Edicts of Ashoka . It was initially thought that Karna Chopar may have been dedicated to the Buddhists, based on a former reading of the inscription at the entrance of the cave, corrected by Harry Falk in 2007: the new reading shows that Karna Chopar too had been dedicated to the Ajivikas. Since Lomas Rishi has no dedicatory inscription, it has been suggested that it may had been dedicated to
6204-545: The Jain Son Bhandar Caves in Rajgir , generally dated to the 2nd–4th centuries CE, nevertheless share a broad structure reminiscent of the caves of Barabar and some small areas of irregular polish, which leads some authors to suggest that they may actually be contemporary to, and even earlier than, the Barabar caves, and would conveniently create a precedent and an evolutionary step to the Barabar Caves. To
6336-526: The Kanheri Caves were excavated in the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C., as were those at Ajanta , which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD. As the Buddhist ideology encouraged involvement in trade, monasteries often became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses along trade routes . As mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave interiors became more elaborate, with interior walls decorated in paintings, reliefs, and intricate carvings. Numerous donors provided
6468-546: The Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest survival of the ogee shaped " chaitya arch" or chandrashala that was to be an important feature of Indian rock-cut architecture and sculptural decoration for centuries. The form was a reproduction in stone of buildings in wood and other plant materials. The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect, founded by Makkhali Gosala , a contemporary of Gautama Buddha ,
6600-509: The Mahavamsa , Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the Viceroy of Avantirastra (present day Ujjain district ), which was an important administrative and commercial province in central India. This tradition is corroborated by the Saru Maru inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince. Ashoka's own rock edict mentions the presence of
6732-611: The Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts , and who does mention the Buddha and the Sangha , explicitly promoting Buddhism. The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications. The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India. According to Beckwith,
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#17327661927216864-482: The Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and 478. A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are found, including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster . Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate timbered wood (such as lintels ) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving, although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in
6996-435: The 12th century, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature. That is, rocks were cut into bricks and used to build free-standing structures. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple. Numerous rock reliefs , relief sculptures carved into rock faces, have been found outside caves or at other sites. New discoveries of relatively small rock-cut sites, mostly Buddhist, continue to be made in
7128-628: The 12th century. The stepwell is a large hole in the ground with steps at one or more sides. They are used in India to collect and conserve water from the monsoon rains, for use in the dry season. The steps allow access to the water whatever level it is at. They have a history of around 4,000 years in India, first appearing in the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization , reappearing around the 5th century CE, and then constructed until relatively recent times, with some still in use. Many have walls lined with stone brought from elsewhere for
7260-414: The 12th year of his reign, but only seven years later, argues for the hypothesis of a gradual construction of the caves under Ashoka. Similarly, the fact that the caves on Nagarjuni Hill were not consecrated by Ashoka but by his successor Dasaratha, suggests that these caves were only built after the reign of Ashoka. Dasaratha Maurya , Ashoka's grandson and regnal successor, wrote dedicatory inscriptions in
7392-577: The 21st century, especially in the Deccan . The earliest caves used by humans were natural caves that they occupied or used for a variety of purposes, such as shrines and shelters. Evidence suggests that the caves were first occupied and slightly altered during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, up to about 6000 BC. These changes are not classified as architecture. Early examples included decorating overhanging rock with rock-cut designs . The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka , now designated as
7524-408: The Ajivikas sect. They are 1.6 kilometers east of the Barabar Caves. The three caves are: Also called Gopi or Gopi-ka-Kubha or simply Nagarjuni, Gopika cave is the largest of all the caves of the Barabar complex ( 25°00′33″N 85°04′42″E / 25.009116°N 85.078427°E / 25.009116; 85.078427 ). It consists of a single large oblong room of 13.95x5.84m. The two ends of
7656-590: The Buddhists. The affiliation of Lomas Rishi to Buddhism, although unproven, would be coherent with the fact that the architecture of the gate of Lomas Rishi became a reference for the development of the Chaitya arch in Buddhist cave architecture for the following centuries, whereas the Hindus or the Jains caves essentially did not follow this architectural example. This would also mean that the decorated gate of Lomas Rishi
7788-749: The Ellora Parshvantha cave temple. They contain many monumental Jain images. South-West Group: Now termed Trishalagiri. The group is the first one encountered when driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD. South-East Group (Popularly referred to as Ek Patthar Ki Bawadi group or " Gopachal Atishya Kshetra "), Urvahi group ( Siddhachal Caves , North-West group and North-East group were all excavated during
7920-692: The Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts . Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks as Amitrochates , and only advocated for piety (" Dharma ") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts , without ever mentioning Buddhism ,
8052-500: The Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the Maski and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king. The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura and Ashoka's descendant Dasharatha Maurya . The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It
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#17327661927218184-521: The Great , was Emperor of Magadha from c. 268 BCE until his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Mauryan dynasty . His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra . A patron of Buddhism , he is credited with playing an important role in
8316-544: The Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty. On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years. The Buddhist legends make no mention of
8448-516: The Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign. However, the Arthashastra is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The Indica is a lost work , and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings. The 12th-century text Rajatarangini mentions
8580-583: The Maurya period, none of the later caves such as the Ajanta caves having this characteristic of polished surfaces. The very act of digging artificial caves in the rock, of which the Barabar caves represent the oldest case in India, was probably inspired by the caves dug in the rock of the Achaemenids, as is the case in Naqsh-e Rostam . It seems, however, that in India there had been an ancient tradition of ascetics using caves. According to Gupta,
8712-521: The Nagarjuni Caves. These rock-cut chambers bear dedicatory inscriptions in the name of "King Piyadasi" for the Barabar group, and "Devanampiya Dasaratha" for the Nagarjuni group, thought to date back to the 3rd century BCE during the Maurya period, and to correspond respectively to Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasharatha Maurya . The sculptured surround to the entrance to
8844-428: The Tomar rule during 1440–1473 AD. Babur , who visited Gwalior in AD 1527, ordered the Gwalior statues to be destroyed. However, only the faces of many of colossal Jain images were destroyed, some of them were later repaired by the local Jains. The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until
8976-420: The absence of a significant problem in the rock, whereas 7 years later Ashoka dedicated Karan Chaupar cave, perfectly finished, a short distance from there. Visvakarma is also the only cave that does not have "historical" inscriptions after Ashoka. The nearby caves of Nagarjuni hill were built few decades later than the Barabar caves, and consecrated by Dasaratha Maurya , Ashoka's grandson and successor, each for
9108-435: The apparition of stepwells in India, dating from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place. At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath with an inscription dated 1234/5 CE. This well preserved image
9240-423: The army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the emperor. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the Khasa territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth. Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it
9372-440: The back for the chaityas , and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the viharas . When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. The Western Ghats topography, with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines , and sharp cliffs , was suited to their cultural inclinations. The earliest of
9504-423: The capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel. At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met
9636-409: The cave shrines, called Chaityas , were for congregational worship. The earliest rock-cut garbhagriha , similar to free-standing ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circumambulatory path ( pradakshina ) around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees. The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to
9768-470: The chisel, probably by religious rivals, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood (probably before the 5th century CE). However, the original inscriptions being deep, they remain easily decipherable. The Ashoka inscriptions in the Barabar Caves are part of Ashoka's " Minor Rock Edicts ", and appear in the three caves named Sudama, Visvakarma and Karna Chopar. Lomas Rishi, meanwhile, has no Ashoka inscription (only an inscription of Anantavarman above
9900-691: The classical sense. Later many Hindu kings from southern India patronize many cave temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. One such prominent example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain , that contain carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines. Rock-cut architecture also developed with
10032-552: The common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both Ashokavadana and Mahavamsa mention that Ashoka's empress Tishyarakshita had the Bodhi Tree destroyed. In Ashokavadana , the empress manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the Mahavamsa , she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka. In another story, both
10164-523: The criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice, left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath. While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara
10296-487: The death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years. The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate, and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date. Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended
10428-516: The earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of dhamma , and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society. Even on the topic of dhamma , the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face value. In the words of American academic John S. Strong , it is sometimes helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by
10560-444: The emperor four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years. The Ashokavadana contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE. According to
10692-518: The end of the Maurya Empire, under the reign of its last Emperor Brihadratha, and abruptly halted in 185 BC with the assassination of Brihadratha and the coup d'état of Pushyamitra Sunga, founder of the Sunga dynasty. Pushyamitra Sunga is also known to have persecuted Buddhists and Ajivikas, which would explain the immediate cessation of work. According to Gupta, the abrupt interruption of the works
10824-507: The entrance hall an inscription from the Gupta period mentions "Daridra Kantara" ("The Cave of the Beggars"). A mound decorated with later Buddhist sculptures is also near the entrance, another element which suggested the belonging of this cave to the Buddhists. The Visvakarma cave, also called Viswa Mitra, is accessible by the "steps of Ashoka" carved into the cliff. It is a hundred meters and
10956-465: The entrance of the cave, whereas the cave of Lomas Rishi did not receive a dedicatory inscription: The ceiling of the Sudama cave is arched. The cave is composed of a circular vaulted chamber and a vaulted room with the rectangular form of mandapa . The interior walls of the cave represent a technical feat: they are perfectly flat and polished granite surfaces, creating a mirror effect. On the other hand,
11088-408: The entrance, 5-6th century CE), perhaps because she did not never been completed due to structural rock slide problems. In addition to the inscriptions indicating that they were made in the 12th year of Ashoka's reign (250 BC), it is generally considered that the construction of the Barabar caves itself also dates from his reign. The fact that the cave of Vivaskarma was not consecrated by Ashoka during
11220-545: The fact that Mauryan caves were dedicated and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government, allowing for huge resources and efforts to be spent, whereas later caves where essentially the result of donations by commoners, who could not afford as high a level of spending. Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the Mauryan Empire and the subsequent persecutions of Buddhism under Pushyamitra Sunga , it
11352-428: The fact that it is not finished, was nonetheless consecrated by Ashoka. This somewhat questions the theory that Lomas Rishi's cave would not have received Ashoka's inscription because it was in a state of incompletion. This could justify that Lomas Rishi, with his bas-reliefs, is actually posterior to Ashoka, as late as 185 BCE. This does not explain, however, why Visvakarma, consecrated in 260 BCE, has been interrupted, in
11484-534: The finest workmanship on Athenian buildings". This remarkable and large-scale polishing technique, and in many ways without parallel, seems nevertheless to have been derived from polishing techniques in Achaemenid statuary, the stone-working techniques having spread in India after the destruction of the empire by Alexander the Great in 330 BC and the displacement of Persian and Perso-Greek artists and technicians. This know-how seems to have disappeared again after
11616-512: The founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira , the last and 24th Tirthankara of Jainism . The Ajivikas had many similarities with Buddhism as well as Jainism. Also present at the site are several rock-cut Buddhist and Hindu sculptures and inscriptions from later periods. Most caves at Barabar consist of two chambers, carved entirely out of granite , with a highly polished internal surface, the " Mauryan polish " also found on sculptures, and exciting echo effects. The caves were featured – located in
11748-626: The funds for the building of these caves and left donatory inscriptions, including laity, members of the clergy, government officials, and even foreigners such as Yavanas ( Greeks ) representing about 8% of all inscriptions. Facades were added to the exteriors while the interiors became designated for specific uses, such as monasteries ( viharas ) and worship halls ( chaityas ). Over the centuries, simple caves began to resemble free-standing buildings, needing to be formally designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. These artisans had not forgotten their timber roots and imitated
11880-547: The gods would crown him as the next emperor. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the Yaksha territory located above the earth and the Naga territory located below the earth. When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became
12012-815: The granite walls inside, which again confirms that the technique of " Mauryan polish " did not die out with the reign of Ashoka. Inscription of Gopika cave: "The cave of Gopika, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha at from his elevation to the throne, to make it a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas ". [REDACTED] Indian rock-cut architecture There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect,
12144-575: The habit of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave , southwest from Rajgir , Bihar . Many believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where the first Buddhist council was held after the Buddha died ( paranirvana ). The Buddha himself had also used the Indrasala Cave for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made, as religious retreats, that would last for over
12276-437: The half-hemispherical room by a narrow trapezoidal passage. On the floor of the porch, four holes were made, which are thought to allow the cave to be closed with a wooden picket fence. The cave of Visvakarma was offered by Ashoka to the Ajivikas in the year 12 of his reign, about 261 BCE: "By King Priyadarsin, in the 12th year of his reign, this cave of Khalatika Mountain was offered to the Ajivikas. " Visvakarma cave, despite
12408-468: The import of these techniques from another culture. Nor are there any known examples of stone architecture in India before the Maurya period. According to Gupta, the Son Bhandar Caves could be such an intermediate step, although relatively unique, and subject to questioning its chronology, since it is generally dated to the 2nd-4th centuries of our era. Laser scans carried out in 2022 revealed
12540-853: The inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire . The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi. However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi . The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an Ashokavadana legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows. The name Priyadasi
12672-496: The methods used in polishing the stone surfaces could have a local origin, citing the existence of various highly polished stone tools found in the area dating from much earlier times, in the Neolithic era. There is, however, no trace of evolution from these Neolithic objects to the polished stone architecture of many centuries later, and the Barabar caves are essentially a sudden technological break with no local history, suggesting
12804-558: The new preserve of Buddhism. Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka. Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan emperors in the various Puranas . However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their Brahmanical authors were not patronised by the Mauryans. Other texts, such as the Arthashastra and Indica of Megasthenes , which provide general information about
12936-811: The nuances of a wooden structure and the wood grain in working with stone. Early examples of rock-cut architecture are the Buddhist and Jain cave basadi , temples and monasteries , many with gavakshas ( chandrashalas ). The ascetic nature of these religions inclined their followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and these became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries, and stupas had been destroyed, by contrast, cave temples are very well preserved as they are both less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called Viharas and
13068-570: The other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas , along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and fertility. Ellora Caves
13200-567: The period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia. Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated, as in the Ellora Caves . The monolithic Kailash Temple is considered to be the peak of this type construction. Although cave temples continued to be built until
13332-410: The plane surfaces reverberate the sound, creating a very pronounced echo phenomenon. This characteristic is common to all the caves of Barabar, and, by amplifying the vibrations and the harmonies, seems to be favorable to the songs of the monks. All of Barabar's caves share this interior polished appearance to a greater or lesser extent, with the exception of Lomas Rishi Cave, which, although designed on
13464-740: The purpose, but many are truly rock-cut. The most elaborate are highly decorated. They are mostly found in drier states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan . Famous examples include: Chand Baori , Rani ki vav , Step-well of Ambapur , and the Dada Harir Stepwell . In the Mumbai area: In the Junnar area: Ashoka Ashoka , also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( / ə ˈ ʃ oʊ k ə / ə- SHOH -kə ; Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐˈɕoːkɐ] , IAST : Aśoka ; c. 304 – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka
13596-515: The reign of King Kharavela . Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves. After the Barabar Caves, huge efforts were made at building religious caves in Western India until the 6th century CE. However, the polishing of cave walls was abandoned, never to be revived. Such grandiose caves as Karla Caves (1st century CE) or the Ajanta Caves (5th century CE) do not have any polishing either. This may be due to
13728-432: The rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production in Gandhara and Amaravati . The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th century CE, with the magnificent achievements of Ajanta and Ellora , before finally subsiding as Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more prevalent. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra ,
13860-403: The room have the particularity of being circular, contrary to the other caves. The cave lies on the south bank of the hill, dug by King Dasharatha grandson of Emperor Ashoka, according to the inscription that was engraved above the front door: "The cave of Gopika, a refuge that will last as long as the sun and the moon, was dug by Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) Dasaratha during his elevation to
13992-410: The same model, is only half-finished for its interior. Karan Chaupar, also known as Karna Chaupar, is on the northern side of the Barabar granite hill. It consists of a single rectangular room with polished surfaces, 10.2x4.27m in dimensions. It contains an inscription of Ashoka dating from the 19th year of his reign, about 250 BCE, located outside, immediately to the right of the entrance. Initially, it
14124-660: The southeast of Bihar , the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , partly natural and partly artificial caves were built near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha , India . The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription . They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd century BCE. It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during
14256-514: The spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year ( c. 260 BCE ), he conquered Kalinga after a brutal war . Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of " dhamma " or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War , he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing
14388-437: The stone and inspecting it read: "When King Priyadarsin had been annointed 19 years, he went to Jalūṭha and then this cave (called) Supriyekṣā, was given to the Ajivikas." In particular, Falk reconstructs the last line as 𑀲𑀼𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀔𑀆𑀚𑀺𑀯𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀳𑀺𑀤𑀺𑀦𑀸 ( Su[p]i[y]ekha (Ajivikehi) dinā ), which means "Supriyekṣā was given to the Ājivikas". The cave has a rock-cut bench at one end, probably to sit or sleep. In
14520-481: The subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism. Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga: Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered
14652-464: The texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from Ramagrama . In Ashokavadana , he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nāgas who hold the relic; however, in the Mahavamsa , he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka . Using such stories, the Mahavamsa glorifies Sri Lanka as
14784-543: The three other caves, forming the Nagarjuni group (Gopika, Vadathi and Vapiya caves) of the Barabar hills. It is generally considered that their construction dates from his reign. The three caves were offered to the Ajivikas upon the accession to the throne of Dasaratha, confirming that these were still active around 230 BCE, and that Buddhism was not the exclusive religion of the Mauryas at that time. The three caves are also characterized by an extremely advanced finish of
14916-761: The throne around 269-268 BCE. Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors. Other sources, such as the Puranas and the Mahavamsa state that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara , and his grandfather was Chandragupta – the founder of the Empire. The Ashokavadana also names his father as Bindusara , but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king Bimbisara , through Ajatashatru , Udayin , Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, Prasenajit , and Nanda . The 16th century Tibetan monk Taranatha , whose account
15048-566: The throne in 265 BCE. The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition. If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE. The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka consecrated himself as
15180-416: The throne, Susima may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a chakravartin (universal ruler). Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima
15312-474: The throne, to make a hermitage for the most pious Ajivikas " The cave also has the " Gopika Cave Inscription " in the entrance corridor, dated to the 5-6th century CE. These two caves are a little higher on the north side of the hill, 300m as the crow flies ( 25°00′41″N 85°04′37″E / 25.011261°N 85.076963°E / 25.011261; 85.076963 ). Although small, they are very beautiful, perfectly carved, caves. The cave of Vadathika,
15444-451: The throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years. Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince , and his ascension on the throne was disputed. Ashokavadana states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending
15576-484: The time of the early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Arakandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River , the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river. A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate
15708-457: The tradition of rock-cut architecture in the Indian subcontinent . The cave of Lomas Rishi has a carved entranceway. It is on the southern side of Barabar granite hill, and is adjacent to Sudama cave, which is on the left. Lomas Rishi consists of two rooms: a rectangular room measuring 9.86x5.18m, and a circular, semi-hemispherical room 5m in diameter, which is accessed from the rectangular room by
15840-436: The two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the Third Buddhist council , and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka. However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. Even while narrating
15972-472: The welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the families of his brothers, not the brothers themselves. According to the Sri Lankan texts Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa , Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after
16104-590: Was a Buddhist invention, which was emulated in Buddhist architecture in the following centuries. After the Barabar caves, the earliest known rock-cut Buddhist monasteries date to the 1st century BCE in the Western Ghats in western India, such as the Kondivite Caves and, in Eastern Ghats, such as Guntupalli Caves . The Sudama cave is located on the southern side of Barabar granite hill. It
16236-430: Was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by King Krishna I and took more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora Caves located at Maharashtra on the Deccan Plateau , is a huge monolithic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva . There are 34 caves built at this site, but
16368-606: Was crowned four years later. The Vamsatthapakasini adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother. According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared. Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in A-yi-uang-chuan ), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in Fen-pie-kung-te-hun ). The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be
16500-607: Was impressed by the other qualities of the prince. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital. According to the Ashokavadana , Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of Takshashila (present-day Bhir Mound in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – Ashoka-sutra and Kunala-sutra – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as
16632-473: Was in a state of incompleteness, is undermined by the fact that the cave of Vivaskarma, another cave of Barabar, although it is not finished, was nevertheless consecrated by Ashoka. The consecration of a cave could therefore be done in the course of work. This could imply that Lomas Rishi, with its bas-reliefs, actually post-dates Ashoka's reign. Gupta actually believes that Lomas Rishi post-dates both Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha, and would have been built at
16764-519: Was not yet fully completed. The precise identity of the Ajivikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains . Later, Ashoka built the caves of Lomas Rishi (without dated inscription, but posterior to Sudama on architectural grounds) and Karna Chopar (19th year of his reign), at a time when he had become a firm advocate of Buddhism, as known from
16896-447: Was planned for Buddhist monks. However, Harry Falk has recently shown with a new reading that the cave was indeed dedicated to the Ajivikas. Traditional reading of the inscription: "In my 19th year of reign, I, King Priyadarsin , offered this cave of the very pleasant mountain of Khalatika, to serve as shelter during the rainy season." This reading of the inscription has been corrected by Harry Falk in 2007, who after cleaning
17028-406: Was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila. However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila. When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his,
17160-520: Was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism. The Ashokavadana also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts: The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller Xuanzang claims to have seen
17292-422: Was thought from E. Hultzsch's 1925 translation, that Ashoka's inscription from Karna Chopar Cave does not mention the Ajivikas, and seems rather to refer to the Buddhist practice of retirement (vassavasa) during the rainy season. In addition, the inverted swastika with upward arrow at the end of the inscription ( [REDACTED] [REDACTED] ) would be more of a Buddhist character. All this suggested that this cave
17424-505: Was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the Uttarapatha trade route. However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city. That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by an Aramaic-language inscription discovered at Sirkap near Taxila. The inscription includes
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