The Intel Graphics Media Accelerator ( GMA ) is a series of integrated graphics processors introduced in 2004 by Intel , replacing the earlier Intel Extreme Graphics series and being succeeded by the Intel HD and Iris Graphics series.
71-537: This series targets the market of low-cost graphics solutions. The products in this series are integrated onto the motherboard, have limited graphics processing power, and use the computer's main memory for storage instead of a dedicated video memory . They were commonly found on netbooks , low-priced laptops and desktop computers , as well as business computers which do not need high levels of graphics capability. In early 2007, about 90% of all PC motherboards sold had an integrated GPU . The GMA line of GPUs replaces
142-668: A TV encoder. Under Windows, the driver supports DirectX 10.0, Shader Model 4.0 and OpenGL 1.5. Under Linux, OpenGL 2.1 is supported. Integrated graphics found on B43, Q43 and Q45 chipsets . The GMA X4500 and the GMA X4500HD for desktop platforms were launched in June 2008. The GMA X4500 is used in G43 chipset and the GMA X4500HD is used in the G45 chipset . The GMA X4500 is also used in
213-873: A chipset, but relied instead on a collection of discrete TTL chips by Intel: To integrate the functions needed on a mainboard into a smaller number of ICs, Intel licensed the ZyMOS POACH chipset for its Intel 80286 and Intel 80386 SX processors (the 82230/82231 High Integration AT-Compatible Chip Set). The 82230 covers this combination of chips: 82C284 clock, 82288 bus controller, and dual 8259A interrupt controllers among with other components. The 82231 covers this combination of chips: 8254 interrupt timer, 74LS612 memory mapper and dual 8237A DMA controller among with other components. Both set were available US$ 60 for 10 MHz version and US$ 90 for 12 MHz version in quantities of 100. This chipset can be used with an 82335 High-integration Interface Device to provide support for
284-497: A computer a brief window of time to move information from primary volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted. Some systems, for example EMC Symmetrix , have integrated batteries that maintain volatile storage for several minutes. Utilities such as hdparm and sar can be used to measure IO performance in Linux. Full disk encryption , volume and virtual disk encryption, andor file/folder encryption
355-702: A drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library. Tertiary storage is also known as nearline storage because it is "near to online". The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is: For example, always-on spinning hard disk drives are online storage, while spinning drives that spin down automatically, such as in massive arrays of idle disks ( MAID ), are nearline storage. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in tape libraries , are nearline storage, while tape cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline storage. Off-line storage
426-523: A memory in which they store their operating instructions and data. Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines. A modern digital computer represents data using
497-574: A source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program ( BIOS ) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access ). Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only , as updates to them are possible; however it
568-775: A while MacBook and MacBook Pro notebooks instead shipped with a far more powerful NVIDIA GeForce 9400M, and the 15" and 17" MacBook Pro notebooks shipped with an additional GeForce 9600GT supporting hybrid power to switch between GPUs. The NVIDIA GeForce 9400M chipset implemented in Apple MacBooks did not support composite or S-video output. FreeBSD 8.0 supports the following Intel graphic chipsets: i810, i810-DC100, i810e, i815, i830M, 845G, 852GM, 855GM, 865G, 915G, 915GM, 945G, 945GM, 965G, 965Q, 946GZ, 965GM,945GME, G33, Q33, Q35, G35, GM45, G45, Q45, G43 and G41 chipsets. In practice, chipsets through 4500MHD are supported with DRM and 3D using FreeBSD 9. Work to integrate GEM and KMS
639-550: Is a core function and fundamental component of computers. The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is what manipulates data by performing computations. In practice, almost all computers use a storage hierarchy , which puts fast but expensive and small storage options close to the CPU and slower but less expensive and larger options further away. Generally, the fast technologies are referred to as "memory", while slower persistent technologies are referred to as "storage". Even
710-427: Is a form of volatile memory that also requires the stored information to be periodically reread and rewritten, or refreshed , otherwise it would vanish. Static random-access memory is a form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied; it loses its content when the power supply is lost. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be used to give
781-425: Is a level below secondary storage. Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; such data are often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds). This
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#1732794026130852-684: Is a very close relative of the GMA900/950, completely different from the GMA X3000 series. Supports up to 384 MB video memory (Using the Windows XP driver), DirectX 9.0c, Shader Model 2.0, OpenGL 1.4 with Microsoft Windows and OpenGL 2.1 with Linux. The 946GZ, Q963 and Q965 chipsets use the GMA 3000 graphics core. The GMA 3000 3D core is very different from the X3000, despite their similar names. It
923-751: Is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers that are designed for them. List of Intel chipsets#Core.2FCore 2 mobile chipsets This article provides a list of motherboard chipsets made by Intel , divided into three main categories: those that use the PCI bus for interconnection (the 4xx series), those that connect using specialized "hub links" (the 8xx series), and those that connect using PCI Express (the 9xx series). The chipsets are listed in chronological order. An earlier chipset support for Intel 8085 microprocessor can be found at MCS-85 family section. Early IBM XT -compatible mainboards did not yet have
994-441: Is based more directly on the previous generation GMA 900 and GMA 950 graphics, and belonging to the same "i915" family with them. It has pixel shaders which only support Shader Model 2.0b features, and the vertex shaders are still software-emulated. In addition, hardware video acceleration such as hardware-based iDCT computation, ProcAmp (video stream independent color correction ), and VC-1 decoding are not implemented in hardware. Of
1065-410: Is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit . The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction. Off-line storage
1136-503: Is currently adding support for i-series integrated graphics and improving support for earlier chipsets. In August 2006, Intel added support to the open-source X.Org / XFree86 drivers for the latest 965 series that include the GMA (X)3000 core. These drivers were developed for Intel by Tungsten Graphics. Main memory Computer data storage or digital data storage is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data . It
1207-609: Is estimable using S.M.A.R.T. diagnostic data that includes the hours of operation and the count of spin-ups, though its reliability is disputed. Flash storage may experience downspiking transfer rates as a result of accumulating errors, which the flash memory controller attempts to correct. The health of optical media can be determined by measuring correctable minor errors , of which high counts signify deteriorating and/or low-quality media. Too many consecutive minor errors can lead to data corruption. Not all vendors and models of optical drives support error scanning. As of 2011 ,
1278-416: Is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes . When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in
1349-713: Is readily available for most storage devices. Hardware memory encryption is available in Intel Architecture, supporting Total Memory Encryption (TME) and page granular memory encryption with multiple keys (MKTME). and in SPARC M7 generation since October 2015. Distinct types of data storage have different points of failure and various methods of predictive failure analysis . Vulnerabilities that can instantly lead to total loss are head crashing on mechanical hard drives and failure of electronic components on flash storage. Impending failure on hard disk drives
1420-491: Is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, and rather, use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly. Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what
1491-442: Is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in a uniform manner. Historically, early computers used delay lines , Williams tubes , or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic-core memory . Core memory remained dominant until
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#17327940261301562-586: Is the same graphic system as the GMA 500, but clocked at double the speed. (From 200 MHz to 400 MHz). This integrated graphics system was released in Intel Atom (Cedar Trail, 32 nm) and based on PowerVR SGX545 . Unlike the original PowerVR solution, this model is clocked at 400 MHz instead of 200 MHz. It is specifically found in the Intel Atom N2600 processor and Atom D2500 models. It supports DirectX version 9.0c. Similar to
1633-436: Is typically corrected upon detection. A bit or a group of malfunctioning physical bits (the specific defective bit is not always known; group definition depends on the specific storage device) is typically automatically fenced out, taken out of use by the device, and replaced with another functioning equivalent group in the device, where the corrected bit values are restored (if possible). The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) method
1704-505: Is typically measured in milliseconds (thousandths of a second), while the access time per byte for primary storage is measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). Thus, secondary storage is significantly slower than primary storage. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times. Other examples of secondary storage technologies include USB flash drives , floppy disks , magnetic tape , paper tape , punched cards , and RAM disks . Once
1775-470: Is typically used in communications and storage for error detection . A detected error is then retried. Data compression methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percent) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of
1846-496: Is used to transfer information since the detached medium can easily be physically transported. Additionally, it is useful for cases of disaster, where, for example, a fire destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery . Off-line storage increases general information security since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if
1917-695: The BIOS . Different modes are supported: The default setting in most BIOS is PAVP Lite. Within Intel HD Graphics , the successor of Intel GMA, a similar technology called Intel Insider exists. Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger supports the GMA 950, since it was used in previous revisions of the MacBook , Mac mini , and 17-inch iMac . It had been used in all Intel-based Mac minis until the Mac mini released on March 3, 2009). Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard contains drivers for
1988-690: The CPU ( secondary or tertiary storage ), typically hard disk drives , optical disc drives, and other devices slower than RAM but non-volatile (retaining contents when powered down). Historically, memory has, depending on technology, been called central memory , core memory , core storage , drum , main memory , real storage , or internal memory . Meanwhile, slower persistent storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage , external memory , or auxiliary/peripheral storage . Primary storage (also known as main memory , internal memory , or prime memory ), often referred to simply as memory ,
2059-647: The G41 chipset , which was released in September 2008. The difference between the GMA X4500 and the GMA X4500HD is that the GMA X4500HD is capable of "full 1080p high-definition video playback, including Blu-ray disc movies" . Only GMA X4500HD, X4500MHD and X4700MHD has AVC HD decoding support. Like the X3500, X4500 supports DirectX 10 and Shader Model 4.0 features. Intel designed the GMA X4500 to be 200% faster than
2130-843: The PowerVR SGX and used it in the GMA 500 IGP for use with their Atom platform. With the introduction of the Platform Controller Hub , the Graphics Media Accelerator series ceased, and the CPU-based Intel HD and Iris Graphics series was created. The GMA 900 was the first graphics core produced under Intel's Graphics Media Accelerator product name, and was incorporated in the Intel 910G, 915G, and 915Gx chipsets . The 3D architecture of
2201-523: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators , digital signal processors , and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having
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2272-417: The binary numeral system . Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits , or binary digits, each of which has a value of 0 or 1. The most common unit of storage is the byte , equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of
2343-476: The disk read/write head on HDDs reaches the proper placement and the data, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. To reduce the seek time and rotational latency, data are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based on sequential and block access. Another way to reduce
2414-690: The 1970s, when advances in integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive. This led to modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are volatile , meaning that they lose the information when not powered. Besides storing opened programs, it serves as disk cache and write buffer to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as it's not needed by running software. Spare memory can be utilized as RAM drive for temporary high-speed data storage. As shown in
2485-470: The 4500MHD series, and it is used in the GM47 chipsets, Montevina . It features 80 shading units, 10 texture mapping units , and 1 ROPs. Compared to the 4500MHD, the frequency is increased to 640 MHz. Intel developed a new set of low power graphics architecture based on PowerVR . The available Linux drivers do not support much of this. The Intel SCH (System Controller Hub; codenamed Poulsbo ) for
2556-540: The 64-bit GMA X3100 drivers later, and thus affected Macs were forced back to the 32-bit kernel despite being 64-bit clean in terms of hardware and firmware. No 64-bit drivers were offered in OS X Lion. Subsequently, OS X Mountain Lion dropped 32-bit kernel booting. The combination of these two changes in graphics driver code resulted in many Mac revisions being unable to upgrade to Mountain Lion, as their GPUs cannot be replaced. For
2627-519: The Atom Z24xx ( Medfield ) platform as a series of ultra-low power processors for smartphones. While Intel indicates that this chip contains an Intel Graphics Media Accelerator, they do not specify a GPU model number. This GPU is known to be a PowerVR SGX540 . A revised version of the previous Intel SCH (System Controller Hub) for the Atom Z6xx series CPU codenamed Lincroft . Essentially, this
2698-608: The Atom processor Z5xx series features a GMA 500 graphic system. Rather than being developed in-house, this core is a PowerVR SGX 535 core licensed from Imagination Technologies. Intel describes this as "a flexible, programmable architecture that supports shader-based technology, 2D, 3D and advanced 3D graphics, high-definition video decode, and image processing. Features include screen tiling, internal true color processing, zero overhead anti-aliasing, programmable shader 3D accelerator, and 32-bit floating-point operations." Intel launched
2769-476: The GMA 3000-equipped chipsets, only the Q965 retains dual independent display support. The core speed is rated at 400 MHz with 1.6 Gpixel/s fill rate in datasheets, but was listed as 667 MHz core in the white paper. The memory controller can now address a maximum of 256 MB of system memory, and the integrated serial DVO ports have increased top speed to 270 Mpixel/s. The GMA X3000 for desktop
2840-636: The GMA 3100 ( G33 chipset ) in 3DMark06 performance and 70% faster than the GMA X3500 ( G35 chipset ). The GMA 4500MHD for laptops was launched on July 16, 2008. Featurewise, the 4500MHD is identical to its desktop cousin, the X4500HD. The GMA 4500MHD is used in GM45 chipsets, cantiga The GMA X4700MHD for laptops was launched in October 2008. It is the last product of Intel GMA . In a way, it belongs to
2911-489: The GMA 3600, but this version is clocked at 640 MHz. It is found in Atom N2800, Atom D2550, Atom D2500, Atom D2600 and Atom D2700 models. It supports DirectX version 9.0c. Protected Audio Video Path (PAVP) restricts the data path within a computer during video playback (e.g., Blu-ray discs). It is supported by newer chipsets (e.g. Intel G45 ) and operating systems (since Windows Vista ). PAVP can be configured in
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2982-636: The GMA X3100, which were used in a recent revision of the MacBook range. Late-release versions of Mac OS X 10.4 also supported the GMA 900 due to its use in Apple's Developer Transition Kit (2005) , which was used in the PowerPC-to-Intel transition . However, special modifications to the kext file must be made to enable Core Image and Quartz Extreme. Although the new MacBook line no longer uses
3053-403: The GMA X3500 is very similar to the GMA X3000, with both graphics cores running at 667 MHz . The major difference between them is that the GMA X3500 supports Shader Model 4.0 and DirectX 10 , whereas the earlier X3000 supports Shader Model 3.0 and DirectX 9 . The X3500 also adds hardware-assistance for playback of VC-1 video. The GMA X3100 is the mobile version of the GMA X3500 used in
3124-501: The GMA ;900 was a significant upgrade from the previous Extreme 3D graphics processors. It is a 4 pixel per clock cycle design supporting DirectX 9 pixel shader model 2.0. It operates at a clock rate ranging from 160 to 333 MHz, depending on the particular chipset. At 333 MHz, it has a peak pixel fill-rate of 1332 megapixels per second. However, the architecture still lacks support for hardware transform and lighting and
3195-511: The I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory. Secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories , while also providing metadata describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information. Most computer operating systems use
3266-583: The Intel GL960/GM965 chipsets and also in the GS965 chipset. The X3100 supports hardware transform and lighting, up to eight programmable shader units, and up to 384 MB video memory. Its display cores can run up to 333 MHz on GM965 and 320 MHz on GL960. Its render cores can run up to 500 MHz on GM965 and 400 MHz on GL960. The X3100 display unit includes a 300 MHz RAMDAC, two 25–112 MHz LVDS transmitters, 2 DVO encoders, and
3337-599: The X3100, Mac OS X 10.5 shipped with drivers supporting it that require no modifications to the kext file. Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard), which includes a new 64-bit kernel in addition to the 32-bit one, does not include 64-bit X3100 drivers. This means that although the MacBooks with the X3100 have 64-bit capable processors and EFI, Mac OS X must load the 32-bit kernel to support the 32-bit X3100 drivers. November 9's 10.6.2 update ships with 64-bit X3100 drivers. Apple removed
3408-423: The advantages of the new GMA architecture come from the ability to flexibly switch as needed between executing graphics-related tasks or video-related tasks. While GMA performance has been widely criticized in the past as being too slow for computer games , sometimes being derogatorily nicknamed Intel 'GMD' (Graphics Media Decelerator) and being essentially referred to as the world's first "graphics decelerator" since
3479-424: The computer to detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. Errors generally occur in low probabilities due to random bit value flipping, or "physical bit fatigue", loss of the physical bit in the storage of its ability to maintain a distinguishable value (0 or 1), or due to errors in inter or intra-computer communication. A random bit flip (e.g. due to random radiation )
3550-524: The concept of virtual memory , allowing the utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks ( pages ) to a swap file or page file on secondary storage, retrieving them later when needed. If a lot of pages are moved to slower secondary storage, the system performance is degraded. The secondary storage, including HDD , ODD and SSD , are usually block-addressable. Tertiary storage or tertiary memory
3621-563: The confusion, it is listed as 667 MHz in Intel G965 white paper, but listed as 400 MHz in Intel G965 datasheet. There are various rules that define the IGP's processing capabilities. Memory controller can now address maximum 384 MB memory according to white paper, but only 256 MB in datasheet. GMA X3500 is an upgrade of the GMA X3000 and used in the desktop G35 . The shaders support shader model 4.0 features. Architecturally,
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#17327940261303692-430: The desired data to primary storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile (retaining data when its power is shut off). Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage because secondary storage is less expensive. In modern computers, hard disk drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs) are usually used as secondary storage. The access time per byte for HDDs or SSDs
3763-494: The desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data in the memory cells using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks. As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (uninitialized at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have
3834-400: The diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM: Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus . It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus . The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address , that indicates
3905-485: The earlier Intel Extreme Graphics , and the Intel740 line, the latter of which was a discrete unit in the form of AGP and PCI cards with technology that evolved from companies Real3D and Lockheed Martin . Later, Intel integrated the i740 core into the Intel 810 northbridge . The original architecture of GMA systems supported only a few functions in hardware, and relied on the host CPU to handle at least some of
3976-465: The first computer designs, Charles Babbage 's Analytical Engine and Percy Ludgate 's Analytical Machine, clearly distinguished between processing and memory (Babbage stored numbers as rotations of gears, while Ludgate stored numbers as displacements of rods in shuttles). This distinction was extended in the Von Neumann architecture , where the CPU consists of two main parts: The control unit and
4047-477: The former using standard MOSFETs and the latter using floating-gate MOSFETs . In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor random-access memory (RAM), particularly dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile floating-gate semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory
4118-435: The graphics pipeline, further decreasing performance. However, with the introduction of Intel's 4th generation of GMA architecture ( GMA X3000 ) in 2006, many of the functions are now built into the hardware, providing an increase in performance. The 4th generation of GMA combines fixed function capabilities with a threaded array of programmable executions units, providing advantages to both graphics and video performance. Many of
4189-474: The impact of individual pipeline stalls.) However, due to the scalar nature of the execution units, they can only process data on a single pixel component at a time. The GMA X3000 supports DirectX 9.0 with vertex and pixel Shader Model 3.0 features. The processor consists of different clock domains, meaning that the entire chip does not operate the same clock speed. This causes some difficulty when measuring peak throughput of its various functions. Further adding to
4260-568: The information stored for archival purposes is rarely accessed, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage. In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are the most popular, and to a much lesser extent removable hard disk drives; older examples include floppy disks and Zip disks. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape cartridges are predominant; older examples include open-reel magnetic tape and punched cards. Storage technologies at all levels of
4331-488: The low-performing S3 ViRGE , the latest GMA generation should ease many of those concerns for the casual gamer. Despite similarities, Intel's main series of GMA Integrated Graphics Processors (IGPs) is not based on the PowerVR technology Intel licensed from Imagination Technologies. Intel used the low-power PowerVR MBX designs in chipsets supporting their XScale platform, and since the sale of XScale in 2006 has licensed
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#17327940261304402-480: The lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. In contemporary usage, memory is usually fast but temporary semiconductor read-write memory , typically DRAM (dynamic RAM) or other such devices. Storage consists of storage devices and their media not directly accessible by
4473-641: The most commonly used data storage media are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies, such as all-flash arrays (AFAs) are proposed for development. Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor -based integrated circuit (IC) chips to store information. Data are typically stored in metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) memory cells . A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of memory cells, consisting of tiny MOS field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and/or MOS capacitors . Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist,
4544-518: The piece of information , or simply data . For example, the complete works of Shakespeare , about 1250 pages in print, can be stored in about five megabytes (40 million bits) with one byte per character. Data are encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character , digit , or multimedia object. Many standards exist for encoding (e.g. character encodings like ASCII , image encodings like JPEG , and video encodings like MPEG-4 ). By adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows
4615-521: The similar vertex shader technologies. Like previous Intel integrated graphics parts, the GMA 900 has hardware support for MPEG-2 motion compensation , color-space conversion and DirectDraw overlay. The processor uses different separate clock generators for display and render cores. The display unit includes a 400 MHz RAMDAC , two 25–200 Mpixel/s serial DVO ports, and two display controllers. In mobile chipsets, up to two 18-bit 25–112 MHz LVDS transmitters are included. The GMA 950
4686-413: The storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressability. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance. Non-volatile memory retains
4757-422: The stored information even if not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies are volatile ones, although that is not a universal rule. Since the primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory. Dynamic random-access memory
4828-421: The trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not. For security reasons , certain types of data (e.g. credit card information) may be kept encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots. Generally,
4899-600: Was "substantially redesigned" when compared to previous GMA iterations and it is used in the Intel G965 north bridge controller. The GMA X3000 was launched in July 2006. The GMA X3000's underlying 3D rendering hardware is organized as a unified shader processor consisting of 8 scalar execution units. Each pipeline can process video, vertex, or texture operations. A central scheduler dynamically dispatches threads to pipeline resources, to maximize rendering throughput (and decrease
4970-441: Was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage . The primary storage, including ROM , EEPROM , NOR flash , and RAM , are usually byte-addressable . Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage ) differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfer
5041-1064: Was the second graphics core produced under Intel's Graphics Media Accelerator product name, and was incorporated in the Intel 945G chipsets . The processor includes an up to 400 MHz 256-bit core, supporting up to 10.6 GB/s memory bandwidth with DDR2-667 system RAM, up to 224 MB max. video memory through DVMT scheme, 1.6 GPixels/s and 1.6 GTexels/s fill rate, a max. resolution of 2048x1536 for both analog and digital displays, 2 SDVO ports for flat-panels and/or TV-Out via ADD2 cards or media expansion cards. 3D-wise, GMA 950 supports up to four pixels per clock rendering, Microsoft DirectX 9.0 hardware acceleration & Vertex shader 3.0 and OpenGL 1.4 with ARB extensions on Windows. Integrated graphics found on Q33, Q35, G31 and G33 chipsets. It supports Pixel Shader 2.0 with OpenGL 1.4, but Hardware Vertex Shader isn't supported. Found in Intel Atom D4xx, D5xx, N4xx and N5xx (codenamed Pineview ) processors. Like GMA 3100 and GMA 3000, this
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