Misplaced Pages

#781218

136-536: Fajia ( Chinese : 法家 ; pinyin : fǎjiā ), or the School of fa (laws, methods), often translated as Legalism , is a school of mainly Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy . Often interpreted in the West along realist lines, its members works contributed variously to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire , and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes Guan Zhong as forefather of

272-661: A "key element" in the "enlightened governance" of the purported former kings. Likely originating in the debates of the Neo- Mohists and school of names , although Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) lists Shen Buhai under Fajia , he still considered his doctrine to be that of Xing-Ming , or "form" and "name". Sima Qian claimed Shen Buhai and Han Fei as favoring it, but rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Described as holding outcomes accountable to claims , Sima Qian glosses Shen Buhai, Shang Yang and Han Fei under it; early connected with

408-547: A backdrop of the late Hann state 's struggles against the Qin, Chapter 43 likely led to an association of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai, presenting their ideas together. Taking Shang Yang as representative, Han Fei considered fa (standards) necessary, as including law, decrees, reward and punishment, as well as fa administrative standards as controlled by the ruler, representative of his own state's Shen Buhai. The latter he terms (shu) administrative Method or Technique, defined as examining

544-527: A changing with times paradigm, or one of timeliness , "dominated" the age. Pines takes Shang Yang and Han Fei's more specific view of history as an evolutionary process as contrasting. It might have influenced an end of history view expressed by the Qin dynasty , but would be a radical departure from the earlier ideas. Sinologist Hansen also once took the Dao of Shen Dao and Han Fei as aiming at what they took to be

680-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst

816-469: A court of administrators likely based on Shen Buhai and Han Fei. But, Sima Qian's chapter concludes: The Way of Laozi esteemed emptiness, reacting to changes through non-action. Profound and subtle, his words are difficult to comprehend. Zhuangzi was unfettered by the Way and virtue, setting loose his discussions; yet his essentials go back to spontaneity. Master Shen (Buhai) treated the lowly as lowly, applying

952-571: A cruel official under the Emperor Wu of Han . Even by the Records own timeline, a purported Huang-Lao might have emerged in the academies some decades after Shen Buhai's death, likely preceding a consolidated Daodejing (Laozi) or Zhuangzi. Discussing an administrative Way of government, he is as lacking in later metaphysical conceptions of the Daoist Dao . But apart from Shang Yang,

1088-546: A dividing line between them has never otherwise been entirely clear, and the other have been described them in syncretic, Daoistic terms. Termed "responsiveness through accommodation" by a commentary to the Shiji , Shen Buhai has ideas very similar to that of Non-action in the Guanzi , which was classed as Daoist long before it was classed as 'Legalist'. With Daosim poorly definable for the period, some western Sinologist modernly use

1224-415: A historical cause of changing conditions", namely population growth, acknowledging that an underpopulated society only need moral ties. The Guanzi text sees punishment as unnecessary in ancient times with an abundance of resources, making it a question of poverty rather than human nature. Human nature is a Confucian issue. Graham otherwise considers the customs current of the time as having no significance to

1360-645: A main example of Zhuangzi influence in the Han, a Laozi-Zhuangi Daoism may otherwise be more accurate for the third century A.D, Although those listed under the fa-school arguably were focused on fa standards and methods, the Han Feizi is also focused on Daoistic concepts wu wei and Dao . While some may have been earlier than the Daodejing (Laozi), it would almost go without saying that the Han Feizi would be influenced by it. But those who included commentaries on it in

1496-447: A major influence by the Han dynasty , grand chancellor Shen Buhai likely played a key role in the development of the merit system , and could be seen as its founder. With formative influence for the Qin and Chinese law, Shang Yang reformed the peripheral Qin state into a strongly centralized, powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. Largely responsible for their synthesis as

SECTION 10

#1732772468782

1632-567: A member of the Jixia Academy . He probably left Linzi after its capture by the state of Yan in 285 BC. Thompson states that the Shenzi was available until the fall of the Tang dynasty, though not in its original edition. Shen Dao's own original 42 essays have been lost. With only 7 fragments still extant, he is known largely through short references and the writings of others, notably

1768-422: A more " realist " anti-Confucian than Daoist interpretation of the Han Feizi, or for impartial laws and technique as purportedly bolstering the authority of a wu wei semi-inactive ruler. An interpretation of the Daodejing (Laozi) as simply cynically political would be flawed. Still, together with qigong , it can be viewed as a manual for politics and military strategy. In contrast to it's modern representation,

1904-552: A negative view of fa laws, not much favoring "state activism in general". Sima Qian would seem to favor limitation of the bureaucracy, but argues from a standpoint that needs have changed with the times. One chapter of the Han Feizi criticizes "the doctrine of calmness and stillness", another "abstruse and subtle language". Despite appropriative usages, the Daoistic early Han Huainanzi does not endorse Shen Buhai, glossing him as penal alongside Shang Yang and Han Fei. Nonetheless, before

2040-455: A new virtue. Scholar Sugamoto Hirotsugu attributes the concept of Fen, or social resources, later used by the Guanzi and Xunzi , to Shen, given a "dimensional" difference through Fa (measurement, standards, protocol, administrative method), social relationships ("yin") and division. Shen Dao eschews appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution ("the basis of fairness") with

2176-610: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as

2312-553: A particular quotation from the Han Feizi as example: Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write the Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on

2448-469: A practice which has always been present as a part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui ,

2584-488: A remote backwater to the west, Shang Yang 's reforms propelled the Qin state to power. But central China was likely not familiar with him or the Qin state's Book of Lord Shang 's until just before imperial unification, and similar ideas on power only develop late in the work. The late Xun Kuang is familiar with Shen Buhai , Shen Dao , and the Qin, but still seems unaware of Shang Yang. With evidence of direct influence lacking, Shen Buhai can speculatively be compared with

2720-486: A school, the Han Feizi also contains some of the earliest commentaries on the Daodejing . Sun Tzu 's Art of War recommends Han Fei's concepts of power, technique, inaction, and impartiality, punishment and reward. One of Sima Tan 's (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought, Fajia refers to the idea that administrative protocols should disregard kinship and social status, treating everyone equally and thereby elevating

2856-428: A self-conscious current, it would have been more of a tendency than a unified doctrine, with early "Huang-Lao" Han dynasty administrators named by Sima Qian, like Cao Shen , taking a more "hands off" approach after the fall of the Qin dynasty. More political than a typical reading of the Daodejing (Laozi), rather than "using" the work for politics, 'Han Fei' may be reading from an older, more political version. With

SECTION 20

#1732772468782

2992-404: A single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of

3128-459: A tendency to view the entire strategic landscape as part of a single whole... Strategy and statecraft become means of 'combative coexistence' with opponents. The goal is to maneuver them into weakness while building up one's own shi , or strategic position." Kissinger considers the "maneuvering" approach an ideal, but one that ran in contrast to the conflicts of the Qin dynasty. The older works of Jacques Gernet and A.C. Graham in particular took

3264-576: A well known philosopher in his time from the Jixia Academy , the Mohists and Shen Dao are placed by the Outer Zhuangzi as preceding Zhuang Zhou and Laozi . Although likely not entirely accurate chronologically, Shen Dao does arguably bare resemblance to the earlier, Inner Zhuangzi. Early taking him as the Beginning of Daoist Theory , or Mature Daoism, Hansen still discusses him as part of

3400-455: Is a li of near and distant relatives, but no li of love and hate." For this reason he is said to "laugh at men of worth" and "reject sages", his order relying not on them but on the Fa . Linking Fa to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the language of the old ritual order to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state, Shen cautions

3536-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌   'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊   'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,

3672-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with

3808-410: Is given by some a process, such as giving a leader to a group. "The ruler of a state is enthroned for the sake of the state; the state is not established for the sake of the prince. Officials are installed for the sake of their offices; offices are not established for the sake of officials... Usually disregarded by the other figures, Shen Dao considers moral capability useful in terms of authority. If

3944-813: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at

4080-495: Is said: "When the great lord relies on fa and does not act personally, affairs are judged in accordance with (objective) method (fa)." The benefit of fa is that each person meets his reward or punishment according to his due, and there are no further expectations of the lord. Thus resentment does not arise and superiors and inferiors are in harmony. If the lord of men abandons method (Fa) and governs with his own person, then penalties and rewards, seizures and grants, will all emerge from

4216-574: Is spoken in Chapter 40 of the Han Feizi and incorporated into The Art of War . He only uses the term twice in his fragments. Before Sima Tan , doctrines were only identified by texts named after Masters (Zi), with Daojia narrowed down to basic examples of Laozi and Zhuangzi in the Han dynasty . Not forming large scale, organized schools in the sense of the Mohists and Confucians , their traditions formed loose networks of master and disciple in

Legalism (Chinese philosophy) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4352-439: Is still built into the Han Feizi's Xing-ming administrative method. Its current is opposed with later, or otherwise more spiritual forms of Daoism as a practical state philosophy, not accepting a 'permanent way of statecraft', and applying the practice of wu wei or non-action more to the ruler than anyone else. Although there is no evidence that any follower of Zhuangzi called himself Huang-Lao , it contains three stories about

4488-448: Is that it prevents people from fighting each other; political authority is justified and essential on this basis. Shen Dao says: "When All under Heaven lacks the single esteemed [person], then there is no way to carry out the principles [of orderly government, li 理].... Hence the Son of Heaven is established for the sake of All under Heaven... All under Heaven is not established for the sake of

4624-438: Is the prevention of selfish deeds and argument. However, doubting its long-term viability Shen did not exclude moral values and accepted (qualified) Confucian Li 's supplementation of Fa and social relationships, though he frames Li in terms of (impersonal) rules. "The state has the li of high and low rank, but not a li of men of worth and those without talent. There is a li of age an youth, but not of age and cowardice. There

4760-444: Is to confer office in accordance with a candidate's capabilities; to hold achievement accountable to claim; and to examine the ability of the assembled ministers. This is controlled by the ruler." With Shen Buhai more conservatively surveying the ministers, their direct connection as a unified administrative function cannot be seen before Han Fei. Naming individuals to their roles as ministers (e.g. "Steward of Cloaks"), in contrast to

4896-489: Is to misunderstand the facts of the universe. In contrast to Xun Kuang as the classically purported teacher of Han Fei and Li Si, Han Fei does not believe that a tendency to disorder demonstrates that people are evil or unruly. In what A.C. Graham took to be a "highly literary fiction", as Pines recalls, the Book of Lord Shang's chapter 1, “Revising the laws,” opens with a debate held by Duke Xiao of Qin , seeking to "consider

5032-487: Is traditionally included under it. The term "Huang-Lao" might be retrospective, and the Han Feizi's Daodejing commentaries chapters may be late additions. But the latter would seem to accurately describe the syncretism that became dominant by the Qin dynasty . As a view still espoused by Sinologist Hansen of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, a "Legalism" and Huang-Lao "Yellow Emperor Daoism" dominant by

5168-547: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,

5304-532: The Han Feizi and Zhuangzi . A critical reconstruction of the lost Shenzi was made by Paul Thompson , and published in 1979 as The Shen Tzu Fragments . In 2007, the Shanghai Museum published a collection of texts written on bamboo slips from the state of Chu dating to the Warring States period , including six bamboo slips with sayings of Shenzi. These are the only known examples of

5440-473: The ⼓   ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏   ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of the character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to

5576-499: The Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to the first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and

Legalism (Chinese philosophy) - Misplaced Pages Continue

5712-825: The Daoist school based on what is "clearly" the idea of the Xing-Ming court. Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and Sima Qian's preferably ' inactive ' ruler contracts an assembly of ministers, with Xing-Ming correlating job proposals (Ming "names", or verbal claims ) with the Xing "forms" or " shapes " that they take. With early examples in Shen Buhai (Shenzi), several of the Mawangdui's texts bare resemblance to Han Fei's Chapter 5 discussion of Xing-Ming and its "brilliant (or intelligent) ruler", as do other eclectic Huang-Lao typified works, like

5848-522: The Guanzi , Huainanzi , and Sima Qian's Shiji . A.C. Graham took the Outer Zhuangzi as incorporating Xing-Ming, emphasizing benevolence over rewards and punishments, although by its own statements the work favours self cultivation. With their doctrines scarcely visible in the early Han outside the Mawangdui silk texts , according to the Shiji , the practice of Xing-Ming emerged again under

5984-565: The Legalists as understanding that the power of the state resides in social and political institutions, innovative in their aim to subject the state to them. Like Shen Buhai, Shen Dao largely focused on statecraft (Fa), and Confucian Xun Kuang discusses him in this capacity, never referencing Shen Dao in relation to power. Shen Dao is remembered for his theories on shi (lit. "situational advantage", but also "power" or "charisma") because Han Fei references him in this capacity. Searching out

6120-457: The Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on the left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d.  208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for

6256-509: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism's theoretical model, under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". For the Han Feizi too, Zhuangzi influences only exists as traces, but one noteable example from chapter 40 incorporates a parable of a shield and spear salesman, which can also be found in a lost chapter from the Zhuangzi, quoted in the Tang dynasty . Although the Zhuangzi probably had a different argument,

6392-607: The Stratagems of the Warring States , although not the primary focus of his administrative treatise, Shen Buhai was also a military reformer, at least for defense, and is said to have maintained the security of his state. Although Xun Kuang is probably accurate in considering Shen Dao to be focused on fa administrative standards, as introduced by Feng Youlan he would most remembered in early scholarship for his secondary subject of shi or "situational authority", of which he

6528-520: The Warring States period . A.C. Graham takes the Zhuangzi as preferring a private life, while the Daodejing (Laozi) contains an art of rule. Xun Kuang does not perceive them as belonging to one school in his time, and lists their texts separately. Shen Dao and Laozi are adopted into the same history of thought in the Outer Zhuangzi. Jia Yi uses them together in poetry, but with the Huainanzi

6664-428: The Warring States period . The later Han historians simply classify the text as Zajia ("Syncretist") rather than Daojia or Fajia . With an example from the chapter "Ren shu": To follow is the method of the ruler; to act is the way of the minister. If (the ruler) acts, he will be troubled, if he follows, he will find peace. To follow the winter when it produces cold and the summer when it produces heat, why should

6800-482: The Yellow Emperor , one identifying him as a Master. But early "Daoists" were likely not aware of their whole field. With the Mawangdui silk texts lacking Zhuangzi influences, the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han dynasty is the Huainanzi . Professor Tao Jiang more simply refers to Han Fei's Laozi influences as Laoist, only theorizing "Zhuangist"-type influences. He theorizes these as wariness by

6936-505: The biographies of Shen Buhai and Han Fei alongside Laozi and Zhuangzi , along with founding Han figures, Sima Qian earlier claimed Han Fei , Shen Buhai and Shen Dao as students of his same Huang-Lao philosophy, or " Yellow Emperor and Laozi Daoism ", which is traditionally included under Daojia. Shang Yang is simply given his own chapter, while Shen Dao is listed under the Jixia Academy . Sima Tan appears to have described Daojia with "Huang-Lao" content in mind, incorporating

SECTION 50

#1732772468782

7072-531: The states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c.  100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However,

7208-492: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Shen Dao Usually referred to as "Shenzi" ( 慎子 'Master Shen') for his writings, very little is known of Shen Dao's life. An itinerant philosopher from the state of Zhao , he was probably born about 350 BC, travelling to the city of Linzi (modern Zibo in Shandong ) in 300 BC to become

7344-473: The '"actual" course of history'. Stressing timeliness, Sima Tan says: "It (the dao or way) shifts with the times and changes in response to things", a view earlier found in Han Fei and Xun Kuang . Hong Kong professor Xiaogan Liu takes the Zhuangzi and Laozi ( Tao te Ching ) as more focused on "according with nature" than timeliness; followers of " Huang-Lao " can be theorized as defining the former according to

7480-469: The 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see the country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in

7616-482: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3

7752-520: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of

7888-516: The Book of Lord Shang would seem more that of seeking a rich, total state, with a dominating focus on agriculture and a powerful army, all geared for conquest. Acknowledging their bureaucratic contributions, Pine's work in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy prefaces a Shang Yang-Han Fei more along these lines. Shang Yang's institutional reforms can be considered unprecedented, and his economic and political reforms were "unqestionably" more important than his own personal military achievements. But he

8024-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components

8160-509: The Dao, if the idea wasn't already established. Dao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows

8296-902: The Daoistic Emperor Wen of Han and his trusted ministers, but "cautious, unobtrusive and firm", more akin to Shen Buhai than Han Fei. Attributed back to Shen Buhai, it becomes the term for secretaries who had charge of records in penal decisions by the Han dynasty , holding outcomes accountable to claims . While the term Legalism has still seen some conventional usage in recent years, such as in Adventures in Chinese Realism , apart from its anachronism academia has avoided it for reasons which date back to Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel 's 1961 Legalists or Administrators? As Han Fei presents, while Shang Yang most commonly had fa (standards) as law, Shen Buhai uses fa (standards) in

SECTION 60

#1732772468782

8432-549: The Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers Li Kui and Shang Yang , and more Daoistic figures Shen Buhai and philosopher Shen Dao , with the late Han Feizi drawing on both. Later centuries took Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Li Si . Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, but the Qin to Tang were more characterized by their traditions. Though Chinese administration had no single origin, with

8568-548: The Guanzi holds that fa models control affairs, models find their origins in the exercise of power, and the exercise of power finds its origins in Dao . The early work of Feng Youlan took the statesmen as fully understanding that needs change with the times and material circumstances; admitting that people may have been more virtuous anciently, Han Fei believes that new problems require new solutions. Earlier thought to be rare, in fact,

8704-428: The Han Feizi has Daoistic conceptions of objective viewpoints ("mystical states"), if his sources had them, he lacks a conclusive belief in universal moralities or natural laws, sharing with Shang Yang and Shen Dao a view of man as self-interested. Advocating against manipulation of the mechanisms of government, despite an advocacy of passive mindfulness, noninterference, and quiescence, the ability to prescribe and command

8840-407: The Han Feizi likely contains more Zhuangzi than can be known. There was a man of Chu who sold shields and spears. He would hold them aloft saying, “My shields are so tough nothing can pierce them.” He would also hold up his spears and say, “My spears are so sharp, there is nothing they can't pierce.” Someone asked him, “What happens if I stab one of your shields with one of your spears ?" and he

8976-474: The Han dynasty, but can still be seen in a fifth century work quoting Liu Xiang as a figure who advocated administrative technique, supervision, and accountability to abolish the punishment of ministers. Though often used together, the three were still individually influential in the Han dynasty . With the Book of Lord Shang emphasizing fa standards as law, and a predominantly penal legal reception by Han Fei and

9112-518: The Han dynasty, the early work of Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel accepted Shang Yang as Legalist, arguing Shen Buhai to be more administrative. But Shang Yang's program was broader than law; Han Fei elementalizes him under it. Penal law aside, Benjamin I. Schwartz argued Shang Yang's primary program to be agriculture and war. Per Michael Loewe early ministerial recruitment occurred amidst Warring States period mobilization . Developing towards such offices as diplomats, early mobilization and recruitment

9248-662: The Laozi of the early Mawangdui Silk Texts, and two of the three earlier Guodian Chu Slips , place political commentaries, or "ruling the state", first. The Han Feizi's political contemporaries likely read them in the same order. Arguably lacking in metaphysics, associated content instead possesses mythologies. Nonetheless, in contrast to all prior Ways, the Daodejing emphasizes quietude and lack as wu wei . A central concept of Daoism , together especially with their early Laozi, Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and so-called Huang-Lao Daoism emphasize

9384-434: The Mawangdui found from a member of the political class, Hansen argued these version should not be simply assumed as 'originals', interpreting Huang-Lao as an early, politically partisan variety of what would later, if not entirely accurately be termed Daoism. If the authors of the Han Feizi were not all sincere in their Laoist beliefs, the work would still have served as a suitable critique of Confucianism and Mohism, i.e. for

9520-613: The Monarch of manipulation, retreating into wu wei isolation rather than Confucian-style moral education and cultivation. Hermits in the Zhuangzi retreat into isolation to avoid the chaos of the age. However, Benjamin I. Schwartz describes Shen Dao in terms of equanimity and a spirit of wu wei held in common with Zhuang Zhou and his own fellow academicians, with early Daoistic ideas found among later eclectics like Han Fei and Xun Kuang . A representative figure of Han Fei's Chapter 40 on Shi 'situational authority' or Power, and likely

9656-598: The People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during the early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into

9792-516: The Qin dynasty. But a souring association of them with the Qin only developed over the course of the Han dynasty. Jia Yi criticized Shang Yang In the reign of Emperor Wen , but along with propriety and righteousness, himself advocates fa laws (models), ranks and the execution of usurpers. Sima Qian associated their several figures with the Qin dynasty , arguing for Daoism in the reign of Emperor Wu . Dong Zhongshu glosses over them, himself advocating law, punishment and meritocratic appointment. By

9928-497: The Qin people into law-abiding subjects" (Pines). But the term Fajia or "fa family" itself likely only meant "law abiding families" in Mencius 's time. No one had used it as an ideological term for himself or his opponent. Its rare term might have meant something like "methods expert in economic affairs" in the context of the Guanzi before Tan's variant before popular. Sinologist Yuri Pines Stanford Encyclopedia still considers

10064-485: The Qin to early Han, would theoretically be borne out by the Huang-lao typified Mawangdui silk texts . Although It remains a question how much of it might have been extant in Shen Buhai's time, the Mawangdui and Guanzi regard fa administrative standards as generated by the Dao , theoretically placing it and some of the 'Fajia' within a "loosely Daoist" context; The Mawagndui texts can be argued to have been written in

10200-405: The Son of Heaven..." Talent cannot be displayed without power. Shen Dao says: "The flying dragon rides on the clouds and the rising serpent wanders in the mists. But when the clouds disperse and the mists clear up, the dragon and the serpent become the same as the earthworm and the large winged black ant because they have lost what they ride." Leadership is not a function of ability or merit, but

10336-403: The Way, Xun Kuang criticizes Shen Dao in particular as obsessed with the emulation of models (fa) rather than the employment of worthy men, and that he does not necessarily decide on one model as correct. Shen Dao was more concerned that there be laws than with their particulars. Xun Kuang is of the opinion that his laws (or models) lack 'proper foundations', and will not be successful in ordering

10472-424: The abilities of ministers, appointing candidates in accordance with their capabilities, and holding to ministerial achievements ("forms") accountable to their proposals ("names"). Following the Han Feizi , Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei were often identified under it's administrative practice of Xing-Ming ("form and name"), explainable under Shu technique. Their combined figures might have had an influenced on

10608-475: The administration, which Creel translated as method . Han Fei and the earlier Mohists had conceptions of law, but make broader usages of fa standards. Han Fei and Shen Dao make some use of fa (standards) as akin to law, and some use of reward and punishment, often using fa standards similarly to Shen Buhai: as an administrative technique. Shen Buhai uses fa (standards) to compare official's duties and performances, and Han Fei often emphasizes fa in this sense. With

10744-471: The ascendency of such concepts as sovereignty or law, and were used by kings wishing to free themselves from the aristocrats. Sun Tzu would go on to incorporate Taoist philosophy of inaction and impartiality, as well as punishment and rewards as systematic measures of organization, recalling Han Fei's concepts of power ( shi ) and tactics ( shu ). On the shi of The Art of War , relatable to Shen Dao's, Henry Kissinger says: "Chinese statesmanship exhibits

10880-444: The body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to the founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with

11016-447: The broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ), the "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following

11152-569: The causes of disorder, Shen Dao observed splits in the ruler's authority. Shen Dao's theory on power echoes Shen Buhai , referenced by Xun Kuang as its originator, who says "He who (can become) singular decision-maker can become the sovereign of All under Heaven". Shen Dao's theory may otherwise have been borrowed from the Book of Lord Shang . For Shen Dao, "Power" (Shih) refers to the ability to compel compliance requiring no support from its subjects, though it does not preclude this. (Shih's) merit

11288-599: The changes in the affairs of the age, inquire into the basis for correcting standards, and seek the Way to employ the people." Gongsun attempts to persuade the Duke to change with the times, with the Shangjunshu citing him as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." Graham compares Han Fei in particular with the Malthusians , as "unique in seeking

11424-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant

11560-595: The confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including a few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure,

11696-633: The correct timing [of things], favoritism does not violate the law, nobility does not trump the rules, salary does not exceed [that which is due] one's position, a [single] officer does not occupy multiple offices, and a [single] craftsman does not take up multiple lines of work ... [Such a ruler] neither overworked his heart-mind with knowledge nor exhausted himself with self-interest (si), but, rather, depended on laws and methods for settling matters of order and disorder, rewards and punishments for deciding on matters of right and wrong, and weights and balances for resolving issues of heavy or light ... It

11832-656: The country. In 1935, the first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over

11968-623: The earlier Confucians, Han Fei at the end of the period holds ministers accountable for their proposals, actions and performance. The late Warring States theories of Xun Kuang or the Mohists were still far more generalized. With visible usages of Xing-Ming, the Han Feizi's chapter 5 Zhudao (道主) or "Way of the Ruler" incorporates Laozi and Shen Buhai in parallel style. Although Sima Qian does not claim it amongst his short list of chapters, he may have taken Han Fei as Huang-Lao based on its conception of

12104-483: The early Han, evidentially, its basic idea intersect with Qin by the time late pre-imperial Lushi Chunqiu , from around 240 b.c., containing a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, Guanzi and the Mawangdui Huangdi sijing . Typically termed "Daoist" for the early Han , the work demonstrates that a philosophy promoting the wu wei reduced activity of the ruler goes back to

12240-631: The early Han, when their political positions might have been more appealing, but Michael Loewe still placed its Jingfa text before Qin unification, and most scholars still took the others as having been at least Pre-han. The Yellow Emperor is a major figure in one of its texts. Amongst other strains of thought, the more metaphysical, but still politically oriented Boshu text more broadly includes contents bearing resemblance to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, developing arguments more comparable to natural law than an old interpretation of legal positivism for Shang Yang and Han Fei. If Huang-Lao did describe

12376-447: The economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of the most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout

12512-536: The egoist Yang Zhu , Shen Dao is characterized by the Zhuangzi as impartial and lacking selfishness, his great way embracing all things. Benjamin I. Schwarz characterized Shen Dao's convictions as Daoisticly indifferent, likening him to the 'inert passive clod' described in the last chapters of the Zhuangzi . Speculating that Shen Dao's philosophy similarly involves a ruler free from the turbulence of emotion or moral responsibility, Schwarz takes Shen Dao as seeing

12648-416: The essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality. W. K. Liao. ch.5 The Mawangdui Jingfa regards Dao as generating fa standards, and Sima Tan partly described

12784-522: The fact that worthiness and the power of position are incompatible should be abundantly clear. (Sahleen trans., in Ivanhoe & Van Norden eds. 2001, 314) Though espousing Laozi, Hansen theorized Han Fei's conception of the Dao to be based on that of Shen Dao 's situational authority, with the Guanzi as similarly relevant. Shendao develops "the concept of the natural dao", or "actual course of events." "Abandoning knowledge" or conventional guidance, whatever

12920-519: The feudal system, unifying the empire, law, language, thought and belief, presenting a memorial to the throne in which he condemns all those who "refused to study the present and believed only in the ancients on whose authority they dared to criticize". With a quotation from Xun Kuang: You glorify Nature and meditate on her: Why not domesticate and regulate her? You follow Nature and sing her praise: Why not control her course and use it? ... Therefore, I say: To neglect man's effort and speculate about Nature,

13056-512: The first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However, the increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d.  782 BC ) to unify character forms across

13192-475: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility

13328-430: The founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across the recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to

13464-556: The history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from the use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for

13600-539: The impersonal structure of political authority and human society to be expressions of the spontaneous Dao in human civilization. Shen Dao rejects individual judgment, moral agents, sages, and, like other figures of the fajia , the "subjective intentionality of noble men." By contrast, Han Fei does not completely disregard the role of great men. Mencius advocated that Emperor Shun would run away with his father if he had committed murder, rather than see him arrested. Like Mencius, Shen Dao still upheld filial piety even if

13736-430: The inclusion of a goal of "rich states and powerful armies" a more accurate descriptor for the current than just fa laws and methods. Although not recalling it's example, Pines introduction to the Book of Lord Shang notes Sima Qian as highlighting the Book of Lord Shang 's Chapter 3 on Agriculture and War. Liu Xiang suggested that Shang Yang and Li Kui had been influenced by the agriculturally focused Shennong . Early

13872-486: The indolence and subservience of the Second Emperor . Although earlier Sinologists might treat them as belonging to the same "Legalism" category, Sima Qian, for his part, does not treat Han Fei the same as Li Si; framing the two as opponents, Han Fei is treated as a 'tragic figure'. Han texts Shiji , Gongyang Zhuan , Yan tie lun , and Huainanzi instead depict Confucius as a Legalist, probably partly alluding to

14008-463: The invariable Fa apportioning every person according to their achievement. If one rabbit runs through a town street, and a hundred chase it, it is because its distribution has not been determined... If the distribution has already been determined, even the basest people will not fight for it. The way to control All-under-Heaven and the country lies solely in determining distribution. The greatest function of Fa ("the principle of objective judgement")

14144-499: The later Han the figures were not yet divided into two different schools. With a royal practice of wu wei reduced activity prominent in the early Han, a key to Sima Qian's narrative would seem to be an identification of Han Fei with what he termed "Huang-Lao". Sima Qian blames Li Si as purportedly combining Shen Buhai and Han Fei's doctrine, identified as Technique, with Shang Yang's doctrine of law, depicting Li Si as inflicting heavy taxes and abusing Shen Buha's doctrine to encourage

14280-619: The later Han, scholars less knowledgeable than Liu Xiang were not always aware that Shen Buhai and Shang Yang were different. Potentially influential for the founding of the Imperial Examination , according to Han Fei and the Huainanzi , Shen Buhai had disorganized law in the newly formed Hann state . No Han or earlier text individually connects him with penal law, but only with control of bureaucracy, and by contrast appears to have opposed penal punishment. His administrative ideas would be relevant for penal records and practice by

14416-529: The latter. Taking Shang Yang as inheriting from Li Kui and Wu Qi , despite anti-Confucianism in the Shangjunshu , professor Ch'ien Mu still considered that that "People say merely that Legalist origins are in Dao and De (power/virtue) [i.e., Daoist principles], apparently not aware that their origins in fact are in Confucianism. Their observance of law and sense of public justice are wholly in

14552-434: The lord's mind. If this is the case, then those who receive rewards, even if these are commensurate, will ceaselessly expect more; those who receive punishment, even if these are commensurate, will endlessly expect more lenient treatment... people will be rewarded differently for the same merit and punished differently for the same fault. Resentment arises from this. Although sinologist Creel (1970:63) believed that Shen had

14688-533: The mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of a component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example,

14824-541: The older neighboring Li Kui , or the even older Confucian Zichan as all seeking more meritocratic government. As chancellors of neighboring states, Shang Yang’s and Shen Buhai’s doctrines would have intersected by the Qin dynasty, and the late Han Feizi is Shang Yang's first reference outside the Book of Lord Shang . The Han Feizi , associated with Han Fei , would suggest that the laws and methods of Shang Yang and Guan Zhong , with their associated works, may have circulated at that late time. The broader work set against

14960-416: The parents are bad, but instead suggests that parents can be reproached if it might save them from disaster. Not considering Confucian values like filial piety sufficient for governing the state, Shen Dao advocates the ruler encourage faith in rules by acting according to rules, and not abandon the throne to help murderous family members escape. Taking his opponents as "beclouded" by particular aspects of

15096-547: The people's disposition." Pines takes Shang Yang's primary doctrine to be that of connecting people's inborn nature or dispositions (xing 性) with names (ming 名). The work recommends enacting laws that allow people to "pursue the desire for a name", namely fame and high social status, or just wealth if acceptable. Ensuring that these "names" are connected with actual benefits, it was hoped that if people are able to pursue these, they will be less likely to commit crimes, and more likely to engage in hard work or fight in wars. A figure in

15232-524: The political usages and advantages of wu wei reduced activity as a method of control for survival, social stability, long life, and rule, refraining from action in-order to take advantage of favorable developments in affairs. The Han Feizi's late Daodejing commentaries are comparable with the Daoism of the Guanzi Neiye , but otherwise utilizes the Laozi more as a theme for methods of rule. Although

15368-487: The principle of “names and substance.” Master Han (Fei) drew on ink line, penetrated the nature of matters, and was clear about right and wrong, but was extremely cruel and had little compassion. All these originated in the Way and its virtue (power, de), but Laozi was the most profound of them. Shiji 63: 2156 Dividing Shang Yang from the others categorically, Sima Qian probably intends that they not be combined. The Daodejing (Laozi), Zhuangzi and Sima Qian generally hold

15504-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted

15640-523: The realm be literally modeled off the natural world. Making use of the term " Dao " without cosmological or metaphysical reference, the Shenzi serves as noteworthy precursor to both Daoism and Han Fei . Posthumously, he is also sometimes classified as Taoist, and Wang Fuzhi speculated that the chapter "Essay on Seeing Things as Equal" of the Zhuangzhi was actually written by Shen Dao. As opposed to

15776-429: The ruler against relying on his own personal judgment, contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard, or fa, as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy Fa , and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favoritism toward a single person." When an enlightened ruler establishes [gong] ("duke" or "public interest"), [private] desires do not oppose

15912-410: The ruler do anything? Therefore to say: "The way of the ruler is to have no knowledge and no action, but still he is more worthy than those who know and act," that is to get the point. An early bureaucratic pioneer, Shen Buhai was not so much more advanced as he was more focused on bureaucracy. Han Fei's discussion of Method-Technique (fa-Shu) provides a basic explanation for Xing-Ming, saying: "Method

16048-461: The ruler takes no part, but merely waits for the job to be finished. As a result, every task is taken care of. The correct way of government is thus. However he challenges the Confucian and Mohist esteem and appointment of worthies as a basis of order, pointing out that talented ministers existed in every age. Taking it upon himself to attempt a new, analytical solution, Shen advocated fairness as

16184-481: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted

16320-426: The same sort of administrative idea denoted by Shen Buhai 's Xing-Ming, he notes that he does not use the term. Shen Dao, as the Han Feizi's figure for shi , was a much later figure than Shang Yang and Shen Buhai. Used in many areas of Chinese thought however, shi probably originated in the military field. Diplomats relied on concepts of situational advantage and opportunity, as well as secrecy ( shu ) long before

16456-586: The school of names and Shen Buhai as Method , the term sometimes refers to a combination of Shang Yang and Han Fei by the Han . Despite it's contributions, the meaning of the term would ultimately be confused and lost in conflation with punishment (Xing 刑) by the time of the Western Qin , sometimes as early as the third century's Eastern Han . Sima Qian asserts the First Emperor as proclaiming its practice. With Shen Buhai (and Han Fei still) extent in

16592-467: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊

16728-409: The situation brings is the Dao (way), guiding human affairs, conventions, prescriptions and knowledge. Han Fei and Shen Dao's Dao might guide might good or evil kings, but emphasizing institutionalism (fa), the Han Feizi does not endorse the evil king, whose governance may be more complicated. If some authors of the Han Feizi were familiar with the proto- Guanzi , as its references would at least suggest,

16864-445: The sovereign above all others. Imperial Archivists Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) and Liu Xin (c.46bce–23ce) used it as a category in the Han dynasty imperial library, becoming a major category of Masters Texts in Han dynasty catalogues, namely the Han state's own Book of Han (111ce). It included six other lost texts. Xun Kuang criticized Shen Dao as "obsessed with fa", and Sima Qian later considered Shang Yang successful in "turning

17000-443: The spirit of Confucius' rectification of names and return to propriety, but transformed in accordance with the conditions of the age." In the ancient society, punishment by law would typically only apply to the people, while the nobles are only punished by ritual. But needs change with the times. Hu Shih took Xun Kuang , Han Fei and Li Si as "champions of the idea of progress through conscious human effort", with Li Si abolishing

17136-411: The state. But Xun Kuang doesn't oppose him just for advocating fa models or laws. Xun Kuang also discusses fa. Rather than law itself, Xun Kuang opposes litigation and paradoxes, as found in the school of names . Graham characterizes Shen as a theoretician of centralized power. He espouses an impersonal administration in much the same sense as Shen Buhai , and in contrast with Shang Yang emphasizes

17272-435: The statesmen, even if they may be willing to conform the government to them. As a counterpoint, the Han Feizi and Shen Dao do still employ argumentative reference to 'sage kings'; the Han Feizi claims the distinction between the ruler's interests and private interests as said to date back to Cangjie, while government by Fa (standards) is said to date back to time immemorial, considering the demarcation between public and private

17408-402: The term Naturalism for the two; but Han Fei's is very brief. Promoting "the ruler’s quiescence", Han Fei's Chapter 5 concerns a Way of the Ruler more than a Daoist way of life, and their figures are generally distinguished as politically focused. Although broader, this can describe "Huang-Lao" in general. Essentially 'interchangeable' with Daojia in the Shiji ; despite distinctions, Huang-Lao

17544-405: The text of Shenzi that are contemporaneous with its composition. Xun Kuang considered Shen's style grandiose. Although Han Fei would generally be considered authoritarian, figures like Shen Dao were not necessarily always more authoritarian for their time. Advocating that administrative machinery (fa) be used to impartially determine rewards and punishments, Shen Dao otherwise advocates that

17680-833: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes

17816-521: The use of talent and the promotion of ministers, saying that order and chaos are "not the product of one man's efforts." He also argued for Wu wei , or the non action of the ruler, along the same lines as Shen Buhai, saying The Dao of ruler and ministers is that the ministers labour themselves with tasks while the prince has no task; the prince is relaxed and happy while the ministers bear responsibility for tasks. The ministers use all their intelligence and strength to perform his job satisfactorily, in which

17952-478: The work probably did not see two distinct schools. They probably saw works of rule; traditionally included under Daojia , Sima Qian and Ban Gu describe Huang-Lao in these terms, and Sima Qian earlier claimed them for it apart from Shang Yang. When the Confucians divided their texts out, it was probably not considered contradictory for them to be connected under multiple relatively fluid categories. Placing

18088-464: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing  [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by

18224-514: Was as much a military reformer in his own time, even if not as renowned a general, and the Han also recognized him as a military strategist. A work under his name, possibly the same sans a few chapters, is also categorized under the Han Imperial Library's Military Books, subjection Strategists. With Shang Yang said to have reformed Qin law, the Book of Lord Shang does not believe that fa laws will be successful without "investigating

18360-414: Was generally more focused simply on census and taxes, with the Book of Lord Shang 's programs a more extreme primary example of the trend; with Han Fei quite later, essentially, the only remaining early work of it's kind. Fa law can be considered a first principle of the Shangjunshu , but is aimed at general state power, and several chapter express anti-populist views. The actual perspective expressed by

18496-449: Was unable to answer. Worthiness is something that cannot be forbidden by the power of position, but when the power of position is used as a Way of governing, there is nothing that it cannot forbid. So if one says that achieving good order requires both worthiness, which cannot be forbidden, and the power of position, which has nothing it cannot forbid, this is just like saying one has both all-penetrating spears and impenetrable shields. Hence,

#781218