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75-591: Zagarolo's town centre lies on a very narrow tuff hill, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) long and about 100 metres (330 ft) wide, at an elevation of 310 metres (1,020 ft), surrounded by green valleys. The southern continuation of an important pilgrim route, the Via Francigena passes through the Zagarolo countryside. Zagarolo may have origins in Gabii , an ancient city founded in the 5th century, and sited

150-475: A vent during a volcanic eruption . Following ejection and deposition, the ash is lithified into a solid rock. Rock that contains greater than 75% ash is considered tuff, while rock containing 25% to 75% ash is described as tuffaceous (for example, tuffaceous sandstone ). Tuff composed of sandy volcanic material can be referred to as volcanic sandstone . Tuff is a relatively soft rock, so it has been used for construction since ancient times. Because it

225-407: A blanket of uniform thickness across terrain. Column collapse results in a more spectacular and destructive form of transport, which takes the form of pyroclastic flows and surges that characteristically are poorly sorted and pool in low terrain. Surge deposits sometimes show sedimentary structures typical of high-velocity flow, such as dunes and antidunes . Volcanic ash already deposited on

300-543: A bull was issued that threatened excommunication for any dealers in Christian slave and ordered Jews to wear a "badge of infamy" to deter, in part, the buying of Christians. In June 1425 Martin anathematized those who sold Christian slaves to Muslims. Traffic in Christian slaves was not banned, purely the sale to non-Christian owners. The papal bull of excommunication issued to the Genoese merchants of Caffa related to

375-521: A few kilometres from Zagarolo. It was an ancient Roman town and there are remains of a Roman amphitheatre . Zagarolo's town centre is of medieval origin and its current urban plan was developed in the 16th century. The town is the birthplace of composer Goffredo Petrassi . Most of the main attractions of Zagarolo are in the historical town centre, concentrated around the narrow 1.5-kilometre (0.9 mi) long main street (Via Antonio Fabrini and then Corso Vittorio Emanuele). The Palazzo Rospigliosi , in

450-848: A metamorphosed tuff bed in the Pilar Formation provided some of the first evidence for the Picuris orogeny . The word tuff is derived from the Italian tufo . Martin V Pope Martin V ( Latin : Martinus V ; Italian : Martino V ; January/February 1369 – 20 February 1431), born Otto (or Oddone ) Colonna , was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 November 1417 to his death in February 1431. His election effectively ended

525-762: A number of substances not always of identical character. In the historical architecture of Naples, Neapolitan yellow tuff is the most used building material. Piperno ignimbrite tuff was also used widely in Naples and Campania. In the Eifel region of Germany, a trachytic, pumiceous tuff called trass has been extensively worked as a hydraulic mortar . Tuff of the Eifel region of Germany has been widely used for construction of railroad stations and other buildings in Frankfurt, Hamburg, and other large cities. Construction using

600-415: A procession to the town hall, where under the leadership of Jan Žižka of Trocnov , a noble of southern Bohemia, the building was stormed and people found inside were thrown out of the windows on to the spears and swords of the processionists, and hacked to pieces. In Kuttenberg, hundreds of captured Hussites were thrown by the miners into the shafts of disused silver mines. King Wenceslaus swore death to all

675-471: A series of sections that, through a historic excursus, crosses the fundamental periods of the 20th century. The communal council decided to create the museum in 1998. It was inaugurated in 2005 with a positive response from critics and the public. It holds over 800 examples of Italian and European toys of the 20th century. Outside the town centre is the Tondo (as it is called by the local population), located at

750-723: A town in what was then the Duchy of Brabant, and what is modern day Belgium . Martin V died in Rome of a stroke on 20 February 1431 at the age of 62. He is buried at St. John Lateran Basilica . The excitement of the Church during the Hussite movement rendered the Jews apprehensive, and through Emperor Sigismund , they obtained from Pope Martin V various bulls (1418 and 1422) in which their former privileges were confirmed and in which he exhorted

825-436: Is a form of travertine . The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types: Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface . These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from

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900-415: Is also built almost entirely from tuff. The Romans also cut tuff into small, rectangular stones that they used to create walls in a pattern known as opus reticulatum . Peperino has been used in Rome and Naples as a building stone, is a trachyte tuff. Pozzolana also is a decomposed tuff, but of basic character, originally obtained near Naples and used as a cement , but this name is now applied to

975-833: Is an example of a tuff cone, as is the island of Ka'ula . The glassy basaltic ash produced in such eruptions rapidly alters to palagonite as part of the process of lithification. Although conventional mafic volcanism produce little ash, such ash as is formed may accumulate locally as significant deposits. An example is the Pahala ash of Hawaii island, which locally is as thick as 15 meters (49 ft). These deposits also rapidly alter to palagonite, and eventually weather to laterite . Basaltic tuffs are also found in Skye , Mull , Antrim , and other places, where Paleogene volcanic rocks are found; in Scotland, Derbyshire , and Ireland among

1050-513: Is as a building material. In the ancient world, tuff's relative softness meant that it was commonly used for construction where it was available. Tuff is common in Italy, and the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges. For example, the whole port of the island of Ventotene (still in use), was carved from tuff. The Servian Wall , built to defend the city of Rome in the fourth century BC,

1125-521: Is called a welded lapilli -tuff. Welded tuffs (and welded lapilli-tuffs) can be of fallout origin, or deposited from ash flows, as in the case of ignimbrites . During welding, the glass shards and pumice fragments adhere together (necking at point contacts), deform, and compact together, resulting in a eutaxitic fabric . Welded tuff is commonly rhyolitic in composition, but examples of all compositions are known. A sequence of ash flows may consist of multiple cooling units . These can be distinguished by

1200-463: Is called lapillistone (particles 2 mm to 64 mm in diameter) or agglomerate or pyroclastic breccia (particles over 64 mm in diameter) rather than tuff. Volcanic ash can vary greatly in composition, and so tuffs are further classified by the composition of the ash from which they formed. Ash from high-silica volcanism, particularly in ash flows, consists mainly of shards of volcanic glass , and tuff formed predominantly from glass shards

1275-491: Is common in Italy, the Romans used it often for construction. The Rapa Nui people used it to make most of the moai statues on Easter Island . Tuff can be classified as either igneous or sedimentary rock . It is usually studied in the context of igneous petrology , although it is sometimes described using sedimentological terms. Tuff is often erroneously called tufa in guidebooks and in television programs but tufa

1350-533: Is described as vitric tuff. The glass shards are typically either irregular in shape or are roughly triangular with convex sides. They are the shattered walls of countless small bubbles that formed in the magma as dissolved gases rapidly came out of solution. Tuffs formed from ash consisting predominantly of individual crystals are described as crystal tuffs, while those formed from ash consisting predominantly of pulverized rock fragments are described as lithic tuffs. The chemical composition of volcanic ash reflects

1425-616: Is in tuff and ignimbrite in the Basin and Range Province in Nevada . In Napa Valley and Sonoma Valley , California , areas made of tuff are routinely excavated for storage of wine barrels. Tuff from Rano Raraku was used by the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island to make the vast majority of their famous moai statues. Tuff is used extensively in Armenia and Armenian architecture . It

1500-504: Is known as tephrochronology and is particularly useful for Quaternary chronostratigraphy. Individual tuff beds can be "fingerprinted" by their chemical composition and phenocryst assemblages. Absolute ages for tuff beds can be determined by K-Ar , Ar-Ar , or carbon-14 dating . Zircon grains found in many tuffs are highly durable and can survive even metamorphism of the host tuff to schist, allowing absolute ages to be assigned to ancient metamorphic rocks. For example, dating of zircons in

1575-583: Is the dominant type of stone used in construction in Armenia's capital Yerevan , Gyumri , Armenia's second largest city, and Ani , the country's medieval capital, now in Turkey. A small village in Armenia was renamed Tufashen (literally "village of tuff") in 1946. Tuffs are deposited geologically instantaneously and often over a large region. This makes them highly useful as time-stratigraphic markers. The use of tuffs and other tephra deposits in this manner

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1650-722: The Rochlitz Porphyr , can be seen in the Mannerist -style sculpted portal outside the chapel entrance in Colditz Castle . The trade name Rochlitz Porphyr is the traditional designation for a dimension stone of Saxony with an architectural history over 1,000 years in Germany. The quarries are located near Rochlitz. Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository , a U.S. Department of Energy terminal storage facility for spent nuclear reactor and other radioactive waste,

1725-754: The Supper at Emmaus , Mary Magdalen in Ecstasy and perhaps Saint Francis in Prayer . The Palace also saw the of Carlo Maratta and of Ludovico Gimignani , the latter dying there in 1697. In 1668, when the Rospigliosi acquired the duchy of Zagarolo, the Palace became their property, and was later in possession of the Pallavicini family, until it was sold to the comune in 1979. During World War II

1800-622: The Carboniferous strata, and among the still older rocks of the Lake District, the southern uplands of Scotland, and Wales. They are black, dark green, or red in colour; vary greatly in coarseness, some being full of round spongy bombs a foot or more in diameter; and being often submarine, may contain shale, sandstone, grit, and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland ,

1875-571: The Faroe Islands , Jan Mayen , Sicily, the Hawaiian Islands , Samoa , etc. When weathered, they are filled with calcite, chlorite, serpentine , and especially where the lavas contain nepheline or leucite , are often rich in zeolites , such as analcite , prehnite , natrolite , scolecite , chabazite , heulandite , etc. Ultramafic tuffs are extremely rare; their characteristic is the abundance of olivine or serpentine and

1950-603: The Lava Creek Tuff erupted from Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming 631,000 years ago. This tuff had an original volume of at least 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi). Lava Creek tuff is known to be at least 1000 times as large as the deposits of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , and it had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8, greater than any eruption known in the last 10,000 years. Ash flow tuffs cover 7,000 square kilometers (2,700 sq mi) of

2025-702: The Marche was held by local "vicars", who were in fact petty hereditary lords. In particular, Martin confirmed Giorgio Ordelaffi in Forlì , Ludovico Alidosi in Imola , Malatesta IV Malatesta in Rimini , and Guidantonio da Montefeltro in Spoleto , who would later marry the pope's niece Caterina Colonna. In exchange for the recognition of Joan II of Naples , Martin obtained the restitution of Benevento , several fiefs in

2100-462: The North Island of New Zealand and about 100,000 square kilometers (39,000 sq mi) of Nevada . Ash flow tuffs are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts . The Tioga Bentonite of the northeastern United States varies in composition from crystal tuff to tuffaceous shale. It was deposited as ash carried by wind that fell out over the sea and settled to

2175-527: The Pentland Hills , the Cheviots , and many other districts of Great Britain , ancient rocks of exactly similar nature are abundant. In color, they are red or brown; their scoriae fragments are of all sizes from huge blocks down to minute granular dust. The cavities are filled with many secondary minerals, such as calcite , chlorite , quartz, epidote , or chalcedony; in microscopic sections, though,

2250-768: The Rhine (at Siebengebirge ), in Ischia and near Naples . Trachyte-carbonatite tuffs have been identified in the East African Rift . Alkaline crystal tuffs have been reported from Rio de Janeiro . Andesitic tuffs are exceedingly common. They occur along the whole chain of the Cordilleras and Andes , in the West Indies , New Zealand, Japan, etc. In the Lake District , North Wales, Lorne ,

2325-469: The Western Schism of 1378–1417. He is the last pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Martin". Oddone Colonna was born at Genazzano , the son of Agapito Colonna and Caterina Conti, between 26 January and 20 February 1369. He belonged to one of the oldest and most distinguished families of Rome . His brother Giordano became Prince of Salerno and Duke of Venosa , while his sister Paola

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2400-490: The "Valle del Formale" and the "Valle della Foresta". Most of Zagarolo's inhabitants live, however, in the rolling green hills around town. Zagarolo has a Mediterranean climate with warm and dry summers and cool and wet winters. Summer is mostly hot and sunny, with temperatures that may reach peaks above 37C (100F) for a few days. Summer is dry with occasional thunderstorms. Winter is cold with temperatures going often below 0C (32F). Zagarolo typically gets one small snowstorm in

2475-642: The Bible for a printed edition, among them cardinal Marcantonio Colonna and Saint Robert Bellarmine . The building is characterized by frescoes painted by mannerist artists of the 16th century, attributed to Dutch painters, to Antonio Tempesta , and to the Zuccaris ( Taddeo Zuccari and Federico Zuccari ). Here in 1606 Caravaggio created masterpieces for the Colonna family , in exchange for refuge on his journey to Naples , between Zagarolo and Paliano he executed

2550-538: The Colonna family. In the 16th century, the Colonnas and the papacy started having peaceful relations, and Zagarolo became a duchy , hence the Palace became known as Palazzo Ducale . The palace came to be used as a residence and two additional major wings were built towards the piazza, frescoes were added and a hanging garden was built. It was in this Palace that in 1591 a commission of eight cardinals met to revise

2625-465: The Council of Constance was long divided by the conflicting claims of Pope Gregory XII (1406–15) and Antipope Benedict XIII (1394–1423). Martin was elected pope, at the age of 48, at the Council of Constance on St. Martin's Day , 11 November 1417. Participants in the conclave included 23 cardinals and 30 delegates of the council. He was ordained a priest on 13 November 1417, and consecrated bishop

2700-542: The Council of Constance. Adherents of Jan Hus , who had been previously burned at the stake as a heretic by the council, adopted the practice of Communion under both kinds . The Council sent letters to the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in Bohemia, insisting they deal with the heresy. Bohemian and Moravian nobles responded that the sentence on Hus was unjust and insulting to their country, and promised to protect priests against episcopal prosecutions for heresy. Prague

2775-573: The Graces ( Santa Maria delle Grazie ), is located in Piazza Santa Maria . The Church of St Annunziata (1580–1582) ( Chiesa di Santissima Annunziata ), has a peculiar octagonal belltower, and dominates the skyline of Zagarolo. The Church of St Peter (1717–1722) ( Duomo di San Pietro Apostolo ), a Baroque church built on the site of a more ancient church. It has an elliptical dome 46 metres high. The first gate to be encountered entering

2850-684: The Kingdom of Naples for his relatives and, most important of all, an agreement that Muzio Attendolo, then hired by the Neapolitans, should leave Rome. After a long stay in Florence while these matters were arranged, Martin was able to enter Rome in September 1420. He at once set to work establishing order and restoring the dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction he engaged some famous masters of

2925-653: The Lateran to Santa Maria Maggiore and, from 1424, the Basilica of Santi Apostoli near the Palazzo Colonna . He also frequently sojourned in towns held by his family in the Latium ( Tivoli , Vicovaro , Marino , Gallicano and others). When the second Pope to take the name Martin was elected in 1281, there was confusion over how many Popes had taken the name before. It was believed then that there were three, so

3000-593: The Tuscan school and helped instigate the Roman Renaissance. Faced with competing plans for general reform offered by various nations, Martin V submitted a counter-scheme and entered into negotiations for separate concordats , for the most part vague and illusory, with the Holy Roman Empire , England , France and Spain . By 1415 Bohemia was in turmoil and the subject of much discussion at

3075-457: The areas where such tuffs are prominent. In the ancient rocks of Wales , Charnwood , etc., similar tuffs are known, but in all cases, they are greatly changed by silicification (which has filled them with opal , chalcedony , and quartz) and by devitrification. The frequent presence of rounded corroded quartz crystals, such as occur in rhyolitic lavas, helps to demonstrate their real nature. Welded ignimbrites can be highly voluminous, such as

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3150-479: The bottom. It is Devonian in age and likely came from a vent in central Virginia , where the tuff reaches its maximum thickness of about 40 meters (130 ft). Trachyte tuffs contain little or no quartz, but much sanidine or anorthoclase and sometimes oligoclase feldspar, with occasional biotite, augite, and hornblende. In weathering, they often change to soft red or yellow claystones , rich in kaolin with secondary quartz. Recent trachyte tuffs are found on

3225-529: The buying and selling of Christians, but has been considered ineffectual as prior injunctions against the Viennese, including the Laws of Gazaria, made allowances for the sale of both Christian and Muslim slaves. Ten black African slaves were presented to Martin by Prince Henry of Portugal . According to Koschorke, Martin supported colonial expansion. Davidson (1961) argues that Martin's injunction against slavery

3300-487: The city centre from the southeast is Porta Rospigliosi , decorated with bas-reliefs in the 16th century and Roman busts and theatrical masques. The other gate, at the northwest entrance to the city is Porta San Martino , named in honour of Pope Martin V (Oddone Colonna ). The Zagarolo Toy Museum is located in Rospigliosi Palace. The Museum offers a social reconstruction of toys and the act of playing in

3375-403: The city centre, occupies the site of an ancient medieval castle, which is first referenced to when Pope Paschal II destroyed Zagarolo in the early 12th century after the rebellion of the Colonna family, of which the palace was one of the strongholds. For many centuries it remained under the Colonna influence, and was besieged and destroyed several times due to the rivalry between the papacy and

3450-447: The city centre, that connects the town to Rome , Ciampino , Frosinone , Caserta and Cassino . Trains for Rome have a frequency between 20 and 60 minutes. The journey to Rome takes about 30 minutes. There is access from Zagarolo to Ciampino International Airport via railway and then a shuttle bus from Ciampino train station. Zagarolo is twinned with: Tuff Tuff is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected from

3525-685: The corresponding lavas and sills . Some chlorite-schists also are probably altered beds of volcanic tuff. The "Schalsteins" of Devon and Germany include many cleaved and partly recrystallized ash-beds, some of which still retain their fragmental structure, though their lapilli are flattened and drawn out. Their steam cavities are usually filled with calcite, but sometimes with quartz. The more completely altered forms of these rocks are platy, green chloritic schists; in these, however, structures indicating their original volcanic nature only sparingly occur. These are intermediate stages between cleaved tuffs and crystalline schists. The primary economic value of tuff

3600-404: The degree of welding. The base of a cooling unit is typically unwelded due to chilling from the underlying cold surface, and the degree of welding and of secondary reactions from fluids in the flow increases upwards towards the center of the flow. Welding decreases towards the top of the cooling unit, where the unit cools more rapidly. The intensity of welding may also decrease towards areas in which

3675-426: The deposit is thinner, and with distance from source. Cooler pyroclastic flows are unwelded and the ash sheets deposited by them are relatively unconsolidated. However, cooled volcanic ash can quickly become lithified because it usually has a high content of volcanic glass. This is a thermodynamically unstable material that reacts rapidly with ground water or sea water, which leaches alkali metals and calcium from

3750-557: The enslavement of Christians. However, voyages and discoveries brought other continents, where slavery still existed, into European consciousness, raising the question of whether slavery of unbelievers and outside of Europe was permitted. According to Burton, Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418, and this, coupled with a later bull of Pope Eugene IV (1441), sanctioned the Portuguese trade in African slaves. In March 1425

3825-428: The entire range of volcanic rock chemistry, from high-silica rhyolitic ash to low-silica basaltic ash, and tuffs are likewise described as rhyolitic, andesitic, basaltic, and so on. The most straightforward way for volcanic ash to move away from the vent is as ash clouds that are part of an eruption column . These fall to the surface as fallout deposits that are characteristically well-sorted and tend to form

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3900-578: The friars to use moderate language. In the last years of his pontificate, however, he repealed several of his ordinances. A gathering, convoked by the Jews in Forlì , sent a deputation asking Pope Martin V to abolish the oppressive laws promulgated by Antipope Benedict XIII . The deputation succeeded in its mission. During the Middle Ages, slavery had fallen out of usage in Europe. The Church denounced

3975-444: The glass. New minerals, such as zeolites , clays , and calcite , crystallize from the dissolved substances and cement the tuff. Tuffs are further classified by their depositional environment, such as lacustrine tuff, subaerial tuff, or submarine tuff, or by the mechanism by which the ash was transported, such as fallout tuff or ash flow tuff. Reworked tuffs, formed by erosion and redeposition of ash deposits, are usually described by

4050-578: The green slates of the English Lake District are finely cleaved ashes. In Charnwood Forest also, the tuffs are slaty and cleaved. The green color is due to the large development of chlorite. Among the crystalline schists of many regions, green beds or green schists occur, which consist of quartz, hornblende, chlorite or biotite, iron oxides , feldspar, etc., and are probably recrystallized or metamorphosed tuffs. They often accompany masses of epidiorite and hornblende – schists which are

4125-463: The hill called the Colle del Pero . It is a rare example of an ancient Roman Ludus dated to the 1st century AD, a sort of little amphitheatre used as a gym or training ground for gladiators (see List of Roman amphitheatres ). The town centre of Zagarolo lies on a very narrow tufaceous plateau (2 kilometres long and about 100 meters wide) at an elevation of 310 metres, surrounded by two green valleys,

4200-655: The nature of the original lava can nearly always be made out from the shapes and properties of the little crystals which occur in the decomposed glassy base. Even in the smallest details, these ancient tuffs have a complete resemblance to the modern ash beds of Cotopaxi , Krakatoa , and Mont Pelé. Mafic volcanism typically takes the form of Hawaiian eruptions that are nonexplosive and produce little ash. However, interaction between basaltic magma and groundwater or sea water results in hydromagmatic explosions that produce abundant ash. These deposit ash cones that subsequently can become cemented into tuff cones. Diamond Head, Hawaii ,

4275-456: The next day. Martin left Constance at the close of the council (May 1418), but travelled slowly through Italy and lingered at Florence . His authority in Rome was represented by his brother Giordano, who had fought under Muzio Attendolo against the condottiero Braccio da Montone . The Pope at the time ruled only Rome (when not rebellious) and its environs: Braccio held Umbria , Bologna as an independent commune, while much of Romagna and

4350-431: The option of the seller, were lawful. When the lawfulness of annuities was established, they were widely used in commerce; it seems that city states used them to raise compulsory loans from their citizens. A decree of the Council of Constance ( Frequens ) ordered that councils should be held every five years. Martin V summoned a council in 1423 that met first at Pavia and later at Siena (the " Council of Siena "). It

4425-481: The palace was transformed into a German military hospital. Today the local library and Toy Museum are housed in the Palace, and it is used for conventions, exhibitions and other cultural events. The Church of St Lawrence Martyr (1607) ( Chiesa di San Lorenzo Martire ), located in Piazza del Risorgimento , is the church dedicated to the patron saint of Zagarolo, St Lawrence of Rome . The Convent and Church of St Mary of

4500-611: The pope commanded that the remains of Wycliffe , who was posthumously declared a heretic in 1415, be dug up and burned. The crusades against the Lollards, however, were ultimately unsuccessful. According to Burton, Pope Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418 in relation to the slave trade . In addition to the Hussite Crusades, Martin declared a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire in 1420 in response to

4575-556: The rebels, but died of a stroke in August, 1419. The next months were marked by deeds of violence; many citizens, especially Germans, had to flee. Wenceslaus was succeeded by his brother Sigismund, King of the Romans and King of Hungary , who prepared to restore order. On 1 March 1420, Pope Martin V issued a Bull inviting all Christians to unite in a crusade against the Wycliffites ( Lollards ), Hussites, and other heretics. In 1428,

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4650-404: The rising pressure from the Ottoman Turks. In 1419–1420 Martin had diplomatic contacts with the Byzantine emperor Manuel II , who was invoking a council in Constantinople. On 12 July 1420 the Pope conceded to attach an indulgence to anyone who would contribute to a crusade against the latter, which would be led by Sigismund , King of the Romans. The main concern of Martin's pontificate from 1423

4725-649: The scarcity or absence of feldspar and quartz . Occurrences of ultramafic tuff include surface deposits of kimberlite at maars in the diamond -fields of southern Africa and other regions. The principal variety of kimberlite is a dark bluish-green, serpentine-rich breccia (blue-ground) which, when thoroughly oxidized and weathered, becomes a friable brown or yellow mass (the "yellow-ground"). These breccias were emplaced as gas–solid mixtures and are typically preserved and mined in diatremes that form intrusive pipe-like structures. At depth, some kimberlite breccias grade into root zones of dikes made of unfragmented rock. At

4800-419: The surface can be transported as mud flows ( lahars ) when mingled with water from rainfall or through eruption into a body of water or ice. Particles of volcanic ash that are sufficiently hot will weld together after settling to the surface, producing a welded tuff . Welding requires temperatures in excess of 600 °C (1,100 °F). If the rock contains scattered, pea-sized fragments or fiamme in it, it

4875-569: The surface, ultramafic tuffs may occur in maar deposits. Because kimberlites are the most common igneous source of diamonds, the transitions from maar to diatreme to root-zone dikes have been studied in detail. Diatreme- facies kimberlite is more properly called an ultramafic breccia rather than a tuff. Komatiite tuffs are found, for example, in the greenstone belts of Canada and South Africa. In course of time, changes other than weathering may overtake tuff deposits. Sometimes, they are involved in folding and become sheared and cleaved . Many of

4950-428: The transport agent, such as aeolian tuff or fluvial tuff. Tuffs have the potential to be deposited wherever explosive volcanism takes place, and so have a wide distribution in location and age. Rhyolite tuffs contain pumiceous, glassy fragments and small scoriae with quartz , alkali feldspar , biotite , etc. Iceland, Lipari, Hungary, the Basin and Range of the American southwest, and New Zealand are among

5025-409: The vicariate of Todi , Orvieto , Perugia and Umbria . He was excommunicated for this in 1411 by Pope Gregory XII . Oddone was with John XXIII's entourage at the Council of Constance and followed him in his escape at Schaffhausen on 21 March 1415. Later he returned to Constance and took part in the process leading to the deposition of John XXIII. After deposing Antipope John XXIII in 1415,

5100-480: The volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( sand-sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash. Volcanic ash is further divided into fine ash, with particle sizes smaller than 0.0625 mm in diameter, and coarse ash, with particle sizes between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Tuff is correspondingly divided into coarse tuff (coarse ash tuff) and fine tuff (fine ash tuff or dust tuff). Consolidated tephra composed mostly of coarser particles

5175-433: The war with Braccio da Montone in exchange for his recognition as vicar and reconciled with the deposed John XXIII, to whom he gave the title of Cardinal of Tusculum. Canon law prohibited interest upon a loan. To avoid this, annuities were paid, interest in effect but not in name. The dispute as to the legality of annuity contracts was brought before Martin V in 1423. He held that purchased annuities, which were redeemable at

5250-422: The winter. A historic half-metre snowstorm hit Zagarolo in 1982, isolating the town for a few days. The northern and southern limits of Zagarolo are marked by two important ancient Roman roads that are today still in use, the Via Praenestina to the north and the Via Casilina to the south. Easier access is provided by the A1 motorway and the A24 motorway . Zagarolo has a main train station, 2 kilometres from

5325-522: Was Lady of Piombino between 1441 and 1445. Oddone studied law at the University of Pavia . He became apostolic protonotary under Pope Urban VI (1378–1389), and was created Cardinal-Deacon of San Giorgio in Velabro by Pope Innocent VII in 1405. In 1409 he took part in the Council of Pisa , and was one of the supporters of Antipope Alexander V . Later he confirmed his allegiance to Alexander's successor, John XXIII , by whom his family obtained several privileges, while Oddone obtained for himself

5400-554: Was not a condemnation of slavery itself, but rather driven through fear of "infidel power". Norman Housley finds it "...   hard to avoid the conclusion that the pope was agreeing to whatever was asked of him by the king.   ... [P]olitical weakness compelled the Renaissance Papacy to adopt an acquiescent and unchallenging position when approached for requests for privileges in favour of these ventures." During his permanence in Rome, Martin moved his residence from

5475-458: Was placed under interdict for sheltering the excommunicated Jan of Jesenice . Beghards arrived attracted by Bohemia's reputation for religious liberty. In 1419 King Wenceslaus IV , who had resisted what he considered interference in his kingdom, commanded that all ejected Catholic beneficiaries should be reinstated in their offices and revenues. Prague prepared for armed resistance. Jan Želivský , an extreme anti-Catholic preacher of Prague, led

5550-667: Was rather poorly attended, which gave the Pope a pretext for dissolving it, as soon as it had come to the resolution that "internal church union by reform ought to take precedence over external union". It was prorogued for seven years. The seventeenth council then met as the " Council of Basel " in February 1431 shortly before Martin's death. On December 9, 1425, Martin founded the University of Louvain or Universitas Lovaniensis in Leuven (also known as "Louvain" in both English and French),

5625-475: Was the resumed war against Braccio da Montone. The following year, the combined Papal-Neapolitan army, led by Giacomo Caldora and Francesco Sforza , defeated him at the Battle of L'Aquila (2 June 1424); Braccio died a few days later. In the same year Martin obtained a reduction of the autonomy of the commune of Bologna, whose finances would be thenceforth under the authority of a papal treasurer. He also ended

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